GOVT. COLLEGE, LBBR^RY
KOTA (Raj.)
Students can retain library books only for two
weeks at the most.
BORROWER'S
No.
DUE DTATE
SIGNATURE
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and
WHO’S WHO
195T
CHECKED 2 2 APR 1359
By
S. C. SARKAR
ry
Author of Book of General Knowledge, Notable Indian Trials,
Constitution of India etc.
JUBILEE EDITION
25th year of Issue
M. C. SABKAR & SONS Private ITD
\A, BANKIM CHATTERJEE STREET, CALCUTTA— 12
Herbert College Library
KOTAH.
Qass No
Book Mo
Accession No,
ssM.
j. aper CoT«r Rs. 4-50
Cloth Cover Ks. 5’50
Published by S. Sarhar, JI. C. Sarlcar & Sons Private Ltd. ; 14 Banki®
Chatterjee St,, Calcutta-12.
Pormes 1— 4o and A. — D •pTinted by LababraaTk Sil at the Imperial
Art Cottage, Calcutta-G and Formes 4G — 52 printed by Brojendra
Kishore Sen at Modem India Press, 7 IVellington Square, Calcutta-l*
PREFACE
This is the jubilee edition of the Hindustan Year-Book
which was started in 1933 in a small pamplet form. It was
then our purpose and hope to develop this Year Book into an
authoritative reference book. We think we have succeeded
in our efforts to produce an information book which gives a
complete record of the world progress in every field year by
year.
As in previous years, new features have been added,
such as, Atomic Energy in India, Reorganisation of States,
Indian Elections 1957, State in Public Affairs, Tourism in
India, Mineral Oil of India etc etc. Existing chapters have
been thoroughly revised with additional new facts. The
Government Departments have substantially helped us in
more than one ways, by supplying latest materials for
which we convey our sincere thanks.
Once again we invite readers to submit comments and
to send any additions or corrections,
S. C. Sarkar.
AN ELECTION SUPPLEMENT
An election supplement of the Hindustan Year Book
containing election results and names of Ministers
will be issued as soon as Ministries are formed. This
will be supplied free to all purchasers of the
Year Book —
Vide details at the end of the book.
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cells xrhich make up the
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Often. Itching, Scabies. 01-
cers, Eerema. Boils. P^hes.
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plicated diseases beset upon
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miserable.
SARIBADI salsa bro-l
pQted for decades as the
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It clears the bowels rego«
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other diseases sriaog out
of blood impuxiues, ioao«
op the liver, increases tbt
appetite and thus helps
formation of new, rich
blood which ensures a
sturdy health, for you-
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CONTENTS
INDIA AT A GLANCE
Area — ^Physical Division — Climate and Rainfall — Soil of India — States
of India — Coast Line — ^Lan^ages — ^River Systems — ^Ports — ^People —
Religions — ^Indian Races — Minerals — ^Agriculture — ^Animals — Livestock
— ^Forests — ^Plag . . . . . . . . 1 — 10
INDIAN FACTS IN A NUTSHELL
General — Population — Agriculture — ^Minerals — ^Trade and Industries
— Public Health & Hygiene . . . . . . 11 — 14
INDIAN INFORMATION
Cities of India — ^Ten Big Cities of India — ^Indian Bridges — Distances
by Rail — ^National Parks & Game Sanctuaries — Ten Highest Peaks of
Himalayas — Attempts on Everest & Kattchenjunga — Conquest of
Major Himalayan Peaks — ^Highest Indian Stuctures — Old & New
Names of Places — Indian Fellows (5f the Royal Society — Indians in the
British Parliament — Indian Privy Councillors — ^Indian Peer of the
British Realm — ^Nobel Prize Winners — Lenin Peace Prize — ^Indian
Winners of Victoria Cross — Bharat Ratna — ^Padma Vibhushan —
Winners of Param Vir Chakra — Governor-Generals of Indian Union —
President, Indian Union — Indian Parliament — Speaker, Constituent
Assembly of India — ^Indian National Confess Presidents — ^Indian
Chronolo^ — ^Notable Indians — First in India — First Beginnings in
India — First among Indians — Hill Stations — Places of Interest in India
— ^Architectural & Historical Landmarks, Hindu & Buddhist —
Muslim . . . . . . . . 16 — 39
THE CALENDAR
Indian Calendar — Mahoraedan Calendar — ^Modern Calendar — Jewish
Calendar — ^Zoroastian Calendar — Buddhist Calendar — Hindu Calendar
— Names of Months — Year — ^Time — ^Holidays — ^NEW INDIAN
STATES , . . . . . . • 40—48
ASTRONONOMICAL DATA
Solar System — Sun — ^Earth — Moon — Other Planets — Asteroids — Co-
mets — Meteors — Constellations— Satellites — Stars — Polar Auroras —
Milky Way — ^Atmosphere . . . . . . 49 — 62
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INFORMATION
Races of Mankind — Race a Social Myth — ^Meaning of Race-— Pure
Race — Race Superiority — Classification of Mankind — Distribution of
Basic Stock — Stages of Civilization — ^Pre-hlstoric Man . . 63 — 66
5
Regular Cargo Service
between
INDIA— U. K.— CONTINENT .
and
Round the coast of India, Ceylon & Pakistan
F L
INDIAN TRADER
INDIAN PIONEER
INDIAN SHIPPcR
INDIAN EXPORTER
INDIAN ENDEAVOUR
INDIAN COMMERCE
E E T
S. S. IND'AN
S. S. INDIAN
S. S. INDIAN
S. S, INDIAN
S. S. INDIAN
S. S. INDIAN
navigator
MERCHANT
reliance
RENOWN
RESOURCE
resolve
Wonogfng Agents ;
lONEL EDWARDS (PRIVATE) LIMITED.
'•INDIA STEAMSHItA HOUSE"
, OLD COURT HOUSE STREET ;; CALCUTTA-1
Office and Agencies at Principal Ports.
vil
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Area of the Continents — EWorld Dimensions — Longest Rivers — Oceans
and Seas — Highest Mt. Peaks — Highest and lowest Elevations of
the World — Lakes — ^Volcanoes — The Largest Islands — Deserts —
Geographical Surnames — Longest Tunnels — Mountain Passes — Fam-
ous Caves & Caverns — Ship Canals — Geographical Record-breakers —
World Extremes of Climate — Waterfalls — Polar Records — First
Ascents of Mountains — ^Famous Structures — NEW COINS 57—66
GENERAL INFORMATION
Longest Ry. Station Platforms — Longest Bridges — Notable Teles-
copes — Libraries of the World — Largest Bells — Tall Buildings &
Towers — Highest & Largest Dams — World’s Greatest Reservoirs —
Longest Spans of Bridges — Biggest, Largest, Greatest, Longest —
Great Inventions — Discoveries & Inventions in Electricity — Theories
Nobel Prizes — Indian Stones & Planetary Actions — Birth Stones —
Animal & Bird Records — Period of Gestation of Various Animals —
Speeds — Heights & Depths — Largest Ships — Atlantic Blue Riband —
Record Flights & Jumps — Decorations & Medals — National & State
Flowers . . . . . . , . . 67 — 84
WORLD GAZETTEER
WORLD GAZETTEER .. .. .. 85—105
POLITICAL INFORMATION
Rulers or Heads of Governments — Presidents of the TJ.S.A. — ^British
Prime Ministers — Salaries of Heads of Governments — Rulers of
France — Rulers of Germany since W. War I — Rulers of U.S.S.R. —
Political Assassinations — Famous Abdications — Flags of Countries —
Other Flags — National Day — Political Abbreviations — Names &
Colours of Flags — National Anthems — Political Parties & Groups —
Indian Political Parties — ^Political Terms — Plans, Treaties, Charters
Etc. .. .. .. .. .. 106—136
VwORLD POPULATION
Population Density of the World — Five Largest Cities — Estimates ot
Total Population — Papulation according to Religion — Largest Cities
— Birth Rates — Death ]^tes — Marriage Rates .. 137 — 140
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Sovereign Democratic Republic — ^Territory and Extent — Fundamental
Rights — Union Executive — Legislature-Judiciary — State Govern-
ments — Territories — States Judiciary — Relations between_ Union &
States — Election Commission — Financial & Other provisions — Trade
& Commerce — Official Language — ^Amendment of the Consti-
tution - .. .. 141—153
YOUTH CAH DO THEIR BIT . .
Q. a ^
w w
Mncli is expected of the coontr/s yooth— our '
young hopefuls, in all progressive social movements ^
they are in the forefrorit. The Railways look to ■
them for help. When they travel, they should ,
dissuade people from misusing the alarm chain.
By this simple act they v/itl help the Railv.jays
carry men and materials smoothly and will do a
great deal of good to the. country. An unnecessary ^
pull on thealarm chain causes delay, disappointment i
and, sometimes, disaster.
THE ALARM CHAIN
IS TO BE USED ONLY
IN AN EMERGENCY
^ I \
EASTERH RAHWAY* JOOTH EASTERN RAILWAY
ix
INDIAN CITIZENSHIP
By Birth — ^By Descent — By Ee^stration — By Naturalisation — By In-
corporation of Territory — Termination of Citizenship . . 154—155
CUE NATIONAL EMBLEMS & AWAEDS
National Flag — ^National Emblem — ^National Songs — ^Awards, Distinc-
tions & Titles . . . . . . . . 156 — 158
EANK & PEECEDENCE OF PEESONS 159-162
TEANSPOET & COMMUNICATIONS
Eailways in India — Beginning of Railways in India — Ry. Committees
— Administration — ^Finance — Classes of Accommodation — Freight &
Fare — Locomotive & Other Productions — ^Training Centres & Research
— Electrification — Workshops — ^Ey. Zones — Ry. Organisations — Tourist
Traffic — ^Amenities — Ry. & the Plan — ^Indian Railways 1955 — ^Ry.
Reserve Funds — Ry. Finances — Ry. Facts — Roads in India — ^Progress
— ^Administration — Central Road Fund — ^Nagpur Plan — Roads Con-
gress — Govt. Organisations — Research & Technical Training — ^Road
Transport — Ropeways — Inland Water Transport — ^Master Plan — ^Ad-
ministration — Waterway Projects — Civil Aviation — Progress — Organi-
sation — ^Training & Flying Clubs — ^Aerodromes — ^Air Traffic Control —
The Fleet — ^Night Mail — Internal Routes — External Routes — Boards
of Directors & Members — Indian Airlines Corporations — Non-Sche-
duled Airline Operators — Flying Clubs — Gliding Clubs — Foreign
Services — ^Indian Post and Telegraphs — Postal System — Progress —
Research & Postal Education — ^Telegraph Service — Telephones — Over-
seas Communications — Postal Revenue — ^Postal Expansion — ^Land-
marks — ^Postage Stamps since Independence . . . . 163 — ^203
INDIAN SHIPPING
Position of Indian Mercantile Marine — Shipping Control — Consultive
Committee of Shipping Interest — Consultive Comm, of Shipovtmers —
India’s Maritime Trade — Country Craft — Coastal & Near Trade —
Merchant Shipping — Overseas Shipping — India & Conference Lines —
Training Facilities — Crew Employment — Ship Building — Tanker Fleet
— Tonnage of Vessels — Indian Cargoes . . . . 204 — ^210
BANKS IN INDIA
Indian Banking System — Classes of Banks— Finance, Investment,
Credit Corporations — ^Reserve Bank of India — Liabilities &_Ass^s of
Reserve Bank — ^Indian Banks — State Bank of India — Joint Stock
Banks, Other Indian Scheduled Banks — ^Liabilities & Assets of other
Indian Scheduled Banks — of Foreign Scheduled Banks — Li^ilities &
Assets of Total Scheduled Banks — ^Non-Scheduled Banks — ^Liabilities
& Assets of Total Non-Scheduled Banks — Earnings & Expenses of
Cloths and Fabrics to suit any
climate and all social occasion. A boon
for the public through the excellent ser-
vice offered to our Patrons.
Call on us with no obligation
fir, Mr.
.TOWER HOUSE O CHOV/PvINCHEE SQ
CALCUTTA
U.RS
xi
Indian Non-Scheduled Banks, and of Indian Scheduled Banks — Co-
operative Banks — Liabilities and Assets of all Co-operative Banks —
Foreign Scheduled Banks — Indigenous Banks — Land Mortgage Banks
— Important Banking Developments — National Agricultural Credit
Funds — Training in Banking — Indian Joint-Stock Banks, 1955 — Post
Office Savings Bank Transactions — Number of Cheques & Amounts
Cleared, 1954 — State-wise Distribution of total Indian Jt. Stock
Banks, 1955 — Money Rates in India . . . . 211 — 230
PUBLIC FINANCE
India’s Public Finance — Allocation of Revenue — Devolution of Taxes
& Grants-in-aid — Finance Commission — Union Government Budget —
Revenue Account — Capital Account — Revenue & Expenditure of Govt,
of India, Revenue Account — Govt, of India Capital Budget — Budge-
tary 'Position ' . . . . . . . . 231 — ^236
PUBLIC DEBT
Central Govt. Debts — General — Composition of Debt — Repatriation of
Sterling Debt — Small Savings — Govt. Balances & Ways & Means Ad-
vances — Govt, of India Annual Treasury Bills — Interest-Bearing Ob-
ligations & Interest-Yielding Assets — Govt, of India Debt Position —
Central Govt. Loans — ^Principal Small Savings — Total Postal
Savings . . . . . . . . 236 — 238
STATES’ BUDGETS
Part A States, Revenue Account — General — Part B States Budget,
Revenue Account — Part C States’ Budgets — Budgetary Position, Part
A States — Budgetary Position, Part B States — Part C States — State
Govt. Loans — Consolidated Debt Position, Part A States — States Govt.
4 P.C. Loans, 1956 . . . . . . . . 239 — ^246
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
Importance — Defects — Area & Soil — Crops — Research & Extension —
Ownership & Holdines — Agricultural Policy — Bhoodan Movement —
Soil Conservation — Marketing — Zoological & Botanical Surveys —
Food Crops — Plantation Crops — ^Fibres — Other Cash Crops — Oilseeds
— ^Production of food Grains — Other Commodities — ^Index Numbers
247—261
FISHERY IN INDIA
Inland Fishery — Sea Fishing — Refrigeration — ^Fishing Industry —
Varieties of Fishes — Fish Products — Rate of Consumption — Second
Five-Year Plan — ^Foreign Aid — ^Aquaria and Museums — Pearl Oysters
262—266
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Cattle in India — Livestock — Key Village Plan & Other Project s —
Division of Livestock— Species of Cattle — Milk Production — ^Poultry
Balance on a bicycle
Is easily acquired. Not
so easy Is the balancing
of your bicycle accounts—
Its costs against Its
service. The extreme
care In choice of raw
materials and rigid
factory Inspection of
each component make
Sen-Raleigh bicycles
the most serviceable
with a minimum of repair
and replacement costs,
thus striking the
right balance.
XUl
— ^Provincial Distribution — Trade in Cattle — Animal Diseases
Livestock & Poultry in India . . . . , . 267 ^273
FORESTS IN INDIA
Forest Wealth of India — Forest Types of India— National Forest
Policy — Classifications of Forests — Central Board of Forestry
Afforestation & Soil Conservation — ^Administrative Set-up — Forest
Education & Eesearch — Forest Produces & Uses— Classification of
Forest Areas — Area of Forest Lands & Outturn of Forest Produce —
Classification . . . . . , , . 274 — 282
DAIRY FARMING
Milk Adulteration — ^Poor Yield — ^Low Milk Consumption — Eesearch
Associations — ^Large Scale Production — Dairy Education — Ghee Pro-
duction — Ghee Adulteration . . . . . , 283 — 286
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
Physical Eegions — ^Wild Life Preservation — ^Varieties and Description
— Problems — Bird Protection — National Parks & Sanctuaries — Zoo-
logical Gardens . . . . . . , , 287 — ^292
INDEX NUMBERS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS
Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices — Consumer Price Index Numbers
— All India Index Numbers of Security Prices — Industrial Production
Index Numbers — ^Index Numbers of Exports & Imports — ^Wholesale
Prices Index Numbers — Index Number of Food Prices — ^Index Num-
bers of Industrial Production — Economic Indicators . . 293 — 296
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
Scientific Eesearch — Eole of India’s Scientists — International Contacts
in Science — ^Ministry of Natural Eesources & Scientific Eesearch —
Council of Scientific & Industrial Eesearch — ^Five-Year Plans —
National Laboratories — Engineering Eesearch — Medical Eesearch —
Statistical Eesearch — Meteriolo^cal Eesearch — National Eesearch
Development Corporation of India — ^Indian National Scientific Docu-
mentation Centre — Eesearch Associations by Industries — Nuclear
Eesearch — ^Atomic Eesearch — Survey of India — Anthropology in India
— Learned Societies & Eesearch Institutes . . . . 297 — 308
INDIAN MINERALS
Four Categories of India’s Mineral Eesources — ^Mines & Minerals
Conservations — Govt. Departments — Scientific Eesearch on Mines &
Minerals — Mining Education — Govt.’s Eole & Mineral Policy — Des-
cription of Minerals — Mineral Production . . . . 309 — 322
T here was not a year in which
India did not drain the Roman
Empire of a sum equivalent to
about one and a half crorcs of
rupees. Thus complained Pliny, in
the first century A. D., of Rome’s
unequal trade with India.
■Pliny’s statement tcsti&cs to the
superiority of India’s industrial skill
and commercial organisation which
had given her practically a mono-
poly of the European market in a
"vtnde range of goods. In the succeed-
ing centuries India’s prc-cmincncc
In world trade was never seriously
•challenged, until Europe forged
ahead with the advent of the
Industrial Revolution.
With a rich store of natural
resources and the traditional skill
of her workmen, now aided by
modem technology, India is 'work-
ing hard through her Five Year
Plans to regain her ancient position
of pride in the world of trade
and industry.
Founders of India’s Rubber
Industry. .
DUNLOP
Tyres: Tubes; Dunlopillot
Industrial Rubber Products
DX 467a
XV
UNITED NATIONS
Origin — ^Purposes of U.N. — Finance — Official Languages — ^Members
of the United Nations — United Nations’ Flag — ^Headquarters & Offices
■ — Organs of the U.N. — General Assembly — Security Council — Econo-
mic & Social Council — Trusteeship System — International Court of
Justice — Secretariat — Specialised Agencies of U.N. . . 323—330
SPORTS SECTION
Indian Cricket — Foreign Teams in India — Indian Teams abroad —
Official Test Matches — India’s Test Record — Cricket Championship of
India — Ranji Trophy Records — Rohinton Baria Inter-University Cric-
ket — Football ; Rovers Cup, Bombay — Durand Cup — National Football
Championship — Inter-University Football Championship — Hockey ;
Beighton Cup — Aga Khan Cup — ^Women’s National Hockey Cham-
pionship — Dhyan Chand Hockey Tournament — National Badminton
Championship — Inter-State Badminton Championship — National
Table Tennis Championship — Inter-State Table Tennis — Billiards
Championship — National Kabadi Championship — National Lawn
Tennis Championship — National Swimming Championship — National
Basketball Championship — National Volleyball Championship —
Athletic Records in India — Indian Swimming Records — Cricket — Mile
Runners — EWorld Track & Field Records — EWorld Swimming Records —
Women’s Track & Field Records — Women’s Swimming Records —
Davis Cup — Wightman Cup — Wimbledon Tennis Championship —
World Chess Championship — Boxing Champions — Modem Heavy-
Weight Champions — World Table Tennis — World Football Cup —
Asian Qudrangular Football Tournament — World Skating — Thomas
Cup — Olympic Hockey Championship — Olympic Score of Nations —
New Olympic Athletic Records — Notable World Records . . 331 — 351
AVIATION
Altitude Records — ^Endurance Flight Record — Speed Records — ^Round
the World Flight — ^Pole Flights — ^Non-Stop Long Distance Records —
Balloon Records — Aeroplanes — Sea-planes — Gliders — ^Parachute — Heli-
copter . . . . . . . . 352 — 354
INDIAN PORTS
Major & Minor Ports — Port Trusts — ^National Harbour Board —
Lighthouses — Description of Ports — Cargo Handled by Different
Ports — Traffic in Four Major Ports . . . . 355 — 362
INDIAN PRESS
Beginnings of Indian Press — Freedom of the Press — Press Laws —
Press Council — Indian Newspaper Circulation — New Development —
Indian News Agencies — Foreign Agencies — Press Commission’s Report
— Newspaper Associations — ^Books in India — Information &_ Publicity
of Central & State Govts. — ^Information Services — Publications Divi-
XVll
Bion — Advertising Consultants Branch — Research & Reference
Division — Films Division — Govt, of India Tourist Information
Offices — Foreign Information Services — Important Indian News-
papers — Press Associations — Commercial Papers— Journalism Cour-
ses — Indian News Agencies — Foreign News Agencies in India —
Language-wise Distribution of Periodicals — State-wise Distribution of
Newspapers — ^Printing Presses etc. in India . . 363 — 380
LABOUR IN INDIA
Labour Reform in India — Labour Laws — Safety and Labour Welfare
— Industrial Relations — Labour Administration — Membership of All
India Organisations — National Employment Service — India & the
I.L.O. — Central Labour Institute — Employment Exchanges — Indus-
trial Disputes in India . . . . . . . . 381 — 396
NATIONAL DEFENCE
Defence Organisation — Reorganisation Programmes — Indian Army
— ^Indian Navy — ^Indian Air Force — General Training Institutions
397—407
NATIONAL INCOME
Salient Features — Small Rise — Normal Progp'ess — ^Net Domestic Pro-
duct by Industrial origin — Shares of Govt. & Private Sections — Net
National Product at Factor cost and at Market Prices . . 407 — 410
INDIANS OVERSEAS
History of Emigration — Nature of Work — Emigration Ports — ^Unres-
tricted Migration — Ban on Entry — Indians Overseas . . 411 — 414
INDIAN CENSUS
Broad Outlines — Growth of Population — India & the World — Rural-
urban Ratio — Cities — Livelihood Patterns — Religion — Towns and
Villages — Sex Ratio — Martial Status — Future Growth — Birth Rates
& Death Rates — Age Structure — Population of Special Groups —
Expectation of Life — Beggars in India — Fertility of Indian Women
— Area & Population — Population of Cities — Population according to
Religion — Literacy in India . . . . . . 41B — 423
INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
Administration — Archaeological Research — Publications — ^National Ar-
chives of India — Historical Records Comm. — Training Facilities
424-426
LANGUAGES
Indo-Epropean — ^World’s Languages — Indian Languages — Speakers
of Pricipal Indian Languages — Tribal Languages — Other Indian
Languages — Principal Non-Indian Language Speakers — ^Indian Lan-
guage Speakers in States .. .. .. 427 — 437
B
TTi« joMenandj,
the rearing
breakers, the
beach— perhaps tht
bert In the worW
—the great temple
—these are
the charms oT
Pari. But nothing
Ii more pleasant
thin a stay at Part
In the South
Eastern Riiiwa/
Hotel.
excmaramiKwoKHarccHw^xr SOUTH EASTERN RAILV/AY HOTELS
mtftftAhHIRESTfUC-AAHCHI
“ * ‘ j-
isffi
the hills along the
blue ikjfllnes. the
\ wil(J beauuei
of Nature at
every corner
of the
valley, the Huadru
falls, the
charming climate.
—Ranchi It
j famous for these,
r and no less for the
exquisite cuisine
and comfort provided
by the South
Eastern Railway
Hotel.
, Ho
WD tr t„.
XIX
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
Public Health Administration — Ministry of Health — Problem of Pub-
lic Health in India — Medical & Health Education — Family Planning
— Govt. Policy towards Indigeneous Systems & Homoeopathy — Boards,
Councils etc., for Public Health — Defectives — ^Prevention & Control of
Major & Tropical Diseases — Legislative measures — India & Interna-
tional Assistance — Medical Census — ^Ten-year Health Plan — Labora-
tories, Medical Researches & Associations — ^Infant Mortality — ^Hospi-
tals and Patients — Indian Expectation of Life — Pood & Nutrition —
Medical Education . . . . . . . . 438 — 453
BROADCASTING IN INDIA
Organisation — ^A.I.R. stations — ^Promotion of Hindi — ^Revenue —
Licenses — Varied Broadcasts — ^Research — ^Transcription Service —
— AIR monitoring Service — Staff Training School — Listener Research
unit — ^Import of Radio Sets — Number of Domestic Receving Sets
454—460
INDIA’S POWER SUPPLY
Power Generation in India — ^Administration — Hydro-Power Resources
of India — Pattern of Electricity in India — State of Power Develop-
ment in India — ^Power Projects under Five-Year Plan — ^Progress of
Electricity Supply — Electric Energy Generated & Sold . . 461 — 466
INDIAN IRRIGATION
Administration — Research Work — River Valley Projects — Main Types
of Irrigation — Canals of India — Some Principal Projects — ^Power &
Irrigation Projects in the First Five-Year Plan 467 — 477
INSURANCE IN INDIA
Life Business — ^Non-Life Buisiness — Members of the Corporation —
Zonal & Divisional Offices . . . . . . 478—480
INDIAN INDUSTRY
Ministry of Commerce & Industry — Administrative Set-up — Industrial
Policy of the Govt. — Development & Control of Industries — Financial
Aid to Industry — Foreign Capital — ^Research — ^Nationalized Industries
— Fertilizer Industry — ^Aircraft Industry — Chittaranjan Locomotive
Works — National Instruments Factory — Integral Coach Factory —
Description of Indian Industries — Industrial Production . . 481 — 512
COTTAGE & SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
Special Cottage Industry Products of India — State Cottage
Industries . . . . • - • • 513 — 520
XXl
BHOODAN MOVEMENT
All-India Figures of Bhoodan .... . . . . 521 — 622
INDIAN EDUCATION
Educational System in India — Secondary Education Commission —
Sargent Scheme — ^Associated Bodies — Museums in India — Scientific
Research Institutes — Humanistic Institutions — First Degree Course
in Engineering & Technology . . . . . . 523 — 544
AET & LITERATURE IN INDIA
Sahitya Akadami — Sangit Natak Akadami — Lalit Kala Akadami
545—549
CINEMA IN INDIA
History of the Film Industry — ^Film Enquiry Committees — Govt, of
India’s Control — Films Division — Children’s Film — Advisory^ Board —
National Film Board — Censorship of Films — ^Taxation — Indian Film
Production To-day — Film Federation — State Awards — World Film
Production — India’s Film Industry — Foreign Feature Films in India
— Indian Feature Films — Cinema Circuits — Cinema Facts — ^Leading
Indian Producers — Film Studios in India — Associations & Unions —
Foreign Film Studios — Academy Awards — State Film Awards (India)
1955 — Czechoslovakia International Film Festival, 1956 — Cannes In-
ternational Film Festival 1956— Oscars for 1955-— British Academy
Awards, 1956— Venice Film Festival, 1956 .. ..650 — 663
INDIA’S COMMERCE
Pattern of India’s Trade — ^India’s Exchange Control — Tariff Commis-
sion — India’s Foreign Exchange Reserve — Index Numbers of Exports
& Imports — ^India’s Balance of Payments — ^India’s Foreign Trade
664—571
PROHIBITION IN INDIA
Present State — Position in the States — Prohibition Enquiry Commit-
tee’s Report . . . . . . . . 672 — 575
LAND REFORMS IN INDIA
Objective — Elimination of Intermediaries — Compensation — ^Fixation of
Rent — Fixation of Ceilings — Steps to check Fragmentation & Conso-
lidation — Census of Land-holdings — Co-operative Farming — Land for
Common Purposes — Agrarian Reforms in States . . 576 — 579
PUBLIC SERVICES IN INDIA
Examinations — All-India Services — Recruitment by Competitive Exa-
minations — Recruitment by Selection — Central Secretariat Service —
Pay & Scale . . . . . . . • 580 — 583
II
ligarsngag
Insist ®fs
CALCUTTA FAN WORIS PRIVATE LTD.
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19B, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD
CALCUTTA-IS
Telephone :23-3552 & 23-1317
xxiil
THE FIVE-YEAR PLANS
First Five-Year Plan — Objective of the Plan — Sources of Finance —
Foreign Capital — Original & Eevised Estimates — Financial Resources
of the First Five-Year Plan — Community Development Projects —
National Extension Service — Progress of Work — Second Five-Year
Plan — Objectives — Shift of Priorities — Plan Outlay & Allocations —
Structure of Economj^ — National Product by Industrial Origin 684 — 595
SOCIAL WELFARE
Conception of Welfare State — Central Social WeKare Board — Volun-
tary Social Work . . . . . . . . 596 — 598
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE
International Bank of Reconstruction & Development — Colombo Plan
— ^The United States of America — Joint Projects — Colombo Plan — ^The
Ford Foundation — The International Bank — Norwegian Aid — Techni-
cal Assistance — U.S. Technical Co-operation — Recapitulation of Indo-
American Programme (1952-1956) — ^Indo-Norwe^an Aid Program-
me — Russian Loan — ^U.K. Loan — ^Loans from India . . 599 — 610
ATOMIC ENERGY IN INDIA
Peaceful use of Atomic Energy . . . . . . 611 — 615
CENTRAL ACTS 195 6 616-620
REORGANISATION -OF STATES
J. V. P. Report — ^Work of S. R. C. Commission — Zonal Council — High
Courts — Status of States — Territorial Councils — Delhi Corporation —
Parliamentary Members — Territories — States & Territories & their
Capitals . . . . . . . . . . 621 — 628
INDIAN ELECTIONS 1957
National Parties — ^Number of Voters — ^Expenses in Elections — ^Expen-
ses Table — Allocation of Seats in the Lok Sabha & State Assemblies
— Election Manifestos ^ . . . . . . 629 — 638
STATE IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Life Insurance Corporation — State Trading in India — ^The Eastern
Shipping Corporation . . . . • . 639 — 641
COMMISSIONS & COMMITTEES
Plantation Enquiry Commission’s Report — Subhas Bpse Committee —
Sanskrit Commission — Co-ordination Comm, for Public Co-operation —
Planning Commission . . . . . . . - 642 — 644
^^suhr oj. NPph/i
■^‘^ss^^fsss
XXV
AWARDS, REWARDS, PRIZES
Sangit Natak Akadami Awards 1956 — Third All-India Art Exhibition
Awards 1967 — Best Books for Children 1955-56— Sahitya Akadami
Awards, 1956 . . . . . . . . 645 — 647
TOURISM IN INDIA
Description of Indian Show Places — Govt, of India Eegional Tourist
Offices . . . . . . . . . . 648—653
INDO-PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
Agreement on Indus Water — Pakistani Claim over Chitral — Kashmir
Developments — Exodus of Hindus from Pakistan — Border Incidents —
Pakistani Debt to India — Jt. Flood Control Measures — Indo-Pakistani
Trade Pact . . . . . . . . 654 — 660
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
Yugoslavia, India & Egypt — Indo-Arab Amity — India & the Algerian
Independence Movement — ^India’s Frontier Areas — Naga Land —
Bhutan — Sikkim — Nepal — ^India & Work of Unesco — India & Disar-
mament Conference — India & the Nationalization of Suez Canal —
India & the Atomic Energy Conference — Transfer of French Settle-
ments in India — India & Developments in Hungary — India & the Co-
mmonwealth — India & the United Nations Eleventh Session — India
& Korea — India & Togoland — India & Apartheid in South Africa —
India & Korean Election — Indian Prime Minister addresses the U.N.
General Assembly — ^India & the Unesco Session . . 661 — 679
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Morocco & Tunisia win Independence — Saar rejoins Germany — ^Free-
dom for Malaya — Cominform Dissolved — Algerian Independence
Movement — ^Nationalist Movements in Africa — The Union of South
Africa — Bechuanaland, Basutoland & Swaziland — Central Africa —
Kenya — Nigeria — The Gold Coast — Sierra Leone — Uganda — Events
in Cyprus — Suez Canal Nationalized — The Suez Canal Company —
Economics of the Suez Politics — London Discussions on Suez — Men-
zies Mission — Suez Canal users’ Association, — Anglo-French Aggres-
sion on Egypt — Cessation of Hostilities & International force — U.
N. force — Development in Laos — Self-Government for Somalis
— Eisenhower’s Second Term — Events in Poland & Hungary —
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . 682—712
INDIAN AFFAIRS
Kashmir Constitution — ^Portugal’s Dispute with India — ^Problems on
Naga Land— The General Election of 1957— Indo-U.S. Agreement on
Agricultural Commodities - . • • • •
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MINERAL OIL IN INDIA
Russian Oil Experts — Oil & Natural Gas Division . . 718—720
"States in india
Andhra Pradesh — Assam — West Bengal — Bihar — Bombay — Madhya
Pradesh — Madras-^Orissa — Punjab — Uttar Pradesh — Rajasthan —
^mmu & Kashmir — Mysore — Kerala — Delhi — Pondicherry — ^Himachal
^r^desh — ^Manipur — ^Tripura — Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands
— ^Andaman & Nicobar Islands — Sikkim . . . . 722—763
STATES BORDERING INDIA
Bhutan — ^Nepal — Tibet — Portuguese India — Pakistan
763—769
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
Their scope and work — Ministries of Finance, Defence, Education, Irri-
gation and Power, Pood, Labour, Natural Resources, and Scientific
Research, Law, Works, Housing and Power, Production, Food, Com-
merce and Industry, Communications, External Aifairs . . 770 — 778
PARLIAMENT OF INDIA
Salaries and Allowances of Members of the Parliament of India —
Rajya Sabha Parliamentary Committees — Lok Sabha Parliamentary
Committees . . . . . . , . 778 — 780
UNION GOVERNMENT
Secretaries of the President & Prime Minister — Secretaries to the
Government of India — Tariff Commission — Supreme Court of India —
Railway Board — General Managers & Imp. Ry. Officers of Indian
I^ilways — Central Water and Power Commission — Union Public Ser-
vice Commission — Top ranking Officers of the Armed Forces — ^Impor-
tant Posts — Damodar Valley Corporation — ^Planning Corporation
781—784
INDIAN REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD
Ambassadors — ^High Commissioners — Legations — Special Missions —
Consulate Generals & Consulates — Commissions — ^Agencies 785 — 789
INDIA GOVERNMENT TRADE REPRESENTATIVES
789—791
FOREIGN DIPLOMATS IN INDIA
Ambassadors — High Commissions — ^Legations - . 791 — 793
TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF OVERSEAS
GOVERNMENTS IN INDIA 793—795
WHO’S WHO 796-82
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INDEX
A
Abbreviations, Political .. 113
Abdications, Famous . . 110
Abyssinia (Ethiopia) 85
Academy of Hindustani &
Kamatak Music . . 530
Academy Awards . . 661
Academy (See Akadami)
Accommodation, classes of 167
Acts 1956, Central . . 616
Adult Education . . 526
Advertising Consultant’s
Branch . . 371
Aerodromes in India . . 192
Afghanistan . . 85
Aga Khan Cup . . 336
Agrarian Beforms -- 679
Agricultural Commodities
other than Foodgrains,
Production of . . 261
Agncultural Credit Funds,
National . . 227
Agricultural Policy 252
Agricultural Research 249, 304
Apiculture in India 8,247
Aircraft Industry . . 488
Air Force, Indian .. 403
Airline Corporation, Indian 194
Airline Operations, Non-
Scheduled . . 195
Airline Routes, Eictemal 193
Airline Routes, Internal . . 193
Air Reserves . . 405
Air Services, Foreign .. 196
A.I.R. Stations .. 454
NEW BRANCH SHOWROOM AT JAMSHEDPUR. PKONE-JAMSHEDPUR-BSB
Air Traffic Control . . 192 Apatite . . 321
Akadami, Lalit Kala 630, 648 Arabia . . 86
Akadami, Sahitya 630, 645 Archaeology, Dept, of . . 629
Akadami, Sangit Natak 530, 547 Archaeology, Indian . . 424
Albania . . 85 Archaeological & Historical
Alcohol Industry . . 499 Landmarks . . 36
Alfeppy . . 361 Archives of India, National 426
All India Eadio . . 454 Area & Soil . . 248
Aluminium Industry . . 497 Area of India . . 1
Andaman & Nicohar Islands 761 Argentina . . 86
Andhra . . . . 722 Art & Literature . . 645
Andorra . . 85 Asbestos . . 321
Animal & Bird Eecords . . 82 Ascents of Mountains, First 63
Animal Husbandry . . 267 Asiatic Society of Bengal 307
Animal Products . . 272 Assam . . 724
Animals of India . . 8 Assassinations, Political . . 109
Anthems, National . . 114 Assets & Obligations, Int. —
Anthropological Dept. . . 629 Bearing . . 237
Anthropological Information 63 Asteroids . . 50
Anthropology in India . . 307 Astronomical Data . . 49
Antibiotics, Hindustan . . 490 Athletic Eecords in India 338
Antimony . . 321 Atmosphere . • 52
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xxxiii
Atomic Energy, Dept, of
Atomic Energy in India
Atomic Energy, Peaceful
use of
Atomic Research
Australia
Austria
Audio-Visual Education
Automobile Industry
Aviation in India, Civil
Aviation ; Records, Types
„ 352, 353,
Awards & Emblems, Na-
tional
Awards, British Acadamy
Distinction &
- Titles
306
611
613
306
86
87
526
508
189
354
156
563
157
B
Badminton Championship 337
Balance of Payments,
India s . . . . 570
Balance of Trade . . 671
Banks, Co-operative
Banks, Foreign (Exchange)
Banks, Indigenous
Bank, International, of Re-
construction
Banks, Land Mortgage
Banks, Non-Scheduled
Bank, Reserve — Develop-
ments
Banks, Scheduled
Barley
Barytes
Basketball Championship
Basic Education
Bauxite
Beggars
Beighton Cup
Belgium
Bells, Largest , .
Bentonite
Beryl
Bharat Ratna
Bhatkal
Bhoodan Movement 263,
212
224
226
599
225
221
215
212
265
321
338
624
319
419
336
87
68
320
318
21
362
621
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3CSXV
Bhutan 87, 763
Bidri Work . . . . 516
Biggest, Largest, Longest 71
Bihar , . 730
Billiards Champions . . 338
Birth Rates .. 139
Births and Deaths in India 450
Blue Riband (Atlantic) .. 84
Bolivia . . . . 87
Bombay 357, 733
Books in India . . 369
Books, Newspaper, etc . . 380
Book Trust, National .. 529
Botanical & Zoological Sur-
veys . . . . 254
Botanical Gardens, National 303
Boxing Champions . . 346
Brazil . . . . 87
Bridges, Indian , . 16
Bridges, Longest . . 67
British Parliament, Indians
in , . . . 19
Broadcasting in India .. 454
Bronze Age . . 55
Buddhist, Festivals .. 48
Budget, Capital . , 234
Budgetary Position, Govt.
of India . . 235
Budgetary Position, States 241
Building Research Inst. . . 303
Buildings, Tall, & Towers 69
Bulgaria . . . . 88
Burma . . . . 88
C
Cables, Hindustan . . 491
Calcutta . . . . 368
Calicut . . . . 361
Calendar ... . . 40
Calendar, Indian . . 40
Cambodia . . . . 90
Canada . . . . 88
Canals of India . . 470
Canals, Ship . . 60
Cancer . . . . 445
Capital Account . . 233
Cardamom . . . . 267
Cargoes Handled by Ports 362
Cargoes, Indian . . 210
Carpets . . . . 604
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ASSAM DlRECTOkY & TEA AREAS HANDBOOK 1957. j
Publishers; ' •
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29, WATERLOO STREET, CALCUTTA-1 i
DABUR ( Dr. S. K. BURMAN ) LTD.
Manufacturers of
AYURVEDIC AND PATENTlMEDICINES
TOILET REQUISITES
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PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS
Regd. Office— 142, Rasli Bebari Avenue,
CALaJTTA-29
Selling Agency JASIDIH TRADING CO.
160, Harrison Road, Calcutta.
Sales Depot 4, Taracliand Dutta Street, Calcutta.
X3CXVU
Cashew Nuts . . 258
Castor . . . . 259
Cattle, Species of . . 268
Caves & Caverns, Famous 60
Cement 319, 504
Census, Indian . . 416
Census, Medical . . 446
Central African Federation 89
Ceramic & Glass Research 302
Ceylon . . . . 89
Chess Champions . . 346
Child Welfare . . 697
Chile . . . . 89
China . . . . 89
Chittaranjan Locomotive
Works . . . . 489
Christian Festivals . . 46
Chromite
318
Chronology, Indian
23
Cinchona _ . .
256
Cinema Circuits
668
Cinema Facts
658
Cinema in India
660
Cities
416
Cities, Largest
138
Cities of India
16
Citizenship, Indian
164
Civilization, Stages of
66
Clays
320
Climate, World Extremes of
62
Cloves
267
Coach Factory, Integral
. ,
489
Coal
• •
314
PENICILLIN
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Marketed since January, 1954.
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Average y/eW of Penicillin in this medium had reached the average
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CALCUTTA-26
Coal Corporation,
Congress Presidents, In-
Hindustan
494
dian National
22
Coastal Trades
206
Conservation, Afforestation
Cocanada
361
& Soil
276
Cochin
359
Constellations . .
61
Coconut
260
Constituent Assembly of
Coifee
257,
608
India, Speaker
22
Coins, New
66
Constitution, Amendments
Coir
610
to the Indian
148
Colombia
90
Constitution of India
141
Colombo Plan
600
Continents, Area of the ..
67
Comets
51
Copper
319
Commerce, India’s
664
Corundum
320
Commercial Papers
378
Costa Rica
90
Commissions & Committees
642
Cottage & Small Scale In-
Commission, Indian Na-
dustries
613
tional
629
Cottage Industry Products
616
Commonwealth Press Union
369
Cottage Industries, State
617
Communications &
Trans-
Cotton
267
port _ . .
163
Cottonseed
260
Communication
Service,
Country Craft . .
206
Overseas
201
Cricket, Indian
331
Community Development
Cricket : Record Individual
Projects
687
Scores
342
Conference Lines, !
India &
Cricket ; Test Match Re-
the
. .
208
cords
341
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House of Sivaji
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India Through the Ages
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STORIES FROM MODERN BENGAL
Broken Bread
Translated into English bg Mrs. LILA ROY
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" ■ ' i mi - i »n f— i f.Br — —
xxxxi
Crops . . . . 248
Cuba . . . . 90
Cycle Industry .. 499
Czechoslovakia . . 90
D
Dams, Highest & Largest 69
Dances of India . , 158
Diary Edaeation . . 285
Diary Farming .. 283
Date Line, International . . 45
Davis Cup . . . . 345
Days, Longest & Shortest 45
Death Rates . . 139
Debt Position, Govt, of
India . . . , 237
Debt, Public . . 236
D. D. T. Factory . . 492
Decorations & Medals . , 84
Defectives , . . . 444
Defence Academy, National 405
Defence Services Staff
College . . . . 405
Degree Course in Eng.
Technology . . 542
Delhi . . . . 755
Delhi, Flagship . . 402
Delhi, New . . . . 93
Democratic Republic, So-
vereign . . 141
Denmark . . , . 90
Depths & Heights . . 83
Deserts . . . . 59
Dhanushkadi . . 361
Diseases, Tropical . . 445
Discoveries & Inventions 75
Diseases . . . . 273
Distances by Rail . . IB
Domestic Products . . 409
Dominican Republic . . 90
Do You Know . . 162
Drug Research Inst., Cen-
tral . . . . 302
E
Earth . . . . 50
Education, All-India Coun-
cil for Secondary _ . . 529
Educational Institutions . . 634
Educational and Vocational
Guidance . . 529
Education, Central Advi-
sory Board of . . 528
Education, Higher in Rural
Areas . . . . 629
Education, Indian . . 623
Education, Medical . . 451
Education Ministry, Acti-
vities of . . 5S1
Education of the Handi-
capped . . . . 626
Education, Secondary . . 624
Egypt . . . . 91
Election Commission . . 146
Election Manifesto . . 633
Elections 1957, Indian . . 629
Electricity in India . . 463
Electricals, Heavy .. 493
Electric Energy Generated
& Sold .. 466
Electro-Chemical Research
Inst. . . . . 303
Emblem, National .. 157
Engineering Research . . 303
Equador . . . . 91
Everest, Attempts’ on . . 17
External Assistance . . 599
Exchange Control, Indian 668
Exchange Reserve, foreign 670
Explosives Factory . . 492
F
Factories Act (1948)
Family Welfare
Farming, Co-operative
Federal Language
Feldspar
Fertilizer Industry
Festivals, Hindu
Festivals, Moslem
Fibres
Field & Track Records
Filigree
Film Advisory Board
Film Awards, State
Film Board, National
Film Enquiry Committee
Films Festival, Cannes
Film Festival, Venice
383
697
578
531
319
488
46
47
257
343
617
653
562
653
650
663
663
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Films, Stete Awards . . ’ 555
Corporation, Indus-
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Fishes, Varieties of 9 ^
Fishing: Industry ‘ III
•• f
o/^n, Second . , 589
Some over-
all Results Tos
|a|f'feXf iJi-
;; HI
Rights & Jumps, Record . . 84
iWers, National & State 84
j lying Clubs , 192
fool r I^“*nitian ’ . . ’ 451
£^ooa Crops per^
Food Technological
Research . . 302
Football Championship, Na-
tional ope
Football : — Durand Cup . . 335
I. F. A. Shield . . 334
■lord Foundation: 603
” n & Small Scale In-
dustnes . . 515
Foreign Capital ! . 486
Forei^ Diplomats in India 791
■r Orests : Classification of 275
in India 274
Lands & Outturn 281
Produces & Uses 278
Research & Educa-
_ tion
Forestry, Central Board of'
Formosa
France
Freight & Fare
^^^‘^e.Eulers of, since W,
war II
Fuel Research Inst., Cenrial
Fuller's Earth
Fundamental Eights
277
276
91
91
167
108
302
321
141
Gazetteer, World 85
Geological Survey of India' 312
Geographical Information 67
Geographical Record
Breakers . , 6j
Germany ‘ ’ gg.
Rulers of— Since
W. War I . . 209-
Gestation of various
Animals, Period of .. 82
Cnee Adulteration . . 286
Ghee Production . . 286
Glass & Ceramic Research
Inst. . . 302
Glass & Glassware ' 505
Gliding Club .. 195
Gold ^ ^ 225
Government Departments 770
Governments, State . . 144
Governor-Generals of
Indian Union . . 22
Gram & Pulses . , 255
Graphite . , 321
Gt. Britain & Northern Ire-
lanii . . 92
Greece , . 93
Groundnut , 259
Guatemala . . 93
Gypsum . . 320
H
Haiti . . 93
Handlooms & Textiles . . 517
Harboxir Board, National 356
Heads of Govts, of the
Now that the winter la over, yon will, no doubt,
look to your fans to save you from summer’s heat
and humidity. It will be worth your while to have
a qualified electrician give your fans a preliminary
check-up before you switch them on again.
Even in the case of lEW fans notwithstanding their
mechanical and stractural excellence, this checA-up is
recommended to doubly ensure their traditionally
■' trouble-free, smooth, silent and economic service.
Check up I L Wiring
2. Commutator
8. Carbon
4 . Grease
tm INDIA EIECmC WORKS ITB.
INDIA cx, ROHTAStu. BHARAT kc.
BEHALAsx, RANJlTse. TARAtxssx.
xsxxv
Central
106
442
World
Health, Board of.
Advisory 445 ,
Central Council of 441
ul? Education Bureau 443
Health & Medical Educa-
tion
Health, Ministry of
Health, Public
Hemp
Hides, Leather & Skins ! !
High Courts
Highest & Lowest Eleva-
tions
Highest Mountain Peaks !
Highest Peaks of Hima-
layas
Hill Stations
Himachal Pradesh ! !
Himalayan Peaks, Con-
quest of . . 18
Hindustan Housing Facto^ 490
Hindustan Machine Tools
r actory
Hindustan Shipyard ! !
Wo'men’s
^tional
^'J?^|y^Toumament, Dh'yan
Holidays * [
Homoeopathy & Indigenous
systems
Honduras
Horn Articles
Housing Factory
Humanistic Inst.
Hungary
Hurdle Records
Hydro-Power Resources of
India
440
438
438
258
501
625
58
57
17
28
756
18
491
491
337
336
337
45
441
93
517
490
540
93
344
India :
463
Iceland
Ilmenite
IMCO • ;
Income, National
Index Numbers : Agricul-
tural Production Various
InSubjects 261. 293
India (Map) 72 I
93
318
330
407
India at a Glance :
Climate & Rainfall
Coast Line
Forests
Languages
Livestock
Minerals
National Flag
People
Physical Division
Ports
Races
Religions
River Systems
Soil
States
India, Foreigpi Investment
in
India Government Trade
Representatives
Indian Pacts in a Nutshell
Indian Fellows of Royal
Society
Indian Information
Indians, First among
Indians in Commonwealth
Countries
Indians in Foreign
Countries
Indians, Notable
Indian Representatives
abroad
Indians Overseas
Indonesia
Industrial Policy, Govt. . .
Industrial Productions! . .
Industrial Research
Industries, Development &
Control of
Industries, Nationalized . .
Industry, Financial Aid to
Industry, Indian
Infant Mortality
Information & Publicity,
Central & St. Govts.
Information, General
Information Services
Information Services,
Foreign
Insecticides, Hindustan
Instruments Factory, Na-
tional
1
1
153
789
11
19
15
28
413
414
25
785
411
93
482
511
299
483
487
484
481
450
369
67
370
372
492
489
sxxxvi
Insurance in India
478
International Bank
R. & D,
for
329
International Civil Aviation
Org.
328
International Court of
Justice
327
International Monetary
"Fund
329
Inventions, Great
72
Iran
94
Iraq
• « •
94
Irish Republic
93
Irrigation, Indian
, ,
467
Irrigation, Main Types
of
469
Irrigation : Principal
jects
Pro-
471
Iron
* ^
317
Iron Age
55
Iron and Steel
495
Iron & Steel Projects
493
Israel
94
Italy
95
ITO-GATT
330
ITU
329
Ivory Work ^
••
517
Jammu & Kashmir
748
Japan
* ,
95
Jordan
95
Journalism Courses
378
Judiciary
, ,
143
Jute
257,
496
Jumping Records
344
Juvenile Delinquency
598
J. V. P. Report
• .
621
Labour Administration
& Le^slation . . 382
Labour in India . . 381
Labour Laws , . 382
Labour Reform . . 381
Lac . . 258
Laccadive, Minicoy & Amin-
divi Islands . . 759
Lakes . . 68
Land Reforms . . 576
Languages . . 427
Languages in tbe Consti-
tution 147/129
Languages, Indian . . 428
Largest Islands . . 59
Lawn Tennis Championsbip,
National . , 338
Lead . . 321
Learned Societies & Re-
search Inst.
.. 307
Leather Research
Insti.,
Central
.. 302
Lebanon
.. 96
Legislature
.. 143
Lemongrass Oil
. . 258
Lenin Peace Prize
.. 20
Liberia
.. 96
Libraries of the World . . 68
Libya
.. 96
Liechtenstein
96
Linseed
.. 259
Livestock & the
Consti-
K
Kabadi Championsbip, Na-
tional . . 338
Kandla . . 367
Kanchenjunga, Attempts on 18
Karikal . . 362
Kerala . . . . 762
Korea . . 95
Kyanite . . 319
L
Laboratories, Medical
Researches etc. . . 447
Laboratory, Nat, Chemical 301
„ „ Physical .. 301
tution . . 267
Livestock & Poultry . . 273
Local Bodies in India . . 153
Locomotive Production . . 168
Lok Sabha . . 148
Loans, Central Govt. . . 238
Loan, State Govts, . . 238
Longest Rivers . . 57
Longest Tunnels . . 60
Luxemburg . . 97
M
Machine Tools Prototype
Factory .. 497
Madhya Pradesh 735
^Jadras^ 358 733
Mapmesite .. fiiq
Mail, Night .. 193
Slalana . . , ^ 444
xxxsrvii
Malaya, Federation of
97
Museums in India
634
Malpe
362
Mustard & Rape
.
260
Mangalore
361
Myrobalans
•
258
Manganese
315
Mysore
.
749
Manipur
757
Mankind, Classification of
54
N
Mankind, Eaces of
53
Nagaland
.
664
Maritime Trade
206
Nagpur Plan
.
182
Marketing, Directorate of
254
Nahan Foundry
•
490
Marriage Kate
140
National Day
• •
112
Match
505
Nationalisation of Trans-
Medical Research
304
port
• •
186
Medicine and Physiology,
National Parks
• •
17
Discoveries in
76
National Parks & Sane-
Medium of Instructions • .
530
tuaries
, *
291
Menzies Mission
704
National Research Develop-
Mercantile Marine, Indian
204
ment Corp.
305
Merchant Shipping
206
National Songs
157
Metal Art Wares
517
Natural Resources & Scien-
Metallurgical Laboratory
301
tific Research, Ministry
Meteorological Research , .
305
of
299,
311
Meteors
51
Navy, Indian
401
Mexico
97
Naya Paisa
66
Mica
316
Negapatam
361
Mile Runners
343
Nepal
98
Milk Productions
271
Netherlands
98
Milky Way
343
New & Old Names
of
Millets
255
Places
* ,
19
Mineral Information Bureau 312
News Agencies, Foreign 367, 378
Mineral Oil in India
718
News Agencies, Indian
366,
379
Mineral Resources
311
Newspaper Associations
368
Minerals, Description of . .
314
Newspaper Circulation,
In-
Mines
383
dian
366
Mines & Applied Geology,
Newspapers, Important In-
School of
313
dian
372
Mines & Mineral Conserva-
New Zealand
98
tion
311
Nicaragua
98
Mining & Metallurgy,
Nobel Prizes . .
77
College of
313
Nobel Prize Winners,
In-
Mint, New
493
dian
20
Monaco
97
Norway
98
Monazite
318
Notable Indians
25
Money Rates in India
230
Nuclear Research
306
Mongolia, Outer (People’s
Rep.)
97
0
Months, Names of
42
Oceans & Seas
67
Moon
50
Ochres
318
Morocco
98
Oilseeds
259
Motor Vehicles — ^Total
Okha
363
Number
187
Orissa
743
Mountain Passes
60
Oscars for 1955
563
Museums & Aquaria
266
Overseas Shipping
206
jnocxviii
Padma Bibhushan . . 21
Pakistan 99, 767
Pak-Indian Affairs : . . 654
Indus Waters . . 654
Pak Claim over Chitral 654
Kashmir Developments 655
Exodus of Hindus . . 657
Border Incidents . . 658
Pakistani Debt to India 659
Jt. flood Control mea-
sures . . 659
Indo-Pakistani Trade
Pact . . 659
Panama, Republic of . . 99
Paper & Paperboards . . 500
Paraguay . . 99
Param Vir Chakra . . 21
Parliament, Indian . . 22
Parliament, Powers & Pri-
vileges of . . 143
Parties, National . . 629
Pearl Oysters . . 266
Peer of the British Realm 19
Pepper . . . . 257
Peru . . . . 99
Petroleum . . . . 316
Petroleum Industry • . 501
Phillippines . . 99
Phulkari . . . . 516
Places of Interest . . 31
Places, Show, Indian . . 650
Planets . . . . 50
Planning Commission . . 643
Plan Outlay, Distribution of 591
Plantation Labour Laws . . 383
Plywood Industry . . 506
Poland . . . . 100
Poland & Hungary, events in 711
Polar Auroras . . 52
Polar Records . . 63
Political Abbreviations .. 113
Political Information . . 106
Political Parties & Groups 114
Political Parties, Indian , . 116
Political Terms . . 118
Pondicherry 362, 755
Poppy . . _ - - 256
Population according to
Religion 138, 422
Population Density .. 137
Population, Estimates of
Population, World
Port Trusts
Ports, Indian
Ports, Major & Minor
Portugal
Portugal’s Disputes with
India
Portuguese India
Postage Stamps since In-
dependence
Postal Education ‘ . .
Postal Expansion
Postal Landmarks
Postal Revenue
Postal Savings
Postal System
Posts & Telegraphs
Pottery
Poultry
Power & Irrigation Projects
Power Development in India
Power Projects under five-
year Plan . .
Power Supply, India’s
Precedence of Persons . .
Precious Stones
Prehistoric Races
President — ^Indian Union . .
Press Associations
Press Commission's Report
Press Council
Press, Freedom of the . .
Press, Indian
Press Laws
Press Union, Commonwealth
Prime Ministers, British . .
Prime Minister (Indian)
addresses U.N. General
^sembly
Privy Councillors, Indian
Producers, Leading Indian
(film)
Products, National
Prohibition in India
Projects, Waterway
Public Affairs, State in . .
Publications Division
Public Services
Punjab
Pyrites
137
137
356
355
355
100
713
767
203
199
202
202
202
238
197
196
504
271
476
463
466
461
159
321
56
22
377
367
365
363
363
364
369
107
678
19
559
410
572
189
639
371
580
743
320
xxxxix
Quilon . . . . 361
R
Race, Meaning of . . 64
Race, Pure . . . . 54
Radio Sets, Imports of . . 460
Radio Receiver Sets, num-
ber of . . . . 460
Railway Amenities . . 174
Railway and the Plan . , 174
Railway Committee . . 166
Railway Dates, Important 180
Railway facts . . 178
Railway finance . . 166
Railway Organisations . . 171
Railway Reserve Funds . . 176
Ry.^Station Platforms, Lon-
gest . . . . 67
Railway Workshops . . 168
Railway Zones , . 169
Railways, Administration of 166
Railways, Electrification of 168
Railways in India . . 163
Rajya Sabha . . . . 143
Rajasthan . . 746
Ranji Trophy . . 333
Rank & Precedence . . 1B9
Rayon Industry . . 501
Records, World, Notable 350
Refrigeration . . 263
Rent, Fixation of . . 577
Reorganisation of States . . 621
Research & Training — Road
Organisations . . 184
Research Associations (by
Industries) • • 306
Resei-ve Bank of India :
Assets & Liabilities 216
Banking Dept. ■ ■ 217
Resei-voirs, World’s
Greatest . . 69
Revenue Account ; 233, 239, 240
Revenue & Expenditure . . 234
Rice . . . . 254
River Valley Projects • • 468
Road Administration . . 181
Road Fund, Central . . 182
Road Research Inst., Cen-
tral . . . . 302
Roads Congress, Indian . . 183
Roads in India . . 181
D
Road Transport . . 185
Ropeways . . . . 186
Rubber 257, 504
Rumania . . . . 100
Rupee ; Exchange Value 351
Rural Credit Survey
. Committee . . 227
Russian Loan . . 610
S
Saarland
Sahitya Akadami Award —
1956
Salaries — Heads of Govts.
Salt
Saltpetre
Salt Research Inst., Central
Salvador, El
Sangit Natak Akadami
Awards 1966
San Marino
Sanskrit Commission
Santosh Memorial Trophy
Sargent Scheme
Satellites
Saurashtra Ports
Science, International Con-
tacts in
Scientific Documentation
Centre
Scientific Progress in India
Scientific Research Instas.
& Laboratories ;
Second Term for Eisen-
hower
Security Council — U.N. . .
Services, All-India
Sesamum
Ship Buildings
Shipowners, Consultive
Comm, of
Shipping Control Dept. . .
Shipping Corporation, Eas-
tern
Shipping, Indian
Shipping Interest, Consul-
tive Comm, of
Ships, Largest
Sikkim
Silk
Silk Industry
Sillimanite
100
646
108
317
318
303
91
645
100
643
335
527
61
360
298
305
297
539
710
325
681
260
209
205
205
490
204
205
83
763
258
602
320
1
Silver Eefinery Project ..
Small Savings
Snakes, Poisonous
Soap
Social Welfare
Soil Conservation
Soil of India . .
Solar System
Somalis, SeU-Govt. for
South Africa
South Africa — ^India &
Apartheid
Spain
Spans of Bridges, Largest
Speeds
Spices
Sports Section
Sports Goods
Standard Time, Indian ..
Stars
States in India
Andhra
Assam
West Bengal
Bihar
Bombay
Madhya Pradesh
Madras
Orissa
Punjab
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Jammu & Kashmir . .
Mysore
Kerala
Delhi
Pondicherry
Hamachal Pradesh . .
Manipur
Tripura
Laccadive, Minicoy &
,• Amindivi Islands ..
Andaman & Nicobor
Islands
Sikkim
States, New Indian
States Judiciary
States Reorganisation Com-
mission
States bordering India . .
Bhutan
490
238
9
606
696
254
2
48
709
100
677
101
70
82
266
331
610
45
61
721
721
724
727
730
733
735
738
741
743
746
746
746
748
749
762
765
765
766
767
769
769
761
762
48
146
621
763
763
Nepal
Tibet
Portuguese India ! !
Pakistan
States, Status of the !
Statistical Research
Steatite . . [ ^
Stock, Distribution of Basic
— (mankind)
Stone Age . . . |
Stones, Birth ..
Stones & Planetary Actions
Students in Recognised Ins-
titutions
Structures Highest, Indian'
Structures of the World,
Famous
Subhas Bose Committee ..
Sudan
Suez Canal : India & Na-
tionalization of S.C.
Suez Canal Co. . [
Suez Canal users Asson. ! !
Sugar
Sugarcane . , [
Sulphur
Surat
Survey of India I ‘
Swaythling Cup
Sweden
Swimming Championship
Swimming Records . .
Switzerland
Syria . . "
^ . T
Table Tennis Champion-
Table Tennis— International
Tanker Fleet
Tariff Commission
Tea
Technical Assistance
Telegraph Service
Telephone Industries
Telephones
Telescopes, Notable
TextDe Industry
Thailand
Theories
Throwing Records
Tibet
Time :
764
765
767
767
625
305
320
65
65
S2
81
634
18
64
642
101
669
700
705
497
268
320
361
307
347
101
338
340
102
102
267,
347
209
668
606
605
199
491
200
67
494
102
77
344
765
43
li
Measurement of Time 43
Different Times 43, 44, 46
Time, Standard, Indian . . 45
Titanium . . . • 321
Tobacco 256, 608
Tonnage & Number of In-
dian Vessels . . 210
Tonnage of Vessels Entered
& Cleared . . 210
Tourism in India . . 648
Tourist Information Offices 372
Tourist Traffic . . 173
Towns & Villages in India 417
Track & Field Eecords 343, 346
Trade Eepresentatives of
Overseas Governments . . 793
Training, Marine . . 208
Training Institution (Na-
tional Defence) . . 406
Transport, Inland Water 187
Transfer of Tr. Settlements
in India
Treasury
India)
Trieste
Tripura
Tungsten
Turkey
Tuticorin
Bills
(Govt, of
U
Union Executive
U.S.S.E.
United Nations ;
U.N. — Economic & Social
Council
U.N. — ^Educational, Scienti-
fic & Cultural Organisa-
tion
U.N.— Flag
672
237
102
769
320
102
360
142
103
323
326
U.N. — ^Food & Agricultural
Org. . . • • '
U.N.— General Assembly . .
U.N. — ^International Labour
Org.
U.N. — ^Members
U.N. — Organs
U.N. — Secretariat
U.N.— Security Council
328
324
328
U.S.A., Presidents of the 107
United Kingdom . . 104
Universal Postal Union
(U.P.U.) ., 329
Universities of India . . 636
University Education Com-
mission . . . . 627
University Grants Commis-
sion . . . . 630
Uranium — ^Thorium Factory 494
Uruguay . . . . 104
Uttar Pradesh , . 745
Vanadium . . . . 320
Vanaspati Industry . . 510
Vanishing Animals . . 289
Vatican City . . . . 104
Venezuela . . . . 104
■Vice-Chancellors . . 636
Victoria Cross, Indian Win-
ners of . . . . 20
Viet-Nam . , 104
Vishakhapatnam . . 360
Volcanoes . . 68
Volleyball Championship . . 338
W
Walking Eecords . . 344
Waterfalls . . 62
Welfare of Women . . 597
West Bengal . . 727
"Wheat . . . . 265
Whos’ Who . . 796
Wightman Cup . . 346
Wild Life . . . . 287
Wild Life Preservation . . 288
Wimbledon Tennis Cham-
pionship . . 346
Wool & Woollen Textiles . . 503
World Dimensions . . 67
World Health Organisation 329
World Meteorological Orga-
328
323
nisation
Y
.. 330
324
327
325
327
Year
Yugoslavia
Z
43
.. 104
326
Zinc
.. 318
102
Zircon
. .
. . 318
DEY’S MEDICAL STORES PRIVATE LTD.
CALCUTTA O BOMBAY • DELHI « MADRAS.
INDIA AT A GLANCE
AREA
India covers an area of 1,2G0,G40 square miles including Jammu
and Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It has a land fron-
tier of 8,200 miles long and a coast line of 3,500 miles. It is approxi-
mately thirteen times as large as United Kingdom, eight times the
size of Japan and a seventh of U.S.S.R. It is the seventh largest
country in the world. It extends about 2,000 miles from north to south
and about 1,400 miles from cast to west. Its triangular peninsula
juts into the Indian Ocean and is bounded on the south-west by tho
Arabian Sea and on the south-east by the Bay of Bengal. India is
bordered on tho north-west by West Pakistan and on the north-cast
by Burma, East Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal and Tibet.
PHYSICAL DIVISION
India is divided into three main topographical arcao,
1. The Himalayan region (Mountain wall),
2. Tho Indo-Gangotic plains (the Plaine),
8. The Deccan or Peninsula of the south (Peninsular region).
The Ilimalagan region extends across tho northern border from
Kashmir to the Burma frontier. Ilo Himalayas comprise a system
of slupendou.s fold-mountain ranges, some of them the loftiest in tho
world : extending in the shape of a scimitar with its edge facing
southward. This region runs for 2,000 miles from tho eastern extre-
mity of Assam to the western limits of Kashmir with a breadth
varying from 180 to 220 miles. South of the mountains arc tho
Inclo-Gangctio plains. They are about 1,600 miles long, cast to west^
and from 150 to 200 miles broad. The plains arc broken by inter-
mittent low-lying mountain ranges and arc watered by India’s threo
main rivers — the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Jumna — which
flow southward from the Himalayas to the _ Bay of Bengal. Tho
peninsular region is a table land and lies within the tropics. It is
bounded on the three sides by mountains — on the north by tho
Vindhya and Satpura ranges, on the west by the Western Ghats,
on the cast by the Eastern Ghats. Two coastal strips of flat land
exist on the outer side of both Western and Eastern Ghats — tho
v/ostern coastal strip is known ns tho Konkan in the north and
Malabar in the south ; the eastern coastal strip is known ns Coro-
mondal Coast.
CLIMATE AND RAINFALL
One of the chief characteristics of rainfall in India is its unequal
distribution over tho country. Some Indian States always get
abundant rain, and some never get more than an inch or two per
annum, while over large areas the rainfall is uncertain. The averago
2
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
annual rainfall in India is 42 inches. The areas of certain rainfall
are West Bengal, Assam, West Malabar Coast, western slopes of the
Ghats and the upper valley of the Narmada. The zones of uncertain
rainfall are Uttar Pradesh, Western and Northern Rajasthan, Cen-
tral Rajasthan bordering on the U. P. and large part of
Bombay. A tropical monsoon climate prevails in most of the
country ; changes in the time or nature of the monsoons can
vitally affect the Indian economy. There are two monsoon seasons.
The south-west monsoon from June through September is the most
important. It brings heavy rainfall to most of the country but only
light showers in the central and eastern parts of the peninsula.
The monsoon’s direction riverses in November blowing from north-
east through February. The north-east monsoon provides the
heaviest rainfall of the year to the south-eastern areas but dry
weather everywhere. The climate is everywhere dominated by the
seasonal rhythm of the monsoons and about 85 per cent of the rain
comes from the south-west monsoon between June and October.
Rainfall in most parts of India ranges from 30 to 70 inches.
The temperature in the north ranges from a mean of about 40
degrees in January to 115 degrees in May. There is a cool winter
season from November through February, a hot summer period
from March through June and a humid rainy season from July
through October. The plains are hot throughout most of the year.
The temperature of the plateau is also hot and fairly constant,
although the temperature and humidity are somewhat lower than
the plains.
The mean annual temperatures for India’s three major cities
are : Calcutta, 79 degrees, with a range from 50 to 85 ; and Bombay
and Madras between 80 and 85 degrees with a normal annual range
of less than 10 degrees.
We can divide the country into four zones according to rainfall ;
(1) TT^et zone, where minimum rainfall is 100 inches. This includes
West Bengal, Assam and Western coast strips. (2) 'Intermediate
zone (zone of moderate rainfall); it includes portions of Central
Ipdia, Himalayas to Godavari river, east-coast of the peninsula and
eastern side of the Western Ghat and up to Baroda, where rainfall
is between 40 inches and 80 inches. (3) Dry zone, where rainfall
is less than 40 inches. (4) Desert zone, where rainfall is less than
20 inches, t.e., Rajasthan and East Punjab.
SOIL OF INDIA
About 35 per cent of the land area is fertile, well-watered and
under cultivation. 20 to 25 per cent is left fallow or is waste land
which can be brought under cultivation. Forests cover some 16 per
cent of the land area. The remainder consists of deserts, semi-
deserts and mountain ranges.
Indian soil may be mainly classified under four different heads
namely, (1) alluvial soil, (2) black soil, (3) red soil and (4) latcrite
soil.
The alluvial soil is the most important soil and is formed by the
silts brought by the rivers every year and deposited on their banhs
INDIA AT A GLANCE
3
It is very fertile and covers greater part of the northern India
between the foot of the Himalayas and the northern slopes of the
Vindhyas and extends in a narrow fringe round the coastline of the
peninsula. Territorially they occupy Punjab, Uttar-Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal, parts of Assam and Orissa and also in the coastal
regions of Southern India. The whole of the Indo-Gangetic plain is
comprised in this area.
Red soils cover the whole of Madras, Mysore and south-east
Bombay, east of Hyderabad and Madhya Pradesh to Orissa and
Chota Nagpur. Northwards the red soil extends into greater part
of Santhal Parganas and the Birbhum district of West Bengal, the
Mirzapur, Jhansi and Hamirpur districts of the Uttar Pradesh, the
Baghelkhand States of Central India, the Aravalis and the eastern
half of Rajasthan.
Black soil or black cotton soil is formed by the lava of volcanic
eruptions and is very suitable for cotton cultivation. The black soil
covers greater part of Bombay and Saurashtra, western part of
Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat and Hyderabad and some parts of
Madras State. Black cotton soil is exceedingly compact and tenaci-
ous and sticky when wet. The water-holding capacity of this soil
is good. Cotton, jawar, wheat, linseed and gram are cultivated in
these areas and the soil is" rich in iron and aluminium but very poor
in organic matter and other plant nutrients.
Laterite soil is derived by the atmospheric weathering of several
types of rocks under monsoon conditions of alternating dry and wet
periods. This soil is found on the summits of the hills of the Deccan,
Madhya Bharat, Madhya Pradesh and of the Rajmahal and Eastern
Ghats and certain parts of Orissa, Bombay, Malabar and Assam.
STATES OF INDIA
After the re-organisation of States in accordance with the pro-
visions of the States Re-organisation Act and the Bihar and West
Bengal (Transfer of Territories) Act, 1956, the States of India now
consist of 14 States and 6 Centrally-administered Territories, such
as States — (1) Andhra Pradesh, (2) Assam, (3) Bihar, (4) Bombay,
(5) Jammu & Kashmir, (6) Kerala, (7) Madhya Pradesh, (8) Madras,
(9) Mysore, (10) Orissa, (11) Punjab, (12) Rajasthan, (13) Uttar
Pradesh, (14) West Bengal. Centrally-administered Territories —
(1) Delhi, (2) Himachal Pradesh, (3) Manipur, (4) Tripura, (5)
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, (6) Laccadive Amindevi & Minicoy
Islands.
COAST LINE
India has a coast line of 3,500 miles which gives one mile of
coast to every 400 square miles of area.
But coast line of India lacks in indentations ; it has only four
openings of importance into land, such as Runn of Cutch and Gulf
of Cambay on west, the Gulf of Mannar between India and Ceylon
and the head to the Bay of Bengal. The coasts are _ singularly free
from islands and the sea round the coast of India is very shallow
4
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and the shores are usually flat and sandy. The West coast is rocky
■with mountains close to the sea. East coast is less rocky but the
sea here is shallow, so that large ships cannot approach the coast.
Because of these physical features, India possesses few ports and
harbours in proportion to her coast line.
LANGUAGES
According to the census of 1951, the total languages or dialects
in India are 845 including 720 Indian languages spoken by less than
a lakh persons each and 63 non-Indian languages. Some 32.4 crore
or 91 per cent of the population speak one of 14 languages specified
in the Constitution. This multiplicity of languages need not dismay
any one, because only 12 are of major importance. Hindi, the
national language is spoken by the largest number of people. Eng-
lish is used in Government notices and correspondence and is widely
understood in Government and business cii'cles. The Constitution
of India provides that English is to continue to be used for official
purposes at least until 1965, but eventually Hindi in Devnagri script
is to become the official language of record.
RIVEB SYSTEMS
(1) Rivers of Northem India — ^These Himalayan rivers rise in
the mountain wall or beyond it. The rivers are fed with waters from
the gradual melting of snow. They do not depend entirely for their
waters on the monsoon rains. The Himalayan rivers have a flow
throughout the year.
The three greater river systems of northem India are ; — (a)
Indus river with its five tributaries, i.c., the Jhelnm, the Chenub, the
Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej ; (b) The Ganges with a course of fifteen
hundred miles, drains Himalaya’s southern slopes and with its tribu-
taries, the Jamuna, the Gogra, the Gondnk, the Chambal and the
Save, and enters Bay of Bengal through extensive deltas with multi-
tude of channels ; (c) The Brahmaputra flows down through Tibet,
Assam and Eastern Bengal and discharges its floods after a course
of sixteen hundred and eighty miles into Bay of Bengal.
(2) Rivers of Peninsular India — They are quite different from
the rivers of the northern India. They rise in the hills of the
plateau and they are fed only by monsoon rains. The rivers rise
near Western Ghats, and fio\y towards Bay of Bengal. The most
important are the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Kistna and the
Cavery. In the north of the plateau two important rivers, the
Narbada and the Tapti flow westwards.
POUTS
India has very few natural harbours, because it is broken by
very few inlets of the sea, the sea round the coast is very shallow
and the shores are usually flat and sandy. Except Bombay. Okha
and Cochin, all other ports in Western India coast arc virtually in-
accessible during the monsoon. The eastern coast of India is surf-
INDIA AT A GLANCE
5
bound and has no natural harbour. Calcutta is about 90 miles from
the sea and the formation of sand banks in the Hooghly has made
Calcutta a dangerous port.
Six ‘major’ ports of India are — Calcutta, Visakhapatnam, Madras,
Cochin, Bombay, Kandla.
The principal ports of India are Bedi Bunder, Okha, Porbandar,
Surat, Kandla, Bombay, Marmugao, Mangolore, Calicut, Cochin,
Aileppey, Quilon, Tuticorin, Dhanushkodi, Negapatam, Karikal,
Cuddalore, Pondicherry, Madras, Masulipatam, Kakinada, Visakhapat-
nam, Calcutta. The number of ports notified as open for traffic on
the whole coast of India under Indian Ports Act 1908 in 226. Practi-
cally all the India's foreign trade is channelled through one of the
six main ports which are under Central Government supervision.
PEOPLE
According to the 1951 census, India has a population of
36,68,29,485 of whom only 17.3 per cent live in cities and towns,
while 82.7 per cent live in villages. The rate of population increase
is around 1 per cent a year. The life expectancy is only 32 years,
due in large part to the high death rate among infants. The average
additional life expectancy of persons aged 20 is about 35 years.
India has 947 females for every 1,000 males. The number of
males thus exceeds that of the females in all states except Orissa,
Manipur, Madras, Travancore-Cochin and Kutch. The average
density of population in India is 312 per square mile. There are
3,018 to\vns and 5,58,089 villages in the country. There are 73
cities in India that have a population of one lakh and over.
The classification of population according to means of livelihood
shows that 70 per cent of the people of the country depend on agri-
culture and 30 per cent live by non-agriculture professions. 'The
preponderance of agricultural over non-agricultural population pre-
vails in all the States except Saurashtra, Kutch, Ajmer, Delhi and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
According to 1951 census, there were 5.92 crore literate persons
proportion of literacy in India is 16.6 per cent, corresponding figures
in India of whom 4.56 crore were men and 1.36 cr6re women. The
for the male and female populations being 24.9 and 7.9 per cent
respectively. Travancore-Cochin has the highest percentage of lite-
racy i.e. 46.4 per cent. South India has the largest female literacy
with 13.6 per cent and North India the lowest with 3.6 per cent.
RELIGION
The population of India according to religion is as follows —
Hindus 3,032 lakhs, 85 per cent ; Muslims 354 lakhs, 9.92 per cent ;
Christians 82 lalihs, 2.30 per cent ; Sikhs 62 lakhs, 1.74 per cent ;
Jains 16 lakhs, 0.45 per cent ; Buddhist 2 lakhs, 0.06 per cent ;
Zoroastrians 1 lakh, 0.03 per cent ; other religions (tribal) 17 lakhs,
0.47 per cent ; other religions (non-tribal) 1 lakh, 0.03 per cent.
Total 3,567 lakhs.
6
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
INDIAN RACES
During the British period the first ofiieial enumeration of the
people of India was made by Sir Herbert Risley which was an official
pronouncement accepted very largely both in India and outside India,
though it is now regarded as arbitrary classification based on in-
sufficient data and immature science. Indian races were divided into
seven broad groups, such as Mongoloid, Indo-Aryan, Dravidian,
Mongolo-Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian, Scytho-Dravidian and Tiirko-
Iranian.
Next classification was made by Dr. J. H. Hutton in 1933 based
on race-cum-language and culture sequence. According to this theory
all people came to India from outside, such as —
(1) Negritos from Africa — the oldest people to have come to
India now surviving in the Andaman islands and in Malaya. Traces
of them seem to occur among the Nagas in Assam and in certain
tribes in South India.
(2) Proto-Aitstraloids — ^who came from the East Mediterra-
nean area.
(3) Early Mediterranians — who brought earlier forms of the
Austric speech.
(4) Civilised or Advanced Mediterranean — ^who became Dra-
■vidians in India.
(6) Annenoids — a specialised offshoot from the standard
Alpine stock probably came with the civilised Mediterraneans
■(Dravidians) and spoke their language.
(6) Alpines — found in Gujarat and Bengal ; earlier than Vedic
Aryans but probably speaking Aryan dialects.
(7) Vedic Aryans or Nordics — who brought the Vedic Aryan
(Sanskrit! speech.
(8) Mongoloids — ^Not important for the greater part of India
as they touched only the northern and eastern fringes.
The most recent and authoritative classification has been made
by Dr. B. S. Guha, Director of Anthropology who divides the people
of India into six main races with nine sub-types.
(1) Negrito — is now almost extinct in India, a small group is
still surviving hi Andamans and its traces have been found among
Kadars and Palayans of Cochin and Travancore Hills, Irurals of
the Wynad, the Angami Nagas of Assam and some of the Raimahal
peoples like the Semangs of Malaya and the Papuans of New Guinea,
Hill tribes of Bihar. They are related to the Asian and Oceanic
but not to the African Negroes and Negritoes.
(2) Proto Australoids — are related genetically to the Austra-
lians as well as the Europeans. They survive in a good many abori-
ginal peoples of the present day India, although more or less mingled
with other people. The majority of the tribal peoples of central
and southern India belongs to this group. Throughout the greater
part of India, the Proto-Austroloid peoples still live as the lower
castes or sections of the Indian people.
(31 The Mongoloid Group — is found in the mountainous zones
of north and north-east India. This group is divided into (1) Palaeo-
INDIA AT A GLANCE
7
Mongoloids consisting of long headed and broad headed types. They
form a dominant element in the tribes in Assam and the Indo-Burmese
frontier and among the less primitive types in Burma and in Chitta-
gong ; (2) Tibeto-Mongoloids are found in Sikkim and Bhutan.
Their physical characteristics are short and broad face with high
•cheek bones, a skin fold from the upper-eyelid covering usually the
inner eye corner giving the eye a slit and oblique appearance,
scanty hair on face and body and light brown skin with yellowish
tint.
(4) Mediterranean Group consisting of (a) Palaeo-Mediterra-
nean, medium statured, dark skinned and slight built, found in
ICannada, Tamil and Malayalam tracts ; (6) Mediterranean, true
European type found in the Punjab, Upper Gangetic Valley and is
supposed to represent civilised pre-Aryan Dravidian people of
Northern India, who contributed largely to the evolution of Hindu
people and culture of North India ; (c) Oriental Type, sometime
•called Semitic or Jewish, found in the Punjab, in Sind, in Eajputana,
in western U.P. and in some other parts of India.
(5) Weetern Rrachycephnlf! consisting of (a) Alpinoid, (6)
Uinarik and (c) Armenoid. They seem to have evolved in the
■Central Asian mountain regions and both Alpine and Dinarik varie-
ties appear to have spread over the greater part of India, i.e., Bengal,
•Orissa, Kathiawar, Kannada and Tamil countries, Gujarat, We.st
■coast of India excepting Malabar. The Parsis of Bombay are allied
to Armenoids.
(61 Nordics are the Aryan speaking group of India who are
responsible for India’s Hindu civilisation and seem to have come
from the Eurasian stenpe lands and entered India during the second
half of the second millennium B.C. The Nordic elements are strong
in North-West Frontier of India, in the south of Hindu-Kush range.
Nordic elements are present in mixed form in Punjab, Bajputana,
Upper Ganges Valley. They are also found among higher castes
and groups and also Nordic type predominates in certain sections in
India.
Lastly the author of this classification Dr. B. S. Guha has how-
ever stated, “It must be clearly understood that no rigid separation
is possible as there is considerable over-lapping of types.”
MINERALS
India is very rich in mineral resources. She is favoured 'with
•a supply of coal suflicient for its present and future industry. Coal
reserves are estimated at 20 billion long tons, of which 5 billion are
•good-quality cooking coal. More than 80 p.c. of India’s coal is prol-
•duced in the States of Bihar and West Bengal. Other coal mining
areas _ are JTadhya Pradesh, Orissa, Hyderabad and Assam. Largp
deposits of lignites have recently Ijeen reported in Madras coastal
plain. India’s reserves of high grade iron ore are estimated to be
about 10 billion tons, or 100 years’ supply at the present rate pf
•consumption. The principal iron ore deposits are in Bihar and
Orissa and smaller deposits in Madhya Pradesh , Mysore and Madras.
8
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Regarding ■non-ferrons metals, deposits of mica and manganese
are large enough not only to meet present domestic requirements
hut also to enter significantly into the country’s export trade, India
produces about 75 p.c. of the world’s total supply of mica. Reserves
of high grade manganese ore are estimated at 10 to 20 million long
tons and the deposits of low grade ore several times larcer. India’s
bauxite reserves are estimated at 250 million tons. India also has
substantial deposits of titanium, kyanite, beryllium, chrome and
gypsum. Reserves of most other important non-ferrous metals are
either small or non-existent. India is dependent upon foreign sources
for copper, zinc, tin, lead, platinum, nickel and mercury.
Regarding mineral oil, India imports 95 per cent of its petro-
leum and petroleum products, the remainder being supplied by
oilfields and a refinery in Assam. New refineries have been started
in Bombay.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the major enterprise of India, providing the liveli-
hood for about 70 per cent of the population. The total land avail-
able for cultivation is about 358 million acres. The land available-
for cultivation per capita of population is 1.06 acres. There is hardly'
a crop of the tropical, sub-tropical or temperate zone which is not
grown in the country. Food crops occupy about 85 per cent of the
total sown area. Rice accounts for about half of India’s cereal out-
put, the other half is accounted for by a variety of grains including
wheat, millet and barley. Of the total area under activation about
17 per cent is irrigated by major and minor works, the rest being
dependent on rainfall. Agriculture is the largest single industry in-
India and as an agricultural country she occupies an unique position
in the world. She is the largest sugarcane producing country in the
■world. She holds virtual monopoly in lac, follows U.S.A. in cotton,
ranks vfith China and Africa as one of the leading millet producing
country and leads ■with China in the production of rice and tea.
ANIMALS
Indian climatic _ conditions have naturally developed a great
variety of animal life and the number of animal species found in
India is much greater than that in Europe.
In India, animals are chiefly seen in the valleys of the Hima-
layas (i.c. Terai Forests) extending from Kashmir to the Brahma-
putra valley, on the Eastern and Western Ghats and in the jungles
of Madhya Pradesh and Centra! India. There are several hig game
•reserve forests in India which now preserve some rare animals of
'.India.
^ (1) TTRf? Aviwats — Jion is almost extinct and is now preserved
■in Gir forest of Kathia'war. Tigers arc found all over India.
Leopards (hunting leopards). Panthers. Cheetahs are common in the
hills and plains. Elephants are found in the lower Himalaynn
•vaUey, the Brahmaputra valley and forests of Nilgiri hills. Dears
INDIA AT A GLANCE
9
are available on the hills everywhere, Deer and antelopes are
commonly seen in the plains.
Yaks are only seen in higher Himalayas. Rhinoceros live in
the swamps of Assam, North Bengal, Nepal. Monkeys, Porcupines,
Hares, wild Hogs are to be seen everywhere.
(2) Domestic Animals — goats, sheep, horses, ponies, asses,
mules, bullocks, buffaloes and available here and there. Camels are
seen in the desert districts of Rajasthan and East Punjab.
(3) Birds — Vultures, kites, hawks, wild d^icks, wild geese, pat-
ridges, pigeong, parrots, cranes, peacocks, snipes and sand grouse
are available everywhere. Birds in India, as in most hot countries,
are more famous for their plumage than for their song,
(4) Reptiles — Crocodiles are seen everywhere. The deadly
snakes of India are Cobras, Russel’s Vipers, Kerait, Hamadryeds.
(5) Fish — Most numerous fish are of carp family. The finest
fish from angler’s point is Masher found in all streams. The richest
and tasty fish of India is hilsa. Fishing waters, river and sea, of
Bengal and Madras are among the most extensive in the world.
LIVESTOCK
India is one of the largest livestock countries in the world.
According to the 1951 livestock census, there are 155 million cattle,
43 rnillion buffaloes and 39 million sheep in the country. India’s 156
million cattle constitute a fourth of the world’s cattle population.
The most important cattle-rearing region is the north-west. It is a
belt extending from Kathiawar through Rajasthan and Punjab to
Kashmir,
The chief livestock products are milk, butter, ghee, meat and
eggs, while a proportion of hides, skins, wool, bones and horns is
exported. The annual production of milk is 17’7 million tons and per
capita consumption of milk and milk products has been estimated at
5-45 oz. a day.
Among the best cows in India are Sahhoal (Punjab) and_ Gir
(Saurashtra). The important breeds of bullocks are Hnnsi (Punjab),
Nellore (Madras), A writ Mahal (Mysore) , Kankraj (Gujarat),
Kangayam (Madras), Kherigarh (U.P.), Davgi and Nimar (Bombay)
and Harina (Punjab). Best breeds of buffaloes are Mnrrah (Punjab),
Jafferbadi (Saurashtra), and McJuisana, Surati and Pandharpuri
(Bombay).
FORESTS
The forests of India cover more than 1/6 of the total area of
the country. . . r l
The forest areas are not well-distributed in some of the States,
specially in the Indo-CIangetic plain where area has ^Ilen to the
dangerously low feature of 11 p-c. in Punjab, 16 in U.P., and 14 m
Bihar. . .
India has been divided into three botanical areas and six pro-
vinces for the proper study of vegetation of India. The three bota-
nical areas are (a) Himalayan — represents a nch, tropical tern-
10
HINDUSTAN 'yEAE-BOOK
perate and alpine flora with forests of conifers, oaks, rhododendrons
and a profusion of orchids, (b) Eastern — consisting of a few conifers,
many oaks and palms with a greater preponderance of orchids and
(c) Western which has only one conifer, few palms and very small
orchids without any oak.
These three areas are divided into six botanical provinces based
■on their climate and physical characters, namely (1) Eastern Hima-
laya, (2) Western Himalaya, (3) Indus plain, (4) Gangetic plain in-
cluding Sunderbans, (5) Malabar and (6) Deccan — each with its
peculiar flora.
The forest vegetation of India is divided into five types accord-
ing to the variation in climate, altitude and habitat, such as — (1)
Evergreen, (2) Deciduous, (3) Dry, (4) Hill and (5) Tidal or Littoral.
The forests in India supply valuable timber, firewood, essential
oils, resin, turpentine, lac, dyeing material, mjTobalans, sources of
paper pulp and other materials of commerce and industry. The chief
forest products of India are — ^teak, sal, deodar, chir, sheesham, many
species of bamboo, leaves, fruits, fibres, grass, gums, resin, barks, etc,
FLAG
National Flag is horizontal tricolour with bands of deep saffron,
white and dark green in equal proportions. On the centre of the
white band appears an Asoka Chakra (wheel) which is na\’y blue.
INDIAN INFORMATION
Andhra
Hyderabad 10,85,722
Vijayavada 1,61,198
Warangal 1,33,130
Guntur . . 1,25,255
Visakhapat-
nam . . 1,08,042
Rajahmun-
dry . . 1,05,276
Bihar
Patna . . 2,83,479
Jamshedpur 2,18,162
Gaya . . 1,33,700
Bhagalpur 1,14,530
Ranchi . . 1,06,849
Bombay
Bombay 28,39,270
Ahmedabad 7,88,333
Poona . . 4,80,982
Nagpur 4,49,099
Sholapur 2,66.050
Surat .. 2,23,182
Baroda' .. 2,11.407
Kolhapur 1,36.835
Hubli . . 1,29,609
Madhya Pradesh
Jabalpur 2,56.998
Bhopal 1,02,633
CITIES OF INDIA
Madras
Madras _
14,16,067
Madurai
3,61,781
Tiruchira-
palli
2,18,921
Salem
2,02,335
Coimbatore
1,97,766
Kozhikode
1,58,724
Mangalore
1,17.083
Vellore
1,06,024
Tanjore
1,00,680
Orissa
Cuttack
1,02,505
Punjab
Amritsar 3,25,747
Jullundur 1,68,816
Ludhiana 1,53,796
Uttar Pradesh
Kanpur 7,05,383
Lucknow 4,96,861
Agra 3.75,665
Banaras 3,65,777
Allahabad 3,32,296
Meerut 2,33,183
Bareilly 2.08,083
Moradabad 1,61,854
Saharanpur 1,48.435
Dehra Dun 1,44,216
Aligarh 1,41,618
Rampur 1,34,277
Gorakpur 1,32,436
Jhansi 1,27,365
West Bengal
Calcutta* 33,44,839
Kharagpur 1,29,636
M. B.
Indore 3,10,869
Gwalior 2,41,571
Ujjain 1,29,817
Mysore
Bangalore 7,78,977
Mysore 2,44,323
Kolar Gold
Fields 1,69,084
Rajasthan
Jaipur 2,91, 130-
Ajmer 1.96.633
Jodhpur 1,80,717
Bikaner 1,17, IIS'.
Saurashtra
Bhavnagar 1,37,951'
Rajkot 1,32.069-
Jamnagur 1,04,419-
Kerala
Trivandrum 1,86.931
Alleppey 1,16,278'
Delhi
Old & New
Delhi 11,91,104
TEN BIG CITIES OF INDIA
Calcutta . . 33,44,839 Madras ' . . 14,16,057
Bombay .. 28,39,270 Delhi .. 11,91,104
♦including Ho-wrah, Tollyganj, Behala and Garden Reach.
16
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Hyderabad • • 10,85,722
Ahmedabad • • 7,88,333
Bangalore ■ • 7,78,977
INDIAN
feet
Sone Bridge . • 10,052
Godavari Bridge . . 9,096
Alahanadi Bridge . . 6,912
Willingdon Bridge .. 2,610
Howrah Bridge* (1943) 2,150
Jubilee Bridge (Naihati) 1,213
Meghna Bridge . • 1,213
Dufferin Bridge (Banaras,
1887) .. .. 3,578
Curzon Bridge (Allaha-
bad, 1905) . . . . 3,200
Tapti Bridge (1872) . . 2,556
Izat Bridge CAUahabad,
1912) .. .. 6,830
Kanpur • • 7,05,383
Lucknow • . 4,96,861
Poona • . 4,80,982
BRIDGES
feet
Naini Bridge (1865,
Allahabad) .. 3,235
Jumna Bridge (1866,
Delhi) .. .. 2,640
Malaviya Bridge (1887,
Banaras)
Sutlej Bridge . . 4,210
Alexandra Bridge
(Chenab) •• 9,088
Narbada Bridge (1881) 4,687
Hooghly Bridge . . 1,213
Ravi Bridge (Pathankot-
Jammu) .. .. 2,800
Ganga Bridge (Mokaineh)t 6,000
DISTANCES BY RAIL
Bom-
Cal-
Mad-
Bom-
Cal-
Mad-
bay. cutta.
ras.
bay.
cutta.
ras.
Agra
835
790
1239
Jabaipore . .
616
733
1263
Ahmedabad
306
1328
1100
Jodhpur
1206
1131
1580
Allahabad . .
845
512
1484
Madras . .
794
1032
—
Ambala
984
1025
1481
Lucknow
885
616
1386
Bangalore . .
745
1245
222
Madurai
1099
1337
, 305
Banaras
928
429
1461
Mathura . .
868
823
1272
Bombay
—
1223
794
Nagpur
520
703
682
Calcutta
1223
—
1032
Poona
119
1342
675
Kanpur
840
630
1602
Ranchi
1447
251
1283
Darjeeling . .
1611
388
1420
Saharanpur
974
938
1430
Dibrugarh . .
2051
828
1860
Simla
1301
1342
1798
Gaya
1057
292
1324
Trichinopoly
1003
1241
209
Delhi
845
902
1361
Visakhapat-
Hyderabad
nam
1277
543
483
(Dn.) ..
491
987
373
♦Largest cantilever span bridge in India and the third largest
cantilever bridge in the world.
tUnder construction.
INDIAN INFORMATION
17
NATIONAL PARKS & GAME SANCTUARIES
Hazaribagh National Park Ramganga National Park, Uttar
(Bihar). Pradesh.
Shivapuri National Park (Ma- Kanheri National Park, Kanheri
dhya Bharat). Valley, Bombay.
Jaldapara Game Sanctuary (W. Mudumalai Game Sanctuary,
Bengal) mainly for rhino & Nilgiri, Madras,
buffalo. Tirap Frontier Tract National
Wild Life Sanctuary, Garumara Park, Assam.
(Jalpaiguri, W. Bengal). Praba Buffalo Sanctuary, N.
Bandipur Game Sanctuary, 48m. Lakhimpur (Assam),
from Mysore. Orang & Laokhowa Reserves
Pariyar Wild-life Sanctuary, (Darrang & Nowgong),
Travancore. Manas Game Sanctuary, Kamrup
Sonai-Rupa Game Sanctuary, (Assam).
Darrang (Assam). Khiziranga Game Sanctuary,
Sibsagar (Assam).
TEN HIGHEST PEAKS OF HIMALAYAS
Everest
Height
29,015
Climbed on
May, 1953
Expedition
British
28,250
July, 1954
Italian
Kanchenjunga
28,146
May, 1955
British
Lhotse
27,890
May, 1956
Swiss
Makalu
27,824
May, 1955
French
Cho Oyu
26,967
Oct., 1954
June, 1950
Austrian
Annapurna
26,926
26,795
French
Dhawalgiri
Unclimbed
. • . >
Mansalu
26,656
May, 1956
Japanese
Nanga Parvat
26,029
July, 1956
Austrian-
ATTEMPTS ON EVEREST
German
1920 — ^Permission given by Dalai 1938 — Light mobile expedition
Lama to climb Everest from by Tilman given up for atro-
Tibetan side cious weather
1921 — 1st Expedition under Lt. 1951 — Reconnaisance expedition
Col. Howard Bury, reached by Shipton to discover route
North Col. for the first time from South Col. from the head
1922 — Expedition under J. G. of CWM through Nepal
Bruce 27,300 1952 — Swiss Expedition by Dr.
1924 — Exp. under Gen. Bruce Wyss Dunant (reached by
and afterwards Norton* 28,150 Lambert & Tensing) 28,216
1933 — Expedition under Hugh 1952 — 2nd Swiss Exp. by Che-
/ Ruttlege 28,150 valley (Post-monsoon) 26,686
1934— M. Wilson’s lone attempt 1953 — British Exp. by Col. John
in which he lost his life. John Hunt reaches Everest on
1935 — Eric Shipton’s reconnais- 29-5-53_ (reached by Tensing
ance expedition only and Hillary) 29,015,
1936 — Exp. by Hugh Ruttlege 1956 — Swiss Exp. by Dr. _E.
given up due to bad weather Eggler reaches Everest twice,
and monsoon snow 1st. on 23rd May and 2nd. on
24th May.
2
18
HINDUSTAN YEAB-BOOK
ATTEMPTS ON KANCHENJDNGA, 28,146 ft
A. Crowley
E. P. Parmer
Paul Bauar
J. Dyhrenfortli
1905 Br. Expedition led by Dr.
1929 Charles Evans reached
1929 the summit . . 1955
1930
CONQUEST OF JIAJOR mSIALAYAN PEAKS
Trisul by Longstaff
(1907) . . . . 23,406
Do. by Oliver & K.
Singh (1933)
Do. by Indian Expe-
dition (1951)
Jonsong Peak by Prof.
Dyhrenforth (1930) . . 24,472
Kabru by IV. W. Graham, 1883
Annapurna by French
Expedition, leader M.
Hertzog (1950) . - 26,926
Tirich Mir by Nor-
wegian Expedition
(1950) .. .. 25,263
Satopanth by Roch &
Sutter (1947) -- 23,240
Ramthang Peak by Prof.
Dyhrenforth (1930) .. 23,200
MMcut Parbat by A- E.
Riddiford (1951) ., 23,760
Mount Kamct by F. S.
Smythe (1931) -. 25,447
Nanda Devi by Tilman
& Odell (1936) .. 25,645
Dunagiri bv A. Roch
(1939) * .. .. 23,772
Kcdamath bv Roch &
Sutter (1947) .. 22,772
Bandar Punch by J. T.
M. Gibson (1950) .. 20,720
Panch Chuli Peak by P.
Nikore (1953) .. 22,650
Makalu by French Ex-
pedition led by J. Franco 27,824
iC (Godwin Austen) by
Italians (1954) . . 28,250
Mt. Cho-Ogu in Nepalese
Himalayas by Austrian
Expedition (1954) . . 26,967
Nanga Parvat by Ger-
man -Aust., E:^. (1953) 26,029
Mt. Nuninai in Jammu
& Kashmir by French
Exp. (1953) .. 23,410
Mansahi by Japanese
Expedition (1956) .. 26,456
Makalu by French Expe-
dition, (1955) . . 27,824
Kanchenjunga by British
Expedition (1955) . . 28,146
Mt. Lhotsc by Swiss Ex-
pedition (1956) . . 27,970
HIGHEST INDLAN STRUCTURES
•Kutub Minar .. .. 238 Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur) .. 198
Tower of Victory, Chitore 122 Gopuram of Madurai
tlnctoria Memorial . . 182 Temple (Largest one) . . 152
Ochterloney Monument, Cal. 152 Buland Darwaja (Fateh-
4 minarets of Taj (each) 137 pur Sikri) . . . . 176
Taj Mahal . . . . 178 Ihijabai Tower (Univer-
Char Miner (Hyderabad) 186 sity), Bombay .. 260
Calcutta High Court .. 180
*379 steps.
7 from ground level to the base of the victory figure.
INDIAN INFOKMATION
19
OLD & NEW NAMES OP PLACES
Old Names Neiv Names
Calicut . . Kozhikode
Cawnpur . , Kanpur
Bilsa (Bhopal) Bidisa
Muttra . . Mathura
Benares . , Banaras
United Pro-
vinces . . Uttar Pradesh
Central P r o -
vinces
Hyderabad &
Andhra . . Andhra Pradesh
Travancore-
Cochin . , Kerala
Amraoti . . Amaravati
Cocanada . . Kakinada
Conjeeveram Kancheepuram
Ellichpur (M.P.) Achalpur
Ellore Eluru
Jubbulpur . . Jabalpur
Mandi Phul
(Pepsu) .. Pool (Mandi)
Masulipatam Bandar
Old Names New Names
Mayaveram
(Madras) . . Mayuram
Ajmere-Mer-
v?ara . . Ajmer
Vdzagapatnam Visakhapatnam
Trichinopoly Tiruchirapally
Bezwada . . Bijayawada
Ganges . . Ganga
Madura . . Madurai
Eamnad
(Madras) . . Eamanathapu-
ram
Sadulgarh
(Rajasthan) Hanumangarh
Saugor Sagar
Tinnevelly . . Tirunelveli
Tiruvadi
(Madras) . . Tiruvaiyaru
Mau (Jhansi) Mau Rampur
Mau (U.P.) .. Maunath
Bhanjan
INDIAN FELLOWS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY
A. Carsetji. C. V. Raman. H. J. Bhabha.
S. Ramanujam. Birbal Sahani. S. Chandrasekhar.
J. C. Bose. K. S. Krishnan. P. C. Mahalanobis.
Megnad Saha. S. Bhatnagar.
INDIANS IN THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT
Sir Muncherjee Bhowanagree Lord Sinha of Raipur (House of
(Conservative). Lords).
Dadabhai Naoroji (Liberal). Lord Sinha, Second Baron of
Sapurji Saklatvala (Communist). Raipur (House of Lords).
INDIAN PRIVY COUNCILLORS
Syed Ameer Ali. 1934 — Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru.
Sir B. C. Mitter. 1934 — ^H. H. The Aga Khan.
1921 — Y. S. Srinivasa Sastri. 1936 — Sir Akbar Hydari,
1926— Lord Sinha. 1939 — ^Dr. M. R. Jayakar.
1930 — Sir D. P. Mulla. 1941 — Sir C. Madhavan Nair.
1931— Sir Shadilal.
INDIAN PEER OF THE BRITISH REALM
Sinha, Aroon Kumar (b. 1887).
Heir — ^Hon’ble Sudhindra Sinha (b. 1921).
20
HIOTUSTAI^ YEAE-BOOK
XOBEL PRIZE IVINXERS
1913 — Eabindranatli Tagore, 1930 — Sir G. V. Raman, _
{lAteraturc). {Phystcs).
LENIN PEACE PRIZE
1952 . . Dr. Safinddin KitcHn
1953 .. Major-General S. S. Sokhey
INDIAN WINNERS OF VICTORIA CROSS
(1) Great War, 1914—1918
Ishar Singh (NcUi, 28th Punja- Khndadad Khan {Nail;, 129th
his) Waziristan, 192L Bain.) Great War, 1914.
TMir Dost {Silbadar, Cote’s Ri- Knlbir Thapa {Rifleman, 23rd
fles) Great War, 1915. Gor. Rif.) Great War, 1915.
Shahamad Ehan {Nail:, 89 Pan- Lala {Lancc-Naik, 41st Dogras)
jahis) Great War, 1916. Great War, 1916.
Chatta Singh {Sepoy, 9th Bho- Gorind Singh {Lancc-Dafadcr,
pal Inft.) Great War, 1916. 2Sth Lancers) Great War,
Darwan Singh Negi {Nail;, 39th 1918.
Garhmal Rif.) Great War, Badlu Singh {Ressaldar, 14th
1918. Cavalry) 1918.
Kamabahador Rana {Nail;, 23rd Gabar Singh Negi {Rifleman,
Gor. Rif.) Great War, 1918. 39th Garhmal Rif.) Great War,
1915.
(2) World War, 1939 — ^1945
2nd Lt. Premindra Singh Bhagat
{Indian Engineers) Middle
East, 1941.
Subedar Richpal Ram, 6th Rcj-
putana Rifles {posthumous
Aivard) Middle East, 194L
Havildar Prakash Singh, 8th
Punjab P.egiment, Aiakan,
1943.
Havildar-Major Chhelu Ram, 6th
Rajpntana Rifles {Posthumous)
Tunisia, 1943.
Lt. Col. A. E. Camming (12th
Frontier Force Rifles, Indian
Army), Malaya, 1942.
Habildar Jajee Ghale, 5th Royal
Gorkha Rifles, Chin HBls,
Burma, 1943.
Jem. Abdul Hafiz, 9th Jat Regt.
(Posthumous Avoard) ImphaL
July, 1944.
Subedar Lalbahadur Thapa, 2nd
Gorkha Rifles, Tunisia, 1943.
Rfn. Bhanbhogta Gumng, 2nd
Gorkha Rifles, Burma, 1945.
Rfn. Lacchiman Gurung, Sth
Gorkha Rifles.
Lt. Karamjit Singh, 415th Pun-
jab Regiment (Posthumous),
Burma.
Sepoy Namdeo Jadav, 1st Mar-
hatta Light Infant:^, Italy.
Sepoy Ali Haidar, 6th Frontier
Force Rifles, Italy, 1945.
Major F. G. Blakerj 9th Gorkha
Rifles.
Sepoy Kamal Puim, Sth Punjab
_Eegt., Italy, 1944.
Naik Nand Singh, 11th Sikh
Regt., Arakan Front, 1944.
Rfn. Ganju Lama, 7th Gorkha
Rifles, Imphal, 1944.
INDIAN INFORMATION
21
Indian Winners of Victoria Cross — {Condd.)
Naik Agan Singh Rai, 5th Royal
Gorkha Rifles, Bishenpur, Sil-
char, 1944.
Subedar Netra Bahadur Thapa,
5th Royal Gorkha Rifles {Pos-
thumous), Bishenpur, 1944.
Naik Yeshwant Ghadge, 6th
Mahratta L. I. {Posthumous),
Italy.
Efn. Tul Bahadur Pun., 6th Gor-
kha Rifles, Burma Front, 1944.
Rfn. Sher Bahadur Thapa, 9th
Gorkha Rifles {Posthumous),
Italy, 1944.
Jem. Ram Sarup Singh, 1st
Punjab Regt., Burma {Posthu-
mous).
Capt. M. Allmand, 6th Gorkha
Rifles {Posthumous),
Rfn. Thaman Gurung, 6th Royal
Gorkha Rifles, Italy {Posthu-
mous).
L. Naik Sher Shah, 7/16th Pun-
jab Regiment, Burma {Posthu-
mous).
Naik Gian Singh, 16th Punjabi
Regiment, Burma.
Naik Pazal Din, 10th Baluch.
Regiment, Burma {Posthu-
mous).
Hav. Umrao Singh, Royal Indian
Artillery, Burma,
Sepoy Bhandari Ram, 10th Ba-
luch. Regiment, Burma.
BHARAT RATNA
{The highest award of the Indian Union for exceptional work
for the advancement of art, literature and science and in recognition
of public service of the highest order).
1954 1955
G. Rajagopalachari Bhagwan Das
S. Radhakrishnan M. Visvesvaraya
C, V. Raman Jawaharlal Nehru
PADMA VIBHUSHAN
{The award for exceptional and distinguished service in any
field, including service rendered by the Government Servants).
1954
B. G. Kher
V. K. Krishna Menon
Nandalal Bose
S. N. Bose
Zakir Husain
1955
B. K. Karve
J. R. D. Tata
1956
Fazl Ali.
Sm. Jankibai Bazaz.
G. M. Trivedi.
WINNERS OF PARAM VIR CHAKRA
{Republican India’s highest decoration for gallantry)
Major Somnath Sharma, 4th Bn. 2]Lt. Rama Raghoba Rane, Corps
Kumaon Regt. {Postliumo^is). of Engineers.
LINK Karara Singh, 1st Bn. Sikh Com. Hav-major Piru Singh,
Regiment. Rajputana Rifles, 1963.
22
HINDUSTAN YE3AR-B00K
GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF INDIAN UNION
Lord Louis Mountbatten 1947-48 C. Rajagopalacbari 1948-49
PRESIDENT, INDIAN UNION
Dr. Eajendra Prasad 1950
INDIAN PARLIAMENT
Lofe Sahha : Speakers — G. V. Mavlankar 1952-56.
— Anantasayanam Iyengar 1956 —
Rajya Sahha ; President — ^Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1952 —
SPEAKER, CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA
Dr. Rajendra Prasad, 1947 — 1949.
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS PRESIDENTS
(First Session, 1885)
1885 — ^Bombay — ^W, C. EoimeriL 1907 — Surat —
1886 — Calcutta — D. Naoroji. Rash Behari Ghose.
1887 — ^Madras — ^B. Tyabji. 1908 — Madras —
1888 — Allahabad — George Yule. Rash Behari Ghose.
1889 — ^Bombay — 1909 — Lahore —
Sir W. Wedderbum. Pt. M. M. Malaviya.
1890 — Calcutta — Sir P. Mehta. 1910 — Allahabad —
1891 — Nagpur — Sir W. Wedderbum.
P. Ananda Charlu. 1911 — Calcutta —
1892 — ^Allahabad — Bishen N. Dar.
W. C. Bonnerji. 1912 — ^Patna —
1893 — Lahore — D. Naoroji. R. N. Mudholkar.
1894 — ^Madras — Alfred Webb. 1913 — Karachi —
1896 — ^Poona — S. N. Banerji. Nawab Saiyed Muhammad.
1896 — Calcutta — ^R. M. SayanL 1914 — Madras — B. N. Bose.
1897 — Amraoti — _ 1915 — Bombay — Sir S. P. Sinha.
C. Sankaran Nair. 1916 — Lucknow — A. C. Majumdar
1898 — ^ladras — ^A. M. Bose. 1917 — Calcutta — Annie Besant.
1899— Lucknow — ^R. C. Dutt. 1918 — Bombay (Spl.) — ^Hasau
1900 — ^Lahore — Imam.
N. G. Chandravarkar. 1918 — Delhi — ^Pt. M. M. Malaviya
1901 — Calcutta — ^D. E. Wacha. 1919 — Amritsar — Pandit Motilal
1902 — ^Ahmedabad — Nehru.
S. N. Banerji. 1920 — Calcutta (Spl.) — Lala Laj-
1903 — JIadras — Lalmohan Ghose. pat Rai.
1904 — ^Bombay — 1920 — Nagpur — C. Vijayaragha-
Sir Henry Cotton. vachariar.
1905 — ^Benares — G. K. Gokhale. 1921 — Ahmedabad — Hakim Ajmal
1906 — Calcutta — Khan.
Dadabhai Naoroji. 1922 — Gaya — C. R, Das.
INDIAN INFORMATION
23
Indian National Congress Presidents — (Concld.)
1923— Delhi (Spl.)— Abul Kalam
Azad.
1923 — Cocanada — Mahomed Ali.
1924 — Belgaum — ^M. K. Gandhi.
1925 — Cawnpore — Sarojini Naidu.
1926 — Gauhati — Srinivasa Iyen-
gar.
1927 — Madras — Dr. M. A. Ansari.
1928 — Calcutta — ^Pt. Motilal
Nehru.
1929 — ^Lahore — J. L. Nehru.
1931 — Karachi — Sardar V. Patel.
1932 — Delhi — Seth Ranchhodlal.
1933 — Calcutta — Mrs. Nellie Sen
Gupta.
1934 — Bombay — Rajendra Prasad.
1936 — ^Lucknow— J. L. Nehru.
1937 — Paizpur — J. L. Nehru.
1938 — Tripuri — Subhas Bose.
1940 — Ramgarh — A. K. Azad.
1946 — J. L. Nehru.
1946 — Meerut — J. B. Kripalani
1947 — Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
1948 — Jaipur — Dr. P. Sitaramiyya.
1950 — Nasik — P. D. Tandon (re-
signed).
1951 — Meerut— J. L. Nehru.
1952 — Hyderabad — J. L. Nehru.
1963 — Kalyani — J. L. Nehru.
1955- 56— Avadi (60)—
U. N. Dhebar.
1956 — Amritsar (61st) — U. N.
Dhebar.
INDIAN CHRONOLOGY
B.C.
3000 — Hindus Valley civilisation.
2900 to 1500 — ^Period of Vedic
civilisation.
663-483 — Birth and death of
Buddha.
640-468 — Traditional dates of
b i rt h and death of
Mahavira.
377 — B u d d h i s t Council at
Baisali.
326 — Alexander’s Invasion of
India.
324 — Rise of Maurya dynasty.
305 — Seleucus Nicator defeated
by Chandra Gupta
Maurya.
273-232 — ^Reign of Asoka.
269 — M issionaries sent to
foreign lands by Asoka.
68 — Beginning of Vikrama era.
A.D.
78 — ^Accession of Kanishka.
320-500 — Gupta dynasty ;
Golden Age of Indian art,
science and literature.
320 — ^Accession of Samudra
Gupta.
380-416 — Reign of Chandragupta
II (Vikramaditya).
A.D.
405-11 — ^Fa Hien travels in
Gupta Empire.
450-457 — ^Hun invasions.
480-90 — Break up of Gupta
Empire.
606-647 — Reign of H a r s a -
vardhan, Idng of N. India.
629-645 — Hiuen Tsang’s travels
in India.
711 — Arab conquest of Sind by
Mohammed-bin-Qasim.
731 — Yasovarman’s embassy to
China.
735 — ^First Parsi settlement in
India.
760 — Gopala elected king of
Banga-gauda (Bengal).
1000-1026 — Muslim invasions of
India by Mahmud of
Ghazni.
1050 — Atisa Dipankara sent on
Buddhist mission to Tibet.
1192 — Defeat and death of Rri-
thviraj, the last Rajput
King of Delhi.
1190-1290 — Establishment o f
Muslim rule in North
India ; Reign of Slave
Kings.
24
HINDUSTAN YBAE-BOOK
Indian Chronology — (Contd,)
1228 — Conquest of Assam by 1668 — ^Pirst French Factory at
the Ahoms. Surat. _ _
1231-32 — ^The Kutub Minar.
1236 — Death of Htutmish — ^Ac-
cession of Eaziyya.
1236 — ^Foundation of Vijayana-
gar Kingdom.
1320-1414 — ^Tughlak Sultans of
Delhi.
1334-1342 — ^Iban Batuta in India.
1347 — ^Foundation of Bahmani
Kingdom of Deccan.
1398 — ^Invasion of Timur.
1451-1526 — ^Lodi Sultans of
Delhi.
1469 — Birth of Guru Nanak.
1486-1533 — Chaitanya, Saint of
Bengal.
1494 — Foundation of Agra by
Sikandar Lodi.
1498 — Vasco da Gama reaches
Calicut.
1510 — ^Portuguese capture Goa.
1526 — ^Establishment of Mughal
Empire by Babar.
1538-1545 — Reign of Sher Shah.
1565 — Battle of Talikota — over-
throTT of the Vijayanagar
Kingdom.
1556-1605 — Reign of Akbar.
1564— Abolition of Jizya.
1571 — ^Fatehpur Sikri founded-
1586 — ^Annexation of Kashmir
by Akbar.
1597 — Death of Eana Pratap.
1600 — East India Company foun-
ded under Royal Charter.
1605 — Death of Akbar.
1612 — First English Factory at
Surat.
1627-1657 — Reign of Shah Jahan.
1627 — Birth of Sivaji.
1634 — Firman permitting the
English to trade in
Bengal.
1658 — Coronation of Aurangzeb.
1666 — Sivaji’s rdsit to Aurang-
zeb’s court and his impris-
ment and escape.
167o — Execution of „
dur, 10th Gum of the-
Sikhs.
1680 — Death of Sivaji.
1686-87 — ^Fall of the Kingdoms
of Bijapur & Golconda.
1698 — The English obtain Zamin-
dari of the three villages
of Sutanati, Kalikata and'
Gobindapur — ^nucleus of
Calcutta.
1707 — ^Death of Aurangzeb.
1734 — ^Nadir Shah sacks Delhi.
1757 — ^Battle of Plassey.
1761 — ^Third battle of Panipat.
1765 — Grant of Dewani of Ben-
gal, Bihar and Orissa to
E. I. Co.
1770 — ^Famine of Bengal.
1774- 95 — ^Warren Hastings — Go-
vernor General of India.
1775 — ^Execution of Nand Kumar,
1780 — ^Ranjit Singh establishes a
Sikh Empire.
1784 — Pitt’s India Bill passed by
Br. Parliament.
1790 — ^Third Mysore War.
1793 — ^Permanent settlement of
Bengal.
1799 — Death of Tipu Sultan.
Partition of Mysore.
1829 — Brahmo Samaj founded by
Raja Rammohan Roy.
1829 — ^Prohibition of SatL
1833 — ^Death of Raja Rammohan
Roy.
1935 — ^Introduction of English as
medium of instmction.
1839 — Death of Ranjit Singh.
1839-42 — Anglo-Afgan War.
1853 — Opening of Railvrays and
Telegraph.
1854 — ^Wood’s Despatch on Edu-
cation.
1856 — Annexation of Oudh.
1857 — Indian Mutiny.
INDIAN INFORMATION
25 -
Indian Chronology — (Concld.)
1858 — Transfer of India from
Company to the Crown.
1869 — Birth of Mahatma Gandhi.
1874 — Great Famine of Bengal
1875 — Arya Samaj founded by
Dayananda Saraswati
1885 — First Meeting of the In-
dian National Congress.
1905 — Partition of Bengal.
1906 — ^Foundation of the Muslim
League.
1911 — Partition of Bengal re-
voked.
1914 — Gandhi returns to India
from South Africa.
1919 — Montagu-Chelmsford Re-
fer m s ; Jalianwalabag.
massacre at Amritsar
(13th April).
1920 — Non-Co-operation move-
ment in India started.
1925 — Death of C. R. Das.
1930- 34 — C. D. Movement — 1st
session of the Round Table
Conference.
1931 — Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
1935 — Government of India Act
1935,
1937 — Inauguration of Provin-
cial Autonomy. Congress
Ministries in majority of
Provinces.
1942 — Cripps Mission — Quit In-
dia Movement.
1943 — Bengal Famine.
1946 — Cabinet Mission’s Plan —
Interim Government with
Jawaharlal Nehru as
Prime Minister.
1947 — Partition of India — India
becomes independent —
Kashmir attacked by
Pakistan.
1948 — Martyrdom of Mahatma
Gandhi (Jan, 30).
India appeals to U.N. to-
stop aggression by Pakis-
tan in Kashmir (Jan. 2).
1949 — India’s new Constitution
passed into law.
1950 — India becomes Rfepublic
(26th Jan,),
1961 — First Five Year Plan
launched.
1951 — ^First general election in
independent India.
1954 — ^French Settlements in
India merged to India.
NOTABLE INDIANS
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
A. M. Bose
Sir K. Seshadri Iyer
M. G. Ranade, Social Reformer,
Scholar and Jurists
Dr. Mahendralal Sarkar
Sir J. N. Tata
Devendranath Tagore
W, C. Bonerjee, 1st Cong. President
P. Ananda Charlu
Sir V. Bashyam Iyengar
Lalmohan Ghose, Congress
President
R. C. Dutt, Congress President _. .
Girish Chandra Ghosh, Dramatist
Bom
Died
1856
1920
1847
1906
1845
1901
1842
(18 Jan.)
1904
1833
1904
1839
1904
1817
1905
1844
1906
1842
1908
1908
1849
1909
1848
(13 Aug.)
1909
1843
1911
(19 Julyk
(30 Nov.)>
26
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
G. K. Gokliale, statesman, founder
of Servants of India Society ..
1866
1915
Sir Pherozeshah Melita
1845
1915
S. Ramanujam, Mathematician
• •
1920
Sir Eashbehari Ghose
1845
1921
Ainbica C. Majumdar, Congress
President
1851
1922
Aswini Kumar Dutta
1856
1923
Sir N. G. Chaudavarkar
1855
1923
Sir Asutosh Mukherjee
1864 (29 June)
1924 (25 May)
•C. R. Das
1870 (5 Nov.)
1925 (16 June)
Sir S. N. Banerjee
1848
1925
Sir R. G. Bhandarkar
1873
1925
Lala Lajpat Rai, Indian Patriot
1865
1928
Lord Sinha of Raipur
1863
1928
Syed Ameer Ali
^ *
1849
1929
Tt. Matilal Nehru
, ,
1861 (6 May)
1931 (6 Feb.)
J. M. Sen Gupta
1885
1933 (23 July)
Sir Ali Imam
1869
1932
V. J. Patel
1933
Sir Sankaran Nair
^ ,
1933
Dr. M. A. Ansari
1880
1936
Sir R. N. Mookerjee
1854
1936
Sir J. C, Bose
1858 (30 Nov.)
1937 (23 Nov.)
Sarat Chandra Chatterjee
1867 (15 Sept.)
1938 (16 Jan.)
Sir Muhammad Iqbal
1877
1938
Sir Brojendranath Seal
* ,
1864
1938
l^bindranath Tagore
, ,
1861 (7 May)
1941 (7 Aug.)
Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru
1875
1948
3Iahatma Gandhi
« .
1869 (2 Oct.)
1948 (30 Jan.)
Sarojini Naidu
1879 (13 Feb.)
1949 (1 March)
Sri Aurobindo
1872 (15 Aug.)
1950 (5 Dec.)
Sardar V. Patel
1875
1950 (15 Dec.)
Kristodas Pal, Politicion
. ,
1834
1884
Keshab Ch. Sen, Religious
reformer
1838
1884
Syed Ahmed Khan
1817
1898
Bipin Chandra Pal
1855
1932
Dr. Shyama P. Mukerjee
1901
1953 (23 June)'
Srinivasa Sastri
1869
1946
Dadabhai Naoroji
1825
1917
Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar
1820 (26 Sept.)
1891 (29 July)
Raja Rammohan Roy
1774
1833
Eamkrishna Paramhamsa
1834 (20 Feb.)
1886 (16 Aug.)
“Dayanand Saraswati
1824
1883
Bankim Ch. Chatterjee, Bengali
novelist
•Guru Nanak
1838 (26 June)
1460
1894 (8 April)
1531
Eashbehari Bose, Famous Rcvolu-
tioncst
1870
1944
INDIAN INFORMATION
27
Notable Indians — {Concld.)
Swami Vivekananda
Michael Madhusudhan Dutt
Taru_ Dutt, Indian Poetess
Abanindranatb Tagore
Sister Nevedita
Pandit M. M. Malaviya
Rajendralal Mitra, Historian
Subbas Chandra Bose
Surendranath Banerjee
Ravi Varma, Famous Artist
1862 (12 Jan.)
1824 (25 Jan.)
1856
1871
1867 (26 Oct.)
1861 (26 Dec.)
1842 (15 Feb.)
1897 (23 Jan.)
1848 (10 Nov.)
1848 (29 April
1902 (2 July)
1873 (29 June)
1877
1951
1911 (13 Oct.)
1946 (12 Nov.)
1891 (26 July)
1945 (23 Aug.)
1925 (6 Aug.)
1906 (Sept.)
FIRST IN INDIA
Largest Lake — W u 1 a r Lake,
Kashmir.
Highest Peak — Nanda Devi
(25,645 feet).
Largest populated City — Cal-
cutta (29,82,307) ; including
Howrah 33,44,839.
Highest Waterfall — Gersoppa
Waterfall, Mysore (960 ft.
high).
Largest State — Bombay,
Highest rainfall — Cherrapunji,
426 in. average yearly.
Largest Forest Pr ovine e —
Assam.
Largest Delta — S undarbans
Delta (8,000 sq. miles).
Longest Cantilever Span Bridge
— ^Howrah Bridge.
Largest Cave Temple — ^Ellora,
Hyderabad.
Longest Corridor — Rameswaram
Temple Corridor (4,000 ft.
long).
Largest Mosque — Jumma Mas-
jid, Delhi.
Longest Bridge — Sone Bridge
(10,052 ft. long).
Highest Dam — B a k h r a Dam
(680 ft. High).
Largest Sugar-cane producing
area — Uttar Pradesh.
Most literate parts of India —
Travancore-Cochin.
Longest electric train Service —
Bombay to Poona.
Highest Gateway — Buland Dar-
waja (Fatehpur Sikri, 176 ft.
high).
Tallest Statue — Statue of Goma-
teswar (Mysore), 67 ft. high.
Longest Platform — S o n e p u r
Platform (2,415 feet).
Longest Roaif— Grand Trunk Rd.
(1,600 miles).
Highest Tower — ^Kutub Minar,
Delhi.
Largest Dome — Gol Gambuz,
Bijapur.
Largest Fair of Animals — Sone-
pur fair.
Biggest Zoo — Zoological Gardens,
Alipur, Calcutta.
Largest Museum — Indian Muse-
um, Calcutta.
Most Populated State — Uttar
Pradesh.
Most-thickly popidated State —
Delhi.
FIRST BEGINNINGS IN INDIA
1825 — ^First issue of postal stamp cutta and Diamond Harbour,
in India in Sind. October.
1851 — ^First official telegraph line 1853 — ^First Indian Railway was
opened for traflric between Cal- run between Bombay and Kal-
yan, 16th April.
28
HINDUSTAN TEAB-BOOK
First Beginnings In India — {Concld.)
1954 — ^First postage stamp on aU 1925 — First electric train in
India basis issued on 1st Oct. India ran between Bombay
1S97-9S — First electric plant in- and Kurla.
stalled at Darjeeling. 1929 — First issue of air-maii
1911 — ^First air-maQ in India and stamp in India and the world,
the world from Bamrauli to
Naini (Allahabad) 6 miles.
FIRST AMONG INDIANS
Indian Governor — Lord Sinha of
Raipur.
F.R.S. — A. CarsetjL
Congress President — W. C. Bon-
nerjee.
Nobel Prize vsinner — Rabindra-
nath Tagore.
I.C.S . — Satyendranath Tagore,
Bar-at-Law — J. M. Tagore.
Judge, High Court — Eamaprosad
Roy.
Member, Viceroy's Executive
Council — Sir S. P. Sinha.
Member of the India Council —
Sir Z. G. Gupta.
Peer of the Br. Realm — Lord
Sinha.
TTra7j(7ler of the Cambridge Uni-
versity — ^A. M. Bose.
1st IVoman President of U.N . —
Vijayalakshmi Pandit.
1st troman Minister of the Le-
gislative Assembly — ^Mrs. Yi-
jayalahshmi Pandit, Minister
of U.P.
IF Oman Gov cr no r — Sarojini
Naidu.
Woman President of the Con-
gress — Mrs. Sarojini Naidu.
1st in I.C.S. Exam . — Sir Atul
Chatterjee.
Member of the Br. Parliament
— Dadabhai Naoroji.
Winner of the Victoria Cross-^
Khudadad Khan.
Member of the Privy Council —
Syed Ameer Ali.
il/cni6er of the House of Lords—
Lord Sinha.
Commanderrin-C hie f — General
Cariappa.
I.M.S. — Dr. Goodeve Chuckra-
rarti.
Woman MAl . — Chandramuhhi
Bose.
Test cricket player — K. S. Ean-
jitsingji.
1st Woman Barrister — ^Mrs. Cor-
nelia Sorabji.
Advocate-general — Sir V. Ba-
shyam Iyengar.
hill stations
Ahnora— in _Kumaun_HilIs. Altitude 5,500 ft. above sea level
Mean annual rainfall 4o-oo inches ; fine views of snow. From Al-
mora some of the highest praks of the western Himalayas c“n be
seen a^inst the homon. The main attraction for liickers is the
num and IS c^^ort cen^e for the famous Himalavan fniite'
INDIAN INFORMATION
29
Bangalore — ^The cantonment is the largest in South India.
Bangalore has big industries, large parks and fine public buildings.
Altitude 3,000 ft. above sea level.
Coonoor — on the NUgiri Hills in the Madras State : Altitude
fi,0p0 ft. above sea level. Nearest railway station is Coonoor.
It is reached from Ootacamund by rail.
Chakrata (6,900 ft.) is 21 miles from Mussoorie on the hill-road
to Simla. It is surrounded by huge forests and lovely walks.
Cherrapunji — ^is 30 miles south of Shillong and receives more
rainfall than any other place in the world, the annual average being
426 inches. The nearest railway station is Pandu ; altitude 4,455 ft.
Nainital — is a hill sanatorium in Kumaun HUls, picturesquely
situated on the shores of a beautiful lake. This lake has a super-
ficial area of about 120-5 acres and a mile in diameter. A favourite
summer resort. Altitude 6,350 ft. It is an hour and a half’s dis-
tance by bus from Kathgodam railroad on the N. E. Rly.
Mussoorie — ^is a hill sanatorium, on the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, 14 miles from Dehra Dun overlooking the beautiful Doon
Valley. It is 168 miles from Delhi by good motor road from Dehra
Dun to Mussoorie by motor cars. Altitude 6,600 ft. above sea level.
Nearest railway station is Dehra Dun.
Lansdoione — is situated in Garhwal about half way between
Mussoorie and Nainital. It commands a wonderful view of snows,
the Badrinath block being nearest. It is reached by Northern Ry. to
Kotdwara via Najibabad junction and there is good service of motor
cars, a distance of 26 miles; altitude 6,060 feet.
Mukteshwar — A beauty spot in the Kumaun Hills. It offers a
remarkable view of the surrounding valleys and the mountain gradu-
ally rising up to their snowcapped glory. The Government of India
Veterinary Research Institute is located here,
further west.
Mount Abu — is reached by a good motor road from Abu Road
railway station. The range is about 50 miles in circumference.
The climate is very healthy and delightfully cool. The average tem-
perature is 60°. Altitude 4,500 ft. above sea level. It is a place
of pilgrimage for Jains, for here are celebrated Dilwara temples
containing some of the finest specimens of Jain carving in India,
whilst the temples themselves are prominent alike for their beauty
and as typical examples of Jain architecture.
Pindari Glacier — ^is famous all over the world. It is five days
march from the motor head at Almora. Situated at the heart of
the Himalayas, the Pindari Glacier is more magnificent than Jang
Frau of Switzerland.
Guhnarg — ^is at a distance of 30 miles from Srinagar, and is
one of the finest pleasure resorts of Kashmir, popular for skiing,
trekking and other winter sports.
Dalhousie — Altitude 7,867 ft. above sea level and 52 miles from
Pathankot railway station reached by motor road. It consists of
Fine distinct hills. The Tehra Mall with a level circuit of 15 miles
surrounding the central hillock is a favourite with the visitors.
Darjeeling — Altitude, 7,168 ft. above sea level, magnificent snow
30
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
views of Mount Everest (29,002 ft.) and Kanchenjunga^ (28,104 fQ,
The minimum temperature in winter is about 30°. It is the centre
of a large tea district. It is 369 miles from Calcutta.
Kotagiri — ^is 18 miles from Ooty with an altitude of 6,500 ft.
Kalivvpong — Hill station near Darjeeling. It is also reached
from SUiguri by motor (41 miles). 4,000 ft. high.
Eodaikanal—A hill station in Southern India on the upper range
of the Pulney Hills in the Madurai district. It is 7,000 ft. above the
sea level. The nearest railway station is Kodaikanal Road,
Kasauli — ^A cantonment and convalescent depot in the Simla
district situated on the crest of a hill overlooking Kalka Valley, 22
itiilcs from Kalka by motor road. Famous for Pasteur Institute,
altitude 6,200 ft.
Kulu & Kangra Valleys — ^lie at the foot of the Dhaula Dhar
Range of the Himalayas. Kangra, Jogindemagar, Chamba, Dharm-
sala, Dalhousie and Kulu are some of the chief holiday resorts.
Ktdu and Kangra valleys are known for their orchards and tea
plantations. The valley is about 4,700 ft. high. The main route is
ma Pathankot. Pathankot to Kulu is a distance of 175 miles by
motor. The valley is called the Valley of the Gods due to every
village having its own God.
Ootacaviund — is the leading lull station of South India, situated
in the heart of Nilgiris. Altitude 7,220 ft. above sea level. Mean
annual day temperature is 57-50°F. The place is reached from
Madras by Blue Mountain Express upto Mettupalayam from where
a hill railway conveys to Ooty over a distance of 30 miles.
Mahabaleswar — ^Principal hUl station of the Bombay Presidency
and summer retreat of the Bombay Government. Altitude 4,500 ft.
above sea level. Nearest railway station is Poona, 75 miles.
Matheran — Nearest hUl station of Bombay. It is only 2,650 ft.
high.
Pachmarhi — in Hosangabad, Madhya Pradesh, is 32 miles from
Pipariya Station on Central Ry. The place is only two hours distant
by excellent motor road from the railway station of Pipariya. Pach-
marhi rise 3,500 ft. above sea level. Pachmarhi derives its name
from the “Panch marhi” or ‘five huts’ — actually five caves on a
little hillock. Hindu tradition ascribes them to be the five Pandava
brothers who were supposed to have rested there in’ the course of
their wanderings. But probably the caves were constructed in
earlier Buddhist times.
Ranikhct — is about 40 miles from Nainital and 50 miles from the
railway teiminus of Kathgodam. It is 6,100 ft. high. Set amidst
pine-clad hills, it is more or less a veritable garden town and com-
mands an excellent view of the snows. Its greatest attraction is the
wonderful view it commands of the Central Himalavan range extend-
ing from Nepal to the snowy heights of Badrinath and Tehri Garhwal
Raiiclii— Altitude 2,100 ft. above sea level. Mean annual day
temperature is 74-9 F. Nearest railway station is Ranchi.
Shillong— IS on the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. It is the head-
quarters of the Assam Government. Altitude 4,980 ft. above sea level.
Average temperature in midsummer rarely reaches 80'’F. Cherra-
INDIAN INFORMATION
31
punji, 30 miles south of Shillong holds the world record for rainfall,
average 426 inches per annum (in 1861 the rainfall at Cherrapunji
was 905 inches). Nearest railway station is Pandu (68 miles).
Simla — is perched on the spurs of the lower Himalayas at a
height of 7,000 feet. It is reached by mountain railway connecting
Kalka and Simla. Mean temperature is 55°F, and annual rainfall
is 70". It is now the capital of Himachal Pradesh.
Elevations of Leading Health or Pleasure Resorts
feet feet
Nainital (XJ.P.) . . 6,350 Ootacamund (Madras) 7,220
Mussoorie (U.P.) . . 6,600 Mahabaleswar (Bom.) 4,500
Mount Abu (Rajasthan) 4,500 Amamath (Kashmir) 13,000
Almora (U.P.) .. 6,600 Kasauli (Simla) .. 6,200
Darjeeling (W. Bengal) 7,168 Metheran (Bom.) , . 2,650
Kalimpong (W. Bengal) 4,000 Pachmarhi (M.P.) . . 3,500
Bangalore (Mysore) . . 3,000 Shillong (Assam) . . 4,980
Coonoor (Madras) . . 6,000 Simla (Punjab) . . 7,000
Dalhousie (Punjab) . . 7,060 Srinagar (Kashmir) , . 5,260
Lansdowne (U.P.) . . 6,060 Ranchi (Bihar) . . • 2,100
Kodaikanal (Madras) 7,000 Cherrapunji (Assam) , . 4,465
Kotagiri (Madras) , . 6,600 Gulmarg (Kashmir) . . 8,700
PLACES OF INTEREST IN INDIA
Agra — ^Famous for Taj Mahal and Agra Fort which contain all
the glories of Mughal Empire, such as Dewani Khas, Moti Masjid,
Jasmine Tower, Dewani-i-am, also tomb of .^kbar at Sikandra and
Itmud-ud-Danla.
Amamath — Situated at a height of nearly 13,000 ft. in Kashmir
where thousands of Hindus make pilgrimage in August. There is a
motor service from Srinagar upto Pahalgam (7,200 ft.), 60 miles
from Kashmir where motor road ends. The cave is aljout 50 ft.
high and 50 ft. deep situated between two huge mountains known
as Kailash and Bhaira. At the back of the cave are several ice stal-
agmites in the shape of Ungams — the frozen image of gods Siva,
Parvati, Kartik and Ganesh, all self-made images of ice.
Aurangabad — ^is situated 70 miles from Manmad on the Central
Railway. It has world-renowned temples and monastic caves of
Ellora and Ajanta. There is also the historical fort of Daulatabad,
the Raoza which contains the tomb of the great Mughal Emperor
Aurangazeb and the mag:nificent tomb of Aurangazeb’s wife, Bibi-ka-
Muqbara, replica of the Taj Mahal of Agra. From the city of Au-
rangabad all these places can he visited.
Amritsar — ^is situated in the north-west of the Punjab at a dis-
tance of only sixteen miles from Wagah, the outpost of the Indo-
Paldstan border. It is famous for Sikh golden temple, the most
sacred to the Sikhs and the tank called the pool of immortality.
The pool is enclosed by a wide marble-paved quadrangle 204 ft. long
with an archway over it. In the centre of the pool is the Temple, a
32
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
square building witb marble inlaid walls and dome-shaped roof, under
which shaded by a silken canopy lies Granth Sahib, the holy book ol
the Sikhs. It is also famous for gold and silver thread, carpets. Elite
and pashmina materials. It derived its name from the sacred ta^
on which the golden temple is situated. The town stands on the
main route of the Northern Railway. About two furlongs from the
•Golden Temple is the world-famous Jalianwala Bagh.
Ajvier — city of antiquity and celebrity. Ana Sagar Lake is
famous for its picturesque surroundings. The place is famous for
Darga Khwaja Sahib, the tomb of the famous Muslim saint Muin-ud-
■din Chisbti. The shrine contains the large drums and candle-sticks
taken by Akbar at the siege of Chitor and two mosques, one built by
Akbar and the other by Shah Jahan. At seven miles distance, there
is Pushkar, the most sacred lake of India. Ajmer lies on the rail-
way between Delhi and Alimedabad.
Buddha Gaya — Seven miles from Gaya is the sacred Buddhist
site of Buddha Gaya, where under a bodhi-tree, Buddha conquered
Mara and attained Buddhahood. King Asoka erected a temple near
-the tree. The temple at Buddha Gaya consists of a main tower,
raising to a height of 180 ft. in the form of a slender pyramid.
Bhubaneswar — The new capital of Orissa State ; contains
the famous Lingaraj Temple, Mukteswar Temple and Parasurames-
war Temple, and other temples such as Bhagavati, Parvati,
Anant Vasttdeva, etc. On the hills known as Udaigiri and i^an-
dagiri, a few miles from Bhuvaneswar, are caves once occupied by
Jain monks, containing remarkable carvings, the earliest of which
date to the second century B.C.
Banaras — Sacred city of the Hindus, contains numerous temples.
The view of the ghats is magnificient, close by is the famous Hindu
University. Five miles from the city is the Saranath where in the
Mrigadava or Deer Park, Buddha first preached his doctrine.
Chittorgarh — Famous for the Tower of Victory — contains
wonderful Rajput ruins. It is the old capital of Sisodhiya Rajputs,
the proud descendants of the sun-god who were rulers of Udaipur.
The Tower of Victory was built by Rana Kumbha in commemoration
of his many •victories over Mughal invaders. It lies on the direct
railway route from Ratlam to Ajmer.
DclW— Capital of India since 1911, was the capital of seven
Empires. Some of the famous relics are — Red Fort with Imperial
Palace of Shah Jahan, two Audience Halls, Rangmahal, the Hamam,
Pearl Mosque and the Mumtaz Mahal inside it, Jumma Masjid, Kutub
Minar, Ferozabad, Indraprastha, Tuglukabad etc. Other places of
interest are Tomb of Humayun, famous mosques and historic city
walls. It occupies a strategic position, standing at the head of the
plains of the Ganges and the Indus, the headquarters of all import-
ant railway lines of India.
Bijapnr— ffistorical city in Bombay State, famous for Gol
Canmuz, a perfect whispering gallery and the second largest dome
in the world.
Chidambaram— It is 151 miles from Madras on the Madras-
irichmopoly section of south India. The place is sanctified by the
INDIAN INFORMATION
33
■world famous temple of Nataraja or Siva in his aspect of the
■cosmic dancer,
Fatehjnir Sikri — Short distance of 24 miles from Agra, founded
by Akbar in A.D. 1569 in a lonely eminence on the spot where saint
•Salim Chisti foretold the birth of a son of Akbar. After Akbar’s
death, the city was deserted within fifty years of its foundation, the
reason being lack of water. Interesting places are, imposing pile of
great mosque measuring 542 ft. east and 438 ft. north and south,
the tomb of Saint Sheikh Salim Chisti, houses of Akbar’s wives
Miriam and Jodhbhai. Panch Mahals — ^the building of five storeys,
Hiran Minar, Buland Darwaza, the famous sand-stone chamber of
Dnvani Khas etc. In the Pachisi Court, laid out in red sandstone
squares, he used to play chess with slave girls as piece. This is
the city of sandstone, the specimen of the finest Mughal architecture.
Gwalior — is situated 194 miles from Delhi on the Central Rail-
way, It has long been famous for its grand and imposing Fort.
Humpi (or Vijayanagar) — ^The ruins of this ancient city cover-
ing an extent of about 10 sq. miles on the south bank of Tunga-
bhadra river near Hospet railway station on the Guntakul-Hubli sec-
■tion of the Southern Railway is a witness to the rise and fall of this
forgotten Hindu Empire which is said to be the finest and the great-
est in South India, Humpi is the ruins of Vijayanagar, the ancient
•capital of Vijayanagar Empire. The ruins are virtually a vast open-
air museum of Hindu monuments in the Dravidian style of
architeture.
Hardxoar — ^It is situated at the place where the Ganges issues
forth from the hills on its fertilizing career. Han-ki-Pari is a
place of worship, which is a footmark of Vishnu imprinted on a stone
into the upper wall of the ghat.
Jaipur — The most t^ical Hindu city built of pink stone, was
founded in 1728 by Sawai Jai Singh II. Its avenues and boulevards
cut each other at right angles, dividing the city into straight blocks.
There is also the famous observatory built about 1718 by the
Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh. Haioa Mahal, Ram Niwas gardens,
Albert Hall and Museum are the interesting places to visit. Seven
miles from Jaipur is Amber, a deserted city with an old royal palace
■overlooking the lake at the entrance to a rocky mountain gorge where
Rajput architecture can be seen at its best. Jaipur is famous for
•brass works, stone carving, ivory and sandalwood work, etc.
Jabalpur — 616 miles from Bombay •with an elevation of 1,362
ft. The Marble Bocks are situated 13 miles from Jabalpur. There
rocks are magnesium limestone rocks over 100 ft. high. The finest
impression of the rocks is to be got by moonlight.
Kanyakurmri — The temple of Kanyakumari (the Virgin God-
dess) is situated at Cape Comorin. This is the apex of the Indian
peninsula, where Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean
meet. This is one of the most picturesque spots of India.
Patna — ^is the capital of Bihar and it spreads eight miles along
the Ganga. Things worth seeing at Patna are the huge beehive>
3
34
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
shaped Gola 90 ft. high aad 420 ft. at the base. It xras built at the
time of Warren Hastings for the granary ; Khuda Buksh Oriental
Library is famous for its rare collection of Arabic and Persmn
manuscripts ; the ancient city of Pataliputra lies buried under Patea
which was once the capital of Chandragupta Maurya. It was also
the capital of Asoka. . „ -r-r-
Madurai— -was the capital of Pandiyan Kings and became
famous in the 17th century under the Nayak kings. The huge
temple of Madurai known as Minakshi Temple (Goddess with fish
eyes) is the most famous of the South Indian temples and one of the
finest edifices of Dravidian architecture. It is dedicated to Siva and
his espouse Minakshi. The temple forms a parallelogram, 850 ft.
by 750 ft. and is surrounded by nine gopurams one of which is 150
ft. high. The most elaborate stone carving is found in the Hall of
a Thousand Pillars. The other important buildings are all associat-
ed with the name of Tirumala Naik whose palace is the perfect spe-
cimen of secular architecture in Madras State.
Pushkar — is famous for its lake and fair which is held in Octo-
her-November. The lake is regarded as most sacred in India and
the temple of Brahma close to the lake is supposed to mark the spot
where the incarnation of the God took place.
Kashmir — Altitude varies from 5,000 to 6,000 ft. Srinagar is
the summer capital. It is 5,200 ft. with an area 11 sq. miles ; mean
temperature in January and February is 25°P. Srinagar is now
reached by motor road via Pathankot. Srinagar lies along the banks
of Jhelum which is crossed by seven bridges. Kashmir has beauti-
ful Mughal gardens built by the Mughal Emperors of Delhi, such as
Shalimar gardens, Nishat Bag, Nasim Bag and Chashme Shahi.
Following are the heights of some prominent places of Kashmir —
Srinagar 6,200 ft. ; Gulmarg 8,700 ft. ; Phalgam 7,000 ft. ; Amamath
13,000 ft. Places worth seeing in Kashmir are — ^Phalgam 60 miles
from Srinagar ; Dal Lake ; Amamath — 97 miles from Srinagar.
Lucknow — is the capital of Uttar Pradesh. The grandeur of the
city dates from Asaf-ud-daula, the fourth Nawab. Luclcnow is
known as the city of gardens. Outstanding among its buildings are
the great Imambara with a hall 162 ft. long and 54 ft. wide, the
Husainabad Imambara, Eumi Darwaza, Chattar Manzil and the
Wingfield Park.
Nalanda — Nalanda University was founded in the epoch of the
Oupta kings and became one of the largest universities of Asia.
Hien Tsang, the well-known Chinese traveller who studied at the
university in the 7th century has left glowing accounts of its acti-
vities. It consisted of 10,000 scholars lodged in special hostels en-
dowed by foreign kings. Instruction was provided in separate col-
vast library spread over three buildings. It flourished
for 700 yearn until destroyed by fire by foreign invaders in the 12th
eas^ards on the road from Patna stands
Bakhtiarpur. Here a road branches off due south to Bihar Shariff
leads to Nalanda station (6 miles),
irom the station the excavation site is 2 miles. Throughout the
distance of 56 miles from Patna, the roads are serviceable all the
INDIAN INFORMATION
35
year round. The site has been excavated by the Archaeological De-
partment of the Government of India.
Saranath — is five miles outside Banaras. In the ‘Deer Park’ of
Saranath, Gautama Buddha preached his First Sermon on Nirvana.
The ruins of monastaries built more than 1,600 years ago draw
Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world. Here stands the famous
Asoka Pillar of polished sandstone whose lion capital was adopted
by the new republic of India as the state emblem. The museum of
Saranath contains may superb specimens of ancient art.
Udaipur — is one of the most beautiful cities in India.
The city is completely encircled by a bastioned wall to which there
are five main gates or poles. It stands in a valley amid green hills
on the banks of a large lake with little islands. On these rise from
the water’s edge marble palaces of pure white that glisten in the
sunlight.
Maliabalipiiram — Also known as seven pagodas, on the coast of
Bay of Bengal, 63 miles south of Madras. Easily accessible by
roads, it is 18 miles from Chingleput on the Madras-Trichinopoly
section of the Southern Railway. Monuments of Mahalipuram are
heivn out of solid rock — such as (1) Five rathas, (2) Mahisasura
Mandapa, (3) Krishna Mandapam, (4) Arjuna’s penance. These are
the finest specimens of rock-cut and has relief figures in India.
Tinichirapalli — ^Till recently known as Trichinopoly, is 213
miles from Madras. The place has a famous rock Temple and also
Teppakulam, a large tank with a mandapam in the middle.
Tanjore — on the main line of the metre gauge section of the
Southern Railway lies Tanjore, the last capital of the Chola
Dynasty. The place is famous for its great Sri Brahadiswara
Temple, known throughout the world for its massive architectural
excellence.
Bameswaram — At the extreme south-eastern limit of Indian
peninsula stands Rameswaram where the great Rama himself is
believed to have offered worship to Siva to expiate the sin of having
killed in battle Ravana, the ten-headed ruler of Lanka. Rameswaram
is little over two miles from Madurai and can be reached by a small
branch line off Pamban, on the Dhanushkadi route. The temple of
Sri Ramanathaswamy dates back to the 16th century. The glory
of the temple is in its corridors. These extend to a total length of
nearly 4,000 feet. Here the side coixidors are 700 feet long and
open into transverse gallaries as rich in defect as themselves.
ARCHITECTURAL & HISTORICAL LANDMARKS
HINDU & BUDDHIST
Ajanta Frescoes — Famous frescoes in the Buddhist caves of
Ajanta, a village in Hyderabad State. It is reached by motor from
Jalgaon station on Western Ry. — 37 miles from the station. The
caves of Ajanta consist of 24 monasteries and 6 temples, some
of which are 2000 years old. They are excavated on a wall of almost
perpendicular rock, 259 ft. high, sweeping round in a hollow
circle and extending a third of a mile from east to west. These
36
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
caves are situated in tlie horse-shoe valley. Frescoes are now ranked
among the masterpieces of the world’s art. The frescoes at Ajanta
may be divided into narrative scenes, portraiture and decoration and
illustration in the life of Buddha. . t • x, i =
Ambar Palace — In the deserted capital of Jaipur, this Palace
is considered to include the finest specimens of Rajput architecture.
Barhut — Central India. The sculptures on the stone railing
surrounding the Barhut stupa (second century B.C.) represent, with
most careful exactitude, episode in the life of the Buddha and the
former lives.
Buddhist caves at Rarli — One of the most famous of rock-cut
temples. It is the largest and the most harmonious. It dates from
the first century B.C. It is 124 ft. long and 45 ft. wide internally.
Bodh-Gaija Temple — ^The temple is built on the site of a
shrine erected by the Emperor Asoka. It commemorates the
moment when Gautama meditating under the trees of Bodhi attained
enlightenment and quality of Buddha after seven years of mental
conflict and penance. The tower of the temple of Bodh-Gaya rises
to the height of 180 feet.
Black Pagoda — Close to the sea-coast, north of Puri, stands the
700 years old Konark temple. Legend runs that the Sun-God was
once seen here rising out of the sea in his golden chariot. Where
his shadow fell, devotees endeavoured to build a temple in the shape
of the God’s chariot, complete with twenty-four wheels and seven
horses. Tliough now partly in ruins, their symphony in stone still
ranks as one of the India’s greatest architectural splendours. 24
miles out of Puri, the road leading to Bhubaneswar, branches off at
Pipli towards Konark, which lies 29 miles away. This road is moto-
rable only between December and June. There is an inspection bun-
galow near the temple, but no refreshments are available.
Bclur Temple — Known as (^enna Kesava Temple, is situated
in the Mysore State, the temple is one of those exquisite specimens
of Hoysala architecture, built 1117 years ago by the munificence of
the Hoysala King, Vishnuvardhana. Ferguson says — ^'Ihere are
many buildings in India which are unsurpassed for deUcacy of detail
by any in the world, but the temple of Belur surpasses even these
for freedom of handling and richness of fancy.’
Chitore Fori — Symbolises the spirit of bravery and heroism of
Gohilward and Sisodia Kings of Mewar. Chitore was the capital
of gohilward and Sisodia King of Mewar from the 8th to the 16th
century. The fort presents a vast panorama of temples, imposing
palaces and towers which are now mostly in ruins. The most famous
in the Tower of Wctory which was built by Rana Kumbha to comme-
morate his victory over Sultan Mohammad Kliilji of Malwa in 1440.
_ Bihvara Tcmpics— Near Mount Abu, the principal hill station of
Ra3asthan are the wonderful Dilwara Temples. Five in number,
they date from the 11th, 12th and 13th century and are built entirely
carvings which decorate the interior walls and
pillars of the temples are fantastically lavish, vet the general im-
pression IS one of perfect harmony. The Temples are the Mmala
INDIAN INFORMATION
37
Shah, buDt in 1032 and the temple of the two brothers Vastupala and
Tejpala built between 1197 and 1247.
Elephanta Caves — ^The Elephanta Island is about 6i mUes
north-east of Apollo Bunder in Bombay harbour. There are seven
caves in all, but the main cave marked No. 2 which contains the Siva
shrine is the most important and contains the sculptured panels. The
great three-faced idol representing Trimurti is the most striking
among the sculptures in the caves.
Ellora Caves — ^These caves can be conveniently reached from
Aurangabad on Western Railv/ay and it is 71 miles from Manmad.
The caves lie at a distance of 14 miles from Aurangabad.
Ellora cave temples, 34 in number are perhaps the largest and most
varied in India. There are three classes of caves, Hindu, Buddhist
and Jain. Excavated in the scarp of a large rocky plateau, they are
remarkable memorials of these great faiths. The most marvellous
of all is the stupendous rock-cut temple of Kailasa, elaborately
carved inside and outside. Hewn entirely out of solid rock, with its
massive pillars and colonades, intricate gallaries, painted ceilings
and huge sculptures, Kailasa is one of the world’s wonders.
Gwalior Fort — is one of the most impressive strongholds of
mediseval India. The ascent to the fortress is like that of some
fabled palace of the Arabian Nights. Of the many palaces within
the walls, the most splendid is that of the Man Singh.
Golden Temple — At Amritsar, the famous Sikh Temple. The
temple stands on a raised plinth 65 ft. square in the centre of the
tank and is surrounded by verandas.
Gomatesivara — Near the town of Sravana Belgola in the State
of Mysore, is the giant figure of Gomateswara, the Jain sage. The
figure is 67 ft. statue and is carved out of a single stone at the top
of a hill. The image is probably 2,000 years old.
Iron Pillar — only a few yards from Katub Minar stands the
famous Iron Pillar of Chandra Varman, the Hindu King of
Pushkaran. It is a solid shaft of wrought iron about 16 inches in
diameter and 23 feet 8 inches in height. Purity of iron (99.97 p.c.),
accounts for the absence of rust despite its exposure to sun and
rain for over 1500 years.
Mahabalipuram — or Seven Pagoda is situated on the south coast
of Mai-as. Its temples are bas-reliefs and are cut from living rocks.
The most famous is the ‘Descent of the Ganges’. This giant image
dating from the seventh century is cut in a ^anite rock 90 ft. long
and 43 ft. high. Another famous sculpture is ‘Vishnu reclining on
the snake Ananta’. “Arjun’s Penance,” another bas-relief is the
largest bas-relief in the world.
Meenakshi Temple — Madurai is remarkable for its most pictu-
resque temple, the Meenakshi Temple with its magnificent Gopurams.
The Great Temple dedicated to the Goddess Meenakshi forms a
parallelogram, 850 ft. by 750 ft. and is surrounded by nine Gopurams,
one of which is 150 ft. high. One of its principal structures is the
Hall of thousand pillars in which groups of figures are carved from
single stone.
Sanchi Tope — ^Famous Buddhist stupa in the Bhopal State, 26
38
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
miles from Bhopal. Stupa is a hemispheriral mon^ent of hricks or
stones. Sanchi Stupa is one of the _ oldest (third-first centu^
B C ) and best preserved Stupas of India. Stupa stands in the pp
of a small hill and enclosed by the finest and oldest stone railmg
in India. The stupa is 120 ft. in diameter and 56 ft. high. The most
striking features of the Stupa are the gates which face four carainal
points and measure 28 ft. 5 in. to the top of the third aphitectoe
Q.nd are profusely carved with, scenes from Jataha stories. Xsear
the Stupa is the new memorial erected to preserve the remains of
the famous disciples of Buddha, Sariputta and Mangalana.
Tower of Victory, Chitore — ^A famous Hindu monument raised
hy Sana Humhha in 1450 to commemorate his victory over the com-
bined armies of Malwa and Guzarat. It consists of nine stories and
is 122 ft. high.
Sirguya Frescoes — ^Are the earliest dateable Indian paintings.
These are a group of Buddhist frescoes (100 B.C.) on the walls of a
cave in Sirguya in Madhya Pradesh.
Temple of Bhubaneswar — ^Near Puri, most famous of these are
Rafrani and lAngaraj Temples. Eajrani Temple, erected in the 11th
century is a gigantic tower covered with statues and surmounted
hy receding layers of stones, the whole inward-curving tower ending
in a great circular crown and a spire. Lingaraj Temple is the most
perfect example of north Indian architecture.
Kajuraho Temples — ^At Kajuraho in Bundelkhand are grouped
about thirty temples dedicated to Siva, Vishnu or Jina. They date
from about 950 to 1050. These temples are unrivalled for profusion
of ornate detail. In the Kandarya Mahadeva temple, the largest of
the group, the details of bewildering complexity are massed together
to form a perfectly balanced unity.
Saranath — At Banaras, there is the great Buddhist Stupa, a
stupendous stone structure 104 ft. in height and 93 ft. in diameter.
It commemorates the fact that here Gautama Buddha preached his
doctrine to his first five disciples.
Temple of Sri Rangam — ^^^o miles north of Tiruchirapalli, on an
island formed by the bifurcation of the river Cauvery is Srirangam,
famous for the temple of Vishnu which contains a hall of thousand
columns and sacred shrine of Eanganathaswami.
Ramcswaram Temple — ^The temple of Eameswaram is probablv
the most perfect specimen of art in the Dravidian style. The holy
town of Eameswaram is built on an island in Palk Straits. The
great temple is in the form of quadrangular enclosure 650 ft. broad
hy 1,000 ft. long. Its glory lies in its vast pillared corridors which
extend to a length of nearly 4,000 feet.
MUSLIM
Fatchpnr Sikri — 23 miles from Agra stands the city of palaces
built of red_ sand-stone by Akbar in 1569-1584. hlost important
piece of art is Buland Darwaja, 176 ft. high built in commemoration
of the conquest of Khandesh. Though the citv was abandoned for
lack of adequate water supply, what remains of its deserted glory
INDIAN INFORMATION
39
as enough to testify to the perfection which Indo-Muslim architecture
had attained in the reign of Akbar. Fatehpur Sikri stands authentic
witness of Akbar’s splendid effort to achieve a synthesis between
Hindu and Muslim cultures.
Gol Gambuz — At Bijapur, is the 2nd largest dome in the world.
This has a floor area of 18,110 sq. ft. This is the largest space
covered by any single dome, second largest being that of Pantheon at
Rome v;hich has a floor area of 16,833 sq. feet. If the pendentives
are also taken into account, the Gol Gambuz is the greatest domed
roof in the world too. It was built in 1656 by Sultan Mohamed Adil
Shah to be his last resting place. The 11 ft. wide world-famous
whispering gallery hangs out in the interior of the building 109 ft.
■6 ins. above the floor. The surface measurement of the dome includ-
ing four octagonal towers is 205 sq. ft. and the height of the building
from the base to the apex of the dome is 198 ft. 6 in. The exterior
diameter measures 144 ft. whilst interior diameter is 134 ft. 6 in.
Kutah Minar (238 ft. high) at Delhi — Is one of the masterpieces
of Indian technology and art. It is the highest stone tower in India.
It was completed by Kutab-ud-din-Aibak in 1199 and further deve-
loped by Iltutmish in 1229, It is the first outstanding structure in
the Islamic style. It is made of red stone and marble. It has five
storeys separated by projecting balconies.
The Fort, Agra — originally built by Akbar, the Fort saw many
additions in the reign of the great builder, Shah Jahan, Its walls,
70 ft. high with octagonal towers and crenellated ramparts enclose
many relics of old splendour, great courtyards, gateways, audience
halls, mosques and royal apartments.
Red Fort, Delhi — The walls of Red Fort enclose the former great
imperial palace of Shah Jahan. The wonders of Red Fort recall the
pomp and pageantry, the wealth and magnificence of Mughal times.
Built by the emperor Shah Jahan between 1639-1648, the fort is
famous for its Diwan-i-lchas, Pearl Mosque etc.
Jama Masjid — Known as India’s finest and biggest mosque.
Jama Masjid was built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan at
Delhi during the period 1660-58. The masjid, raised on a lofty base-
ment, is 201 feet in length by 120 feet and is flanked by two minarets
130 ft. high.
Mausoleum of Sher Shah — ^At Sasaram, is a gigantic solid and
masculine example of Moslem architecture standing in the middle of
a large tank. 350 miles from Calcutta by Grand Trunk Road, Sasa-
ram stands in the left bank of the Sone river.
Tai Mahal — ^Most famous tomb built by Shah Jahan in memory
of his beloved wife — arises with its slender minarets in the midst of
magnificent gardens. It is the result of collaboration between Indian,
Turkish and European artists. The height of the dome is about
230 feet.
THE CALENDAR
INDIAN CALENDAR — ^The Bikram or Samvat frz is most:
-svidelv lised specially in northern India, Rajasthan, Gujarat and is
believed to have been established by Vikrama^tya, the king qi
Ujjain to commemorate his victory over Saka kings. But there is
dispute over the identity of Vikramaditya as there are so many kings
bearing this name. It commenced on February 23, 57 B.C. Samvat
is a lunisolar year. . „ t j-
The Saka or Sakabda era is used m some parts of South Indim
There is a historical dispute as to the origin of this era. It is said
to date from the Saka king, Salibahana or it begins -with the corona-
tion of the Rushan king Kaniska, and dates from 3rd March, 78 A.D.
Bengali Year rvas originaUy a reckoning for agricultural and
revenue purposes instituted at the time of Emperor Akbar. In
A.D. 1555-6 corresponding to Hijri 962-3, solar computation rvas in.,
troduced to the Muslim era Hijri vchich became the Fasli or harvest
era of northern India and vas adopted as the current official era
in Bengal.
Other Eras — ^Tho Buddha era from 543 B.C. and Chaitanya era
from 1407 AD.
Kali Yuga — ^The oldest era of India is Kali Yuga. The Rail
Tuga began on the 18th Feb., S102 B.C. Thus the EaR Tuga is 5058
in 1956._
India’s National Calendar — Saka Year — The Government of
India’s Calendar RefoTO Committee in their renort in 1955 re-
commended the nationwide adoption of the Saka Year for the pur-
poses of a unified National Calendar. The Saka Tear which begins
on March 22 (March 21 in a leap year) has 365 days normally and 36?
in a leap year. The 12 months of Saka Year are as follows: — ^number
of days in the month and the first dav of the month (corresponding
to the Gregorian Calendar) being shoiro in paranthesis : Chaitra (30
except in a leap year ; March 22 except in a leap year) ; Vaisakha
(31, April 21); Jaistha (31, May 22); Ashara (31, June 22); Srarana
(31, July 23); Bhadra (31, Aug. 23^ Asvina (30, Sept. 23); Kartika
(30, Oct. 23); Agrahayan (30, Nov. 22); Pausa (30, Dec. 22); Magha
(30, Jan. 21); Phalgnna (30, Peb. 20). The Government of India
has announced on 23rd October 1956 that from 1957, they have intro-
duced a new calendar as recommended bv the Calendar Reform
Committee.
India begins a new year’s day on 22nd March. The day is 1st
^ait:^ the y^_r 1879 of the Saka era. The succeeding months will
be Yaisabna, Jaistna, Ashara, SrabaTia, Bhadra — each of 31 days aTid
Aimna, Kartika, A^^hayana, Paasa, Magha and Phalguna, each SO
days. ^ Chaitra Tnll have 30 days except in a leap year vrhen it will
have ol. The Central Government has decided to adopt the new
calendar for certain official purposes in conjunctin with Gregorian
THE CALENDAR
41
(current) calendar. It is made clear, however, that Gregorian calendar-
should continue to be used as hitherto for official and like purposes.
The Government says there would be no deviation from the prevailing
custom in the observance of holidays and it is not the intention that
the new calendar should necessarily be followed for religions purposes.
MAHOMEDAN CALENDAR — ^The Mahomedart era is based on
Hijra or flight of Mahomed from Mecca to Medina. The first day
of the era is not the actual date of flight but 16 th July, 622 A.D.
Hijra is a purely lunar year consisting of 12 months containing in
alternate sequence 30 or 29 days, -with the intercalation of one day
at the end of the 12th month at stated intervals in each cycle of
30 years, the object of the intercalation being to reconcile the date
of the first of month with the date of the actual new moon. The
mean lengrth of Hijra Year is 354 days 8 hours and 48 minutes and
the period of mean lunation is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes.
MODERN CALENDAR— The Roman Calendar had at first Kk
months and 304 days, each month being divided into Kalends, Nones
and Ides. The Julian calendar introduced 45 B.C. by Julius Caesar
added 66 days with an extra day in February every 4th year, thus
gi-ving what we now call Leap Year. This Calendar was re-vised by
Pope Gregory XIII (1502.85) who declared that 5 Oct. 1582 should
be called 15 Oct., thus losing 10 days and also that a century should’
not be a Leap Year unless exactly dmsible by 400, hence 1900 was
not a Leap Year hut 2000 -will he. This Gregorian calendar has heen
adopted almost everywhere.
JEWISH CALENDAR— is luni-solar, that is to say, the year
is solar and month are lunar. In a cycle of 19 years the 1st, 2nd,
4th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 19th, 12th, 13th, 15th, 16th and 18th year have
12 months and the remaining years 13 months of 29 or 30 days each.
The length of the ordinary year may be 353, 354 or 355 days and'
that of the leap year 383, 384 or over 385 days ; thus the mean
length of the year over a 19-year cycle is just over 365 days. The-
years are reckoned from the creation of the world, the date of which
is taken to be 3760 B.C. Tlius the year A.D. 1938 is A.M. {Anna
Mundi) 6698-99. The day begins at sunset for the purpose _ of
observing the Sabbath and the various feasts and fasts._ The time
is 2 hours 21 minutes in advance of Green-wich time, being that of
meridian of Jerusalam.
ZOROASTRIAN CALENDAR — is employed by ’ Zoroastrians in
India and Iran which began in June 16, A.D. 632.
BUDDHIST CALENDAR— It is reckoned from the death of
Buddha in 643 B.C. (the actual date being 487 B.C). The Buddhist
year begins from Vaisakhi Pumima. Buddha was_ bom on the
Baisakhi full moon day, he took his seat under Bodhi -tree at Gaya
on full moon day to attain -wisdom. It was on the full moon day
again that he left the world.
HINDU CALENDAR — ^Hindus have employed luni-solar cycles
made by the combination of solar years and lunar years so -treated
as to keep the beginning of the lunar year near that of the solar
42
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
year. In some parts of India solar years are used while in other
parts lunar is followed : . , . . „ . , -ii.
The solar year is divided into 12 months in accordance with tne
successive Sankrantis or entrances of the Sun into the sidereal signs
of zodiac. The names of the signs are as follows :
Mesha, the ram (Aries).
Vrishabha, the bull (Taurus)
Mithuna, the pair ((Semini).
Karkata, the crab (Cancer).
Sinha, the lion (Leo).
Kanya, the maiden (Virgo).
Tiila, the scale (Libra)
Vrischika, the scorpion (Scorpio).
Dlianus, the bow (Sagittarius).
Makara, the sea monster (Capri-
corns).
Kumbha, the water pot (Acqua-
rius)).
Mina, the fishes (Pisces)..
But these are also hnown in some parts by another set of names
preserving connection with lunar months — Chaitra, Vaisakha,
Jaistha, Ashara, Sravana, Bhadra, Asvina, Kartika, Margasirsa or
Agrahayan, Pausa, Magha and Phalguna.
The astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one
Sankranti of the sun to the moment of the neirt Sankranti and as
the signs of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal len^h, 30 degrees,
while the speed of the sun varies according to the time of the year,
the length of the month is variable.
The days of solar month be^n with sun-rise. The days arc
named as follows: Ravivara, the day of sun (Sunday); Somvara,
the day of the moon (Monday) ; Mangalvara, the day of the Mars
'(Tuesday) ; Biidhvara, the day of Mercury (Wednesday) ; Brihas-
pativara, the day of Jupiter (Thursday); Sukravara, the day of
Venus (Friday) ; Sanivara, the day of Saturn (Saturday).
The lunar year consists of primary 12 lunar months. It is of
two principal varieties according as it begins with a certain day in
the month of Chaitra or with the corresponding day in Kartika.
The present names of the lunar months were derived from 12 out
of the 27 Nakshatras, supposed to be companions of the Moon during
12 full-moon nights.
Important Eras — The beginning of important eras are as
follows —
B.
C.
Macedonian
Sept.
1
312
Grecian
• •
Sept.
1
5598
Augustan
Feb.
24
27
Julian Period
Jan.
1
4713
Jewish
Oct.
3761
A.
D.
Olympiards
a .
July
1
776
Christian
Jan.
1
1
Foundation
of
Armenian
July
7
562
Rome
April
24
753
Muslim
July
16
622
NAMES
OF
MONTHS — January was named
from
Janus,
god
•who presided over the beginning of ever^hing. February from
Febriia, a festival of purification held in that month by the Romans.
Maritus is the Mars, who was originally a god of agriculture, his
month being the one when crops are ordinarily planted. The origin
of April is not kno-wn. Jlay is named from Maia, the mother of
■Roman god Mercury. June is derived from Juno, the goddess of
women and of marriage. July was formerly called quintilius from
■qmntiis, the fifth, but -when Julius C:Bsar reformed the calendar,
THE CALENDAR
43
lie changed the month’s name to Julius in his own honour ; Julius
became July in English. August was originally called sextilis, after-
wards was named August from the Emperor Augustus. Those from
September to December are so called from the numbers Septem,
■‘seven’, Octo., ‘eight’, November, ‘nine’ and December, ‘ten’.
YEAR — Unit of time is marked by the revolution of the earth
in its orbit round the sun. The Solar Fear is 365 days 5 hours, 48
minutes 49-7 seconds. Calendar Year consists of 365 days, but a
year the date of which is divisible by 4 -without remainder is called
Leap Year and consists of 366 days, one day being added to the
month of February. The last year of a century is not leap year unless
its number is dmsible by 400 i.e. the years 1800 and 1900 had only
365 days. Tropical Year is the time that earth takes to revolve
Tound the Sun from equinox to equinox or 365.2422 mean solar days.
Sidereal Year in which the observation is made on a star is 365 days,
•6 hrs. 9 mins. 9 secs.
TIME — ^Measurement of time is based on the time taken by
■earth to rotate on its axis {day) ; by moon to revolve round the earth
(month); and by the earth to revolve round the sun (year); Day
•starts at midnight and is divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes, each
■of GO seconds. The hours are counted from midnight up to 12 at
-noon and these hours are designated A.M. and again from noon up to
12 at midnight, which hours are designated P.M. The 24-hour
reckoning however ignores A.M. and P.M. and the hours are num-
bered 0 to 23 from midnight to midnight.
Different ways of telling time — ^The usual division of the day into
■“A.M.” (ante meridian) and “P.M.” (post meridian) groups of 12
hours each has given way for same purposes to the “24-hour” day
in many countries. On the “24-hour” clock the hour begins ■with
zero at midnight and run to 23 ; thus 1-30 P.M. is called 13-30 o’clock,
it is simpler than the 12-hour system and makes calculation easier,
and so on. This system is in general use on railway systems. Since
astronomers and navigators use it for tables and records.
On ship board varieties of time are used. "Greemoich time"
or time corresponding to that at Green-wich, England, is kept by
an accurate chronometer for use in determining the ship’s position.
The ship’s routine is however governed by "watches” and "bells.”
The day is dmded into six “watches”, commencing at noon and each
watch is dmded into eight parts marked by “bells.” One half an
hour after a watch begins, “one bell” is struck. Half an hour later,
or one hour after the commencement of watch, “two bells” strike,
and so on upto “eight bells” when the watch changes and the bells
■strike all over again from one to eight.
Astronomers usually use sidereal time, which is fixed by observ-
ing the transits of the stars. A sidereal day is the period of one
rotation of the earth upon its axis. It starts at noon and contains
■24 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds of mean solar time. A sidereal
year contains 3665 sidereal days.
Local Time — When the system of local time is used, it is 12
o’clock (noon) at any region where sun is at its highest point in the
sky, and shadows are cast in a line extending north and south.
44
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Standard Time — is the system of time established by common
usage or legislative action in any part of the world. Standard time-
is the local time of standard meridian, but used over an entire time
zone. The system of Standard Time by zones has been gradually
accepted which differs from that of Greenwich by an integral number
of hours, either fast or slow.
Thne Zones — ^The 15 degree measurement divides Europe into-
three time-zones — Greenwich, Mid-European (one hour faster).
East European (2 hours faster). United States and Canada are
divided into five time-zones — Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain
and Pacific,
Examples of Zone System : —
Fast on Greenwich Time
12 hrs. F .. Fiji, New Zealand,
hrs. F . . South Australia.
9 hrs. F .. Manchuria, Japan,
Korea.
8 hrs. F . . East China, Philip-
pine Islands, "West
Australia, I n d o -
China.
VJhrs. F .. Malaya, Singapur,
Java.
6i hrs. F . . Burma, Andaman
6 hrs. F . . East Pakistan.
55 hrs. F . . India, Ceylon.
45 hrs. F .. West Pakistan.
Greenwich . . Great Britain, Ire-
land, Portugal, Al-
geria, French Mo-
rocco, etc.
Slow on Greenwich Time
1 hr. S . . Iceland.
3 hrs. S . . Greenland, Urugu-
ay, Argentina.
4 hrs. S . . {Atlantic) Canada,
Central Brazil, Bo-
livia, Chile.
5 hrs. S .. {Eastern) E.
States of U. S. A.,
Cuba, Panama,
Colombia, Equador.
35 hrs. F .. Iran.
2 hrs.F .. {East European}
Turkey, Greece,
Finland, Egypt,
Israel, Syria, South
Africa.
1 hr. F . . {Mid. European)
Sweden, Norway,
Netherlands, Ger-
many, France,
Austria, Yugosla-
via, Switzerland,
Hungary, Czecho-
slovakia.
7 hrs. S . . {Mountain) Cana-
da from 102 °W to
120 'W, Mountain
States of U. S. A.,
Part of Mexico.
8 hrs. S . . {Pacific) Canada
West of 120°W,
Western States of
U. S. A.
10 hrs. S . . Central Alaska,
Hawaii.
11 hrs. S . . Aleutian Is., West
Coast Alaska,
Samoa, Christmas
Islands.
Summer Time or Daylight Saving Tmic— Device to make more
sunlight hours available for business, industry, leisure by setting all
clocks forward one hour during summer, when sun rises earlv thus
saving evening use of artificial light. This device was first’ used
as national economy during World War I.
Greenwich Mean rime— The International Meridian Conference
held in 1884 established the meridian passing through Greenwich,
THE CALENDAR
45
England as the prime meridian, from which the world’s time was to
he reckoned. The world is considered as being divided into 24 zones
each of 15° of arc, or one hour in time apart. The meridian of
Greenwich (0°) extends through the centre of the initial zone and
the zones to the eastwards are numbered from 1 to 12 with the prefix
‘minus’ indicating the number of hours to be subtracted to obtain
Greenwich time. The zones to the westward are similarly numbered,
hut prefixed ‘plus’ showing the number of hours that must be added
to get Greenwich time.
International Date Line — ^is an imaginary line extending north
and south through Pacific Ocean, and is the point at which the tra-
veller must add or subtract a day from the calendar. On a journey
westward across the Pacific, he must add a day (for example, by
changing Monday, the 17th to Tuesday, the 18th) ; when travelling
■eastward, he is required to set the date back one day, otherwise he
will not be in accord with the local date when he returns to his
starting place after making trip round the world.
Indian Standard Time — ^The Indian Standard Time which is
■5i hours ahead of Green-wich Mean Time was first adopted on 1st
January 1906. It was based on the mean time of 82J°E longitude
which passes through Banaras and Cocanada. Though it was used
hy Railways and Post and Telegraph Offices, Calcutta had its own
time 24 minutes ahead of it. During "World "War II, a uniform time
hours ahead of Greenwich time was adopted in India. India now
observes Indian Standard Time, which is 5i hours ahead of
Greenwich.
Longest and Shortest days — Longest day is the day on which the
Bun attains its greatest distance from the equator, north or south,
accordingly as the place is in the northern and southern hemisphere.
This generally falls on June 21. Similar considerations apply to the
shortest day of the year v/hich falls on December 22.
Dog Days — The days are about the helical rising of the Dog
Star, noted from ancient times as the hottest and most unwhole-
some period of the year. The period of dog days are generally
July 3 to August 15.
HOLIDAYS
Hindu Festival — Diirga Puja — ^A national festival in Bengal.
The celebration signifies the triumph of good over evil and the sub-
jection of animal passions by human beings. It is also symbolical
■of womanhood’s strength and power to_ combat all forms of reaction.
According to Puranas, a demon, Mahisasura was threatening gods
and men. Durga, the embodiment of Divine Power took human
form and bearing weapons in her ten hands slew the demon. Hence
the form in which the goddess is worshipped is that of a warlike
figure ha-ving ten arms and riding astride a lion. The goddess des-
cends from her heavenly home, the Kailash to visit her children on
earth three days every year, accompanied by her two sons, Kartik,
a great warrior, and Ganesh, the God of Prosperity and two
-daughters, Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth and Saraswati, the
46
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Goddess of Learning. On tlie fourth day, the immersion ceremony
takes place and the image of the Goddess is consigned to the waters;
The tradition says that on the last day, Ramchandra of Ramayana
offered special prayers to the Goddess and thus gained victory over
Ravana, the Demon King of Lanka (Ceylon).
Sivaratri — ^Festival in honour of the Hindu God Siva, one of
the Hindu Trinity. It takes place in the month of February-March.
Holi — ^Hindu festival in March. It marks the coming of the
spring. The festival in general is held in honour of Krishna. The
day is celebrated in greatest merriment and fun and coloured waters
are thrown over relatives and other people. It is a great festival of
northern India.
Deivali — A festival of lights held in October-November. The
festival is celebrated by means of illuminations and fireworks. In
some States Hindu merchants begin their fresh account books.
The legend says that its celebration began with the coronation of
King Rama.
Ganesh Chaturthi — A gg'eat Hindu festival of the "Western India
generally takes place in September in honour of Hindu God Ganesh
who is represented with four hands and an elephant’s head. This
festival is also known as Ganapaty Day.
Dusserah — It is a great festival of northern India : it usually
takes place in the month of September or October. The festival
takes place in honour of the victory of Goddess (Devi) over the
buffalo-headed demon Mahisasur. The festival takes place for nine
days known as Navaratri. It also commemorates the victory of
Rama over the demon king Ravana. In all important towns of nor-
thern India huge effigies of Ravana is made and burnt on the last
day of the festival in great pomp and pageant.
Sarastvati Puja — Usually takes place in the month of Magb
(January-February) on the fifth day (Panchami) of the new moon.
This day, according to Hindus, heralds the advent of spring. Sara-
swati is the Goddess of Learning.
Christian Festival — All Fool’s day — The first day of April, when,
from centuries throughout the Christendom it has been customary to
place irresponsible tricks on one’s neighbours.
Arbor day— Annual tree planting day is generally observed
throughout U.S.A., in parts of Canada and Great Britain.
Bank Holiday — In Great Britain a secular day when by law
banks are closed, and parties are exempt from presentment or nav-
ment of negotiable paper.
Candlemas dai/— In its ecclesiastical meaning Candlemas is the
o Mary and is observed on February
2. ':ais_ festival IS stactly kept by Roman Catholic Church
C/insfmas— Meaning Christ’s Mass, is applied to the 'festival
commemoraUng the birth of Christ celebrated on December 25. The
exact date of Christ’s birth is unknown. January 6 and December 28
however, were commonly chosen in the 4th century. The general
adoption of December 25, first in the west and a little later^in the
cast, dates from the 5th century. lacer in one
Hasfcr— The season which commemorates the death and resur-
THE CALENDAR
47
rection of Jesus Christ is universally regarded as the chief of Chris-
tian festivals. Christians believe that Jesus was crucified on Good
Friday and rose again from the dead after three days on Easter
Monday.
Good Friday — The Friday before Easter Sunday, celebrated in
commemoration of the crucifixion of Jesus.
Halloween — The name of the popular, boisterous autumn cele-
bration means ‘holy eve’, the occasion being the eve of ‘All Hallows’
or ‘All-Saints’ Day’, November 1. It has the Pagan ori^n.
Lent — A word from the Anglo-Saxon eencten meaning “spring-
time”. It is employed to denote the forty days preceding Easter,
the period observed in the Catholic Church as a fast.
St. Valentine’s day — A festival which falls on February 14. The
orgin of the observance of this day is uncertain. Among the many
interesting folk customs of mediaeval France a ad England, was a
gathering of young people on St. Valentine’s eve. ‘Valentine’ means
sweet-heart.
All Soul’s Day — Day of prayer for souls of the dead.
Moslem Festival — Id-uz-Zuha or Hafcr-id— The festival comme-
morates the ordeal of Ismail and the miraculous way in which at the
last moment Providence came to his rescue.
Hazrat Ibrahim, called Khalilulla, or the friend of God, was put to
a terrible test when he was asked to sacrifice what was dearest to him,
and he decided to offer the life of his beloved! son Ismail. As he
was on the point of applying the knife to Is'mail’s throat, it was
revealed to him that this was meant only to test his faith and that
he would, on opening his eyes, find a ram which he should sacrifice.
It has also a symbolical aspect : the sacrificial animal standing
for the evil in human nature, which must be continually surrendered
at the altar of God. This is celebrated on the 10th day of Zilhija.
Mohurrum — is a period of mourning and is observed annually in
remembrance of the martyrdom of Hassan and Hussein, the grand-
sons of Prophet Mahomed, from whom the race of Syeds, the
Muslim holimen is descended. Mohurrum is the name of the first
month of the Muslim year but the mourning period lasts only for
the first ten days. On the tenth day tabuts or tazyas made of various
materials are exhibited and conveyed in procession through the
streets. The tazyas are in the shape of mausoleums erected over
the remains of Hussain who is buried at Karbala, the battle-field of
Arabia on which he lost his life.
Akhiri-Chahar Sumbha — held on the Wednesday of Safar when
Mahomed recovered a little in his last illness and bathed for the last
time.
Sabi-barat — (night of allotment) — ^held on the 16th Saaban
when it is supposed that human deeds are measured and their needs
allotted.
Ramzan and Id-id-fitr — ^Ramzan is the ninth month of the Mos-
lem lunar year and is holy because the Quoran was revealed in that
month. The fact is ordained in a magnificent passage of the Quoran.
The fast springs from Quoranic instructions for the better commu-
nion with God whom all men must honour and worship and that
48
HINDUSTAN TBAB.-BOOK
those instructions are obeyed by the faithful with the greatest devo-
tion and loyalty. The period begins with the first sight of the new
moon of the month or if the day be overclouded and the moon invi-
sible on the completion of the thirty days from the previous moon.
Each day’s fasting must begin so soon as daybreak permits a white
thread to be discerned from a black thread and it continues till sunset.
Buddhist Festival — Full Moon of Vaisakha — ^is the thrice sacred
.dav in the Buddhist calendar. On this day, imder the spreading
emerald canopy of the Sal tree in the beautiful gardens of Lumbini
-was bom of queen Maya, Prince Siddhartha, the Buddha to be. It was
an another Vaisakha Pumima day, when Tathagata attained “Bodhi”
or enlightenment under a Bodhi Tree at Gaya. On a third Vaisakha
■PmTiima eighty years after the first that Buddha attained Maha-
parinirvan in Kosi.
Ashada Pumima — ^is in commemoration of the first sermon
of the Buddha attained Mahaparinirvan in Kosi.
Fas Pavarana — (End of rainy season lent) is held in October.
NEW INDIAN STATES
Bombay is the largest state in size and second largest in respect
of population.
Uttar Pradesh is the biggest of all States in population and
ranks 4th largest in size.
Madhya Pradesh is the second largest state in area after
Bombay.
State of Kerala in the smallest of Indian States in size.
Bengal is the second smallest state in size,
Kerala is the most thickly-popnlated state in the whole of India.
Uttar Pradesh has the largest block of members in the two
Houses of Parliament, the second place being occupied by Bombay.
Eajasthan is the third largest state in size.
Mysore State brings together Kannada-speaking people previous-
ly distributed in five States.
Merger of the Punjab and Pepsu brings together Hindi and
Punjabi-speaking people of two previous states into two zones of the
new state.
Kerala State brings together vast majority of Malayalam-
speaking people together.
State of Bombay is now bilingual and brings together about 26
million Marhati-speaking people and about 16 million Gujrati-
npeaking people together.
ASTRONOMICAL DATA
SOLAR SYSTEM — ^The solar system is made up of our sun,
-the planets and other heavenly bodies which revolve round the
«un. The bodies in our solar system include the planets, their
satellites or moons, the asteroids and countless swarms of
meteors. These are all held in their places by the pull of the
sun. They travel round the sun receiving and reflecting light
and heat. There are also difltuse bodies called comets, which
revolve in highly elliptical orbits and develop tails when they
are near the sun. The nine large planets are the most massive
bodies in the solar system, next to the sun. These planets have
thirty one satellites including our moon. The nine planets in
order of their distances from the sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. The planets
differ greatly from one another in size. The smallest planet is
Mercury, which is about one sixteenth the size of earth. Venus
is almost as large as the earth but Mars is only one seventh as
large. Saturn is 730 times as large as our planet. Uranus is
sixty-four times as large and Neptune is sixty times as large
as the earth. Jupiter is more than 1,300 times as large as the
earth. Every planet has two motions. It revolves round the sun
■and at the same time it spins on its o'wn axis.
Table of Planets
Mean Dis-
Period of
Mean diam
Axial rotation
tance
sidereal
in miles
(Sidereal)
(.mills, of
revolution
m. from
in years
siin)
Mercury
36-0
0-24
3,000
88 days
Venus
67-0
0-62
7,600
225 days
Earth
92-9
1-00
7,927
23 h. 56 m.
Mars
141-6
1-88
4,200
24 h. 37 m. 23 s.
Jupiter
483-3
11-86
88,700
9 h. 55 m.
Saturn
886-0
29-46
75,100
10 h. 14 m.
Uranus
1782-8
84-02
30,900
Cll h.
Neptune
2793-5
164-8
33,000
C16 h.
Pluto
C3700
24-8
C3,650
SUN — There are countless millions of far distant self-luminous
gaseous bodies called stars and each one is in itself a sun. Our sun
■is at a average distance of 93,000,000 miles from the earth. This
<3istance could be covered in about ten years by a rocket ship 'travel-
ling a thousand miles an hour. It has a diameter of 886,000 miles,
a surface temperature of about 12,000°P. It has a surface area ap-
proximately 12,000 times that of the earth and in volume or bulk it
4
50
HINDUSTAN TnEAR-BOOK
is about 1,306,000 times the size of the earth. By the force of its
gravitational attraction, the Sun keeps the planets in their regular
orbits and pulls them -with it through space at the rate of about 12
miles per second. Dark spots on the surface — Swn Spots — may be
seen from time to time. These are actually immense funnels up
•which s'wirling gases, cooling as they approach the surface, are
rushing from the interior.
•EARTH — ^The earth is about 93,000,000 miles from the Sun.
It travels 19 miles per second as it speeds round the sun (once in
8651 days). It has an area of about 197,000,000 sq. m. Its diameter
at the equator is 7,926.56 miles. Its diameter through the North
about 27 miles. Besides spinning on its axis, the earth moves round
the Sun. The path of the earth round the Sun called its orbit, is
not a circle but an oval or ellipse and the plane in which the Earth
moves is said to be Plane of the Ecliptic. The time taken to com-
plete one revolution round the sun is one year i.e., 3651 days approxi-
mately. The seasons are due to the changes of the earth’s position
in the course of its revolution about the Sun and to the inclination
of its axis.
flIOON — is the only satellite of the earth, round -which it revolves
in 27.32 days at a mean distance of 238, 860 miles. It has no atmos-
plaere, and it shines entirely by reflected light of the Sun. The moon
^s much to do with our tides, its gravitational attraction piling up
■water on the earth’s surface.
OTHER PLANETS — Mercury is the smallest of the major
planets and the one_ nearest the sun. Its diameter is about 3,000 m.,
its period of revolution is 88 days and its distance from the sun varies
from 28,500,000 to 43,350,000 m. Venus is second of the planets in
order of distance from the sun. Its mean distance from the latter is
67,200,000 m., and it revolves in its orbit in 225 days. Its diameter is
about 7,600 m. It is the evening star seen in the western sky. ilf nrs
has a mean distance of 141,650,000 m. from the sun. Its mass is only
about one-tenth that of the earth and its diameter is little more than
half. Its period of rotation is 24 hrs. 37 min. 23 secs. It has two
very small satellites. It is the planet which scientists believe is
most likely to have animal life. Jupiter is the largest of the planets
with 12 known satellites. Its mean distance from the sun is 483
million miles and its time of revolution is 11.86 years. Its diameter
is 11 times that of the earth. It rotates on its axis in a less than 10
hours. Saturn s mean distance from the sum is about 886,000,000 m.,
and it has a unique set of planetoid rings and at least 12 satellites.
Vramis was discovered by Herschal in 1781. Its diameter is 30,000 m.
and it revolves once round the sum from which it is 1,782,800,000 m,
distant, in 84.02 years. It has four main satellites. Neptune has a
diameter of 31,000 m. The distance from the sun is 2,793i million m.
Neptune_has one satellite and the time taken for one revolution round
the sun is 164.8 years, Pluto is the outermost of the known planets.
Its distance from the sun is about 3,700 million miles with a 248-j'ear
revolution period.
ASTEHOIDS — are also called minor planets. They are of small
bodies which revolve round the sun in orbits Ijdng between those of
ASTRONOMICAL DATA
51
Mars and Jupiter. Known asteroids now number over 1,500. New ones
are constantly being discovered. The largest is Ceres, 485 miles in
diameter. Some of these celestial bodies are perhaps nothing more
than great masses of rock flying round the sun. The largest aste-
roids are : Ceres, 485 miles in diameter, Pallas 280, Jimo 160 and
Vesta 241 (miles).
COMETS — ^A heavenly body of a luminous and nebulous appea-
rance that moves round the sun in an orbit that is normally elongated
ellipse. A comet consists of three parts : the nucleus or head, which
contains an enormous number of small bodies, some like dust
particles and others probably many yards in diameter ; the coma
which surrounds the nucleus is of a gaseous nature ; and the
tail which consists of small dust-like particles carried away from the
nucleus by the gases in the coma and then repelled by sunlight. The
tail sometimes looks formidable and it may be many millions of miles
in length, but it is quite harmless and sometimes the earth has passed
through the tail of a comet without ill effect. About 1,000 comets
are known. A few comets travel in hyperbolic orbits, never return-
ing, but most comets return over a period of years. The most famous
is Halley’s Comet which can be seen every seventy years.
JIETEORS — Meteors are pieces of matter which fall to earth
out of space. They plunge into earth’s atmosphere at great speed
and become incandescent from the resultant friction, so that they are
seen in the sky as fireballs or “shooting stars’’. The majority of
meteors are burned up long before they strike the earth’s surface
and those which reach the ground are known as meteorites. Millions
of them enter our atmosphere every-twenty four hours and probably
not more than one or two a day survive to strike the ground as
meteorites. Hence meteors which reach the earth are called mete-
orites. The largest meteorite ever found is located near Grootfontein,
South-West Africa which weighs between 60 to 70 tons. The second
largest meteorite (weight 36J tons) was found at Cape York,
Greenland.
CONSTELLATIONS — Group of fixed stars named after a my-
thological person, animal, etc. It must have been earliest observers,
several thousand years B.C. who recorded that the ‘fixed’ stars are
not scattered uniformly over the sky but appear to be grouped into
figures, now named constellations. This confines us to stars visible
to the naked eye, and also those of Milky Way. The constellations
covering the whole celestial sphere are divided into three groups ac-
cording to the regions in which they are seen — the Northern, the
Southern and the Zodiacal.
SATELLITES — The secondary bodies which revolve around the
planets, as the planets revolve around the sun, are called satellites.
With the exception of Mercury and Venus, all of the planets are ac-
companied by one or more satellites. Earth has one satellite, moon ;
Mars has two ; Jupiter twelve ; Saturn nine ; Uranus five ; and
Neptune two.
STARS — are luminous heavenly bodies, so far distant from the
solar system that the light from the nearest star travelling at the
speed of 186,000 miles per second, takes four years to reach the
52
HmOUSTAN TEAS-BOOK
eaxfh. Unlike the planets, the stars shine hy their orni iignt. Stars
are suns. Some of the stars are blighter and some of them are
fainter than onr o'kti Snn. The total number of stars is probably in
the neighbourhood of thjee to four billion ; a person rrith good eye-
sight can see about 3,000 stars at any one time on a clear nigbt. The
stars ‘twinkle’ as we gaze at them. This twinkling is caused hy
refraction through the earth’s atmosphere.
POLAR AURORAS — The Aurora Borealis (northern Bghts) and
Aurora Austraiis (sonthem lights) are luminous atmospheric pheno-
mena which occur in the Arctic and Antarctic regions respectively.
They are patches of light, quivering beams or immense
‘curtains’ with swaying folds appearing in the night sky. They may
be white, red, yellow, green, violet. It has been definitely established
that sun-spots* are the direct cause of these polar auroras. Ssm-
spots are magnetic storms of vast dimensions on the surface of the
Sun and they shoot out electrified particles into space. Those that
come toward* the earth are dra-sni toward the earth’s magnetic poles
and consequently these magnetic poles are the radiating centres of
those electromagnetic waves in the sky that we commonly call
Northern Lights or Southern Lights, depending npon whether we see
them in the nothem or southern hemisphere.
hlILKY WAT — Milky TFay is a hazy, somewhat irregular band
of light abont 20” wide which completely encircles the heavens ana
consists of dense clouds of stars. It is seen on clear, moonless summer
evenings stretching entirely across the northern slqr.
AT3IOSPHERE — The atmosphere is composed of air which sur-
rounds or envelopes the whole ^rth. It is sometimes likened to a
great sea of gases, at the bottom of which we live. This air which
surrounds the globe afi'ects the light that comes to us from heavenlv
bodies. It refracts (bends or changes the direction) lieht ravs that
enter it. Due to this refraction, we see the Sun and the Aloon* before
they rise and after they set. The ‘twjnldicg’ of the stare is caused
fay convection currents in the air that have rauidlv changino- -refrac-
tive effect on the light from the stars. Our twilight is produced bv
the diffusion in the atmosphere of light from the Sun when it is
below the horizon. Chemically the atmosphere is composed of
m^gen, oorygen and ertremely minor amounts of argon, neon,
helium, hyorogen and carbon dioside.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INFORMATION
RACES OF aiANKESTD
RACES OF SIANKIND — No two human beings are exactly alike,
but all human beings are alike in many respects. The cells that make
up the body are same for all people. A biologist can tell certain cells
of a human being from those of any other animal, but he cannot tell
the cells of an Englishman or a German from those of a Chinese, a
Negro or an American Indian. In the same way a biologist can tell
human blood from the blood of lower animals, but all types of
human blood are found among all stocks and races of man. For this
reason, anthropologists say that there is only one race of people —
human race. All human beings belong to one organic species called
Homo Sapiens.
RACE “A SOCIAL MYTH”— The United Nations Educational,
Social and Cultural Organization in a statement on 8th July, 1950 set
forth the following main points from the conclusions of international
panel of world’s biologists, geneticists, sociologists, anthropologists
etc. —
(1) Racial discrimination has no scientific foundation in biolo-
pcal fact. There is no proof that the groups of mankind differ in
intelligence, temperament, or other innate mental characteristics,
(2) The range of mental capacities in all races is much the
same.
(3) Extensive study yields no evidence that race mixture pro-
duces biologically bad results. The social results of race mixtures
arc to be traced to social factors. There is no biological justifica-
tion for prohibiting inter-marriage between persons of different
ethnic groups.
(4) Race is less a biological fact than a social myth. As a
myth it has in recent years taken a heavy toll in human lives and
suffering and still keeps millions of persons from normal develop-
ment, and civilization from the full use of the co-operation of pro-
ductive minds.
(5) Scientifically, no large modem national or religious
^oup is a race. Nor are people who speak a single language, or live
in a single geographical area, or share in a single cultural commu-
nity necessarily a race.
(6) Tests have shown essential similarity in mental characters
among all human racial groups. Given similar degrees of cultural
opportunity to realize their potentialities, the average achievement of
the members of each ethnic grroup is about the same.
(7) All human beings possess educability and adaptability, the
traits which more than all others have permitted the development of
men’s mental capacities.
But as we view all mankind, we can see that people differ in
the colour of their skin, in the colour and form of their hair, in eye
colour, and in other external physical characteristics. On the basis of
54
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
these differences, most anthropologists divide the manMnd into three
or lour major stocks. Each of these stocks is divided into a mimher
of smaller groups or races. , cr
AIEANING of race — ^T here is no single trait which marks on
one race or stocks from another. The overlapping of races and
stocks with respect to any single trait is so great that a whole com-
hination of traits is necessary to identify a race or stock. The fw-
lowing is the commonly-accepted definition of race — A race is made
up of persons who have a fairly definite combination of distinguish-
ing physical traits which is handed on from parents to children.
PURE RACE — There is hio pure’ races today. Some anthro-
poligists believe that pigmies of Equatorial Africa are relatively
pure as to race. For countless generations mankind has been cross-
ing and recrossing, so far as races are concerned. Any given race
in Europe has some genes or hereditary units, of almost all the other
races of Europe.
RACE SUPERIORITY — Science does not support the claim that
some races are biologically superior or inferior to others. Civilization
of any race may be advanced or retarded and the people within them
may have greater or smaller opportunities for contact and for personal
development. People, who live in an advanced civilization regardless
of race or stock, develop much more rapidly than people who live in
a retarded civilization. But this has nothing to do with abilities or
aptitudes.
CLASSIFICATION OF 3IANKIND — The various ways of classi-
fying mankind are as follows —
(1) Hair classification — Some ethnologists divide mankind into
three kinds — Woolg hair, icavy hair, straight hair.
(2) Colour classification — Some ethnologists divide mankind
like this — Whites, Yellow-Broron and Blacks.
(3) Stock classification — The human family has been divided
into three or possibly four great aggregates of races usually call-
ed stocks : — Caucasian, Mongo lian , Negroid and Australoid. First
three are often referred to as “White’, bellow’ and ‘Black’. This is
not really correct ; peoples of North-Central India are cancasoids,
yet their skin colour is brown to dark brown. Variability also may
he seen in stature ; the tallest people in the world are found in
Denmark and Scottish Highlands, in East Africa and in southern-
most Souft America — ^respectively Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloii
The Caucasian or Indo-Exiropean Race CWhite) comprises the
Persians, Jews, -Arabians, Hindus, Afghans, and the people of Nor-
t^im Africa ; also the descendants of Europeans in America, South
.Mnca, Australia, peoples of Europe, the adjacent shores of North
Africa, nnd of Asia Alinor, and India. The following races also
belong to Caucasian stock — Nordic or northwest European, Alpine
or Central European, Mediterranean or south-west European, Baltic
or north-east ^European, Dinaric or south-east European, Arnicnoid
m western Asia Minor. These races are not, of course absolutely
limited to those geographical areas.
Mongolian Race (Yellow) is basically the peoples of Asia,
but are also in the western hemisphere as the American Indians and
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INFORMATION
65
are represented in Malaysia and in Oceania. The Mongoloids are
Tisually divided into the following races ; Senic of China and Japan,
Palearctic of Siberia, Turkic and Tungic or Mongolia of Central Asia
and Malayan of Malaysia. In the Western Hemisphere, they are
found as Eskimos and the Indians of the Americas. In Polynesia
i.e., in Samoa Tonga, Hawaii, the Mongoloid stock is a basic element
with Caucasoid and some Negroid admixture.
The Negroids are the peoples of Africa and Oceania termed
respectively the African Negroids and the Oceanic Negroids. The
following are African Negroid races — True negro in S. Africa,
Sudanie in Central Africa, Nilotic in East Africa, Hamitic in North-
east and North Africa, Banttt in S. Africa, Bashman-Hottentot in
Kalahari desert of S. Africa. The Oceanic Negroids are commonly
called Melanesion or Papuan, and are chiefly found in Borneo, New
Caledonia, Solomons Hebrides and Fiji.
Australoids are found in Australia as Australian aboriginals and
in Japan as the Ainu. They may possibly be an element in Mela-
nesia and in Ceylon and South India i.e., Toda, the Vedda and other
DISTRIBUTION OF BASIC STOCK— In percentages, world’s
population is about 43 per cent. Mongoloid, 33 per cent Caucasoid and
24 per cent Negroid.
STAGES OF CIVILISATION OF MAN
The terms employed refer to periods, not of time but of culture
and are of local application only — ^it is not universal in all parts of
the world.
Stone Age — Age of human development in which primitive man
was using stone implements and weapons. The Stone Age preceded
the ages of bronze and iron. It is usually divided into four periods
— (1) Aolithic or dawn of the stone age which lasted 6,000,000 years
B.C.; (2) Paleolithic or old stone age lasting perhaps 400,000 to
100.000 B.C. in which weapons and sharp stone tools were made from
hard stone (flint) by chipping ; (3) Mesolithic, at traditional period
intermediate between the old and new stone ages, lasting perhaps
until 10,000 B.C. when arrow and spear-heads were made and (4) the
Neolithic or New stone age in which tools were perfected by grind-
ing and polishing the stone. The new stone age lasted in Europe
for some 5,000 years. In different parts of the world, the stone age
existed at different times. Fire was probably discovered some 60,000
years before Christ.
Bronze Age — ^The period when early man used bronze for his
tools and weapons, this superseding the use of stone. Its date differs
in various areas. In the East it began probably about 6,000 B.C.
and in the West perhaps 2,000 B.C. and continued until about
1.000 B.C.
Iron Age — ^The cultural phase of human civilisation marked by
the use of iron specially for edged tools and weapons. In Europe and
'West Asia it usually followed the copper-using or bronze-using phase
.or age; in Africa it directly succeeded the stone-age. In Europe,
56
HINDUSTAN- YEAR-BOOK
iron working became general in the Mediterranean region abont
1,000 B.C., subsequently two pre-Christian periods occurred, each of
about 500 years.
PRE-HISTORIC RACES
Pithecanthropos erectus (erect ape-man or Java man) — ^This is
generally believed to be the earliest manlike animal. Held to be a
creature of pleistocene time about mid-way between the orang-utan
and man (1891-1892).
Sinaiithropos pektnensis (Peking man) — Of higher development
than Java man, but of approximately same period. Fosilized re-
mains of 10 individuals were found in a cave about 40 miles from
Pekin between 1926 and 1930. The brain capacity is estimated to be
about one-fourth larger than that of Java man.
Aiistralopitheciis Africamis (erect man-ape) — A skuR was found
in Cape Colony in 1925. _
Homo Heidelberg crisis (Heidelberg man) — ^Primitive man of ple-
istocene period discovered in Heidelberg, Germany (1907). The jaw
which are remarkably well-preserved, are unmistakably of human
type.
Neanderthal Man — Oldest kno-wn dolichocephalic (long-headed)
race in Europe, living about 50,000 years before Christian era.
Human remains were first discovered in 1857 near Dusseldorf,
Germany, in Neanderthal, after which this type of human beings
has been named.
«,oo"To.Tw9S?r“ “
Note— Figures in parenthesis denote years in which discoveries
were made.
GEOGRAPHICAL SNFORHATION
AREA OF THE CONTINENTS
Europe
Africa
Asia
Sq. miles Sq. miles
3,773,958 Antarctica . . 6,362,625
11,529,480 South America . . 6,825,876
16,494,217 North America . . 9,358,976
Australia . . 2,974,581
WORLD DIMENSIONS
Diameter of either
Pole
Diameter at equator
Circ. of equator
Miles
Distance from
7,900-00 Sun
7,926-68 Superficial area
24,901-08 Water area
Land area
Sq. miles
the
. . 93,000,000
.. 196,836,000
.. 141,050,000
. . 69,786,000
LONGEST RIVERS
Mississippi-Missouri
Amazon
Nile
Yangtse
Yenisei
Congo
Miles long
. . 4,500 Lena
. . 4,000 Amur
. . 3,850 Yellow River
. . 3,400 Mekong
. . 3,300 Niger
. . 3,000
OCEANS AND SEAS
Miles long
. . 2,648
. . 2,621
. . 2,610
. . 2,610
. . 2,600
Ocens
Pacific
Atlantic
Indian
Arctic
Area (sq. m.)
. . 67,700,000
. . 34,800,000
. . 28,600,000
5,541,600
Greatest depths (ft.)
35,640 (Marianas Trencli")
30,246 (Puerto Rico)
22,968
16,500
Seas
Malayan Sea
Caribbean
Mediterranean
Area (sq. m.)
. 3,139,000
. 1,667,000
. 1,145,000
(Gi-eatest depths (ft.)
21,342
23,748
18,160
HIGHEST MOUNTAIN PEAKS
Range
Everest Himalayas
Godwin-Austen (Ir) Do.
Kanchanjanga Do.
Lhotse Do.
Makalu Do.
Nanda Devi Do.
Nanga Parvat Do,
Kamet Do.
height Range height
in ft. in ft.
29,028 Aconcagua Andes 22,836
28,250 Illampu Do 21,500
28,146 Chlmborozo Do. 20,498
27,890 McKinley Alaska 20,300
27.790 Mount Logan Rockies 19.850
26.646 Cotopaxi Andes 19,344
26,629 Kilimanjaro Tanganaika 19,340
25,477 Demevand Iran 18,600-
Elburz Caucasus 18,481
58
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOS;
HIGHEST & LOWEST ELEVATIONS OF THE WORLD
Highest {jt.) I/oicest
World & -4sfa— Mt. Everest . - 29,028 Jordan Talley, Dead Sea
(Asia) — 1,290 ft. beIo~
mean sea level
Africa— 'm. EHimanjaro 19,340 Qattara Depression
‘ (Egypt) 440 ft. below
sea level
H. America— yit. McKinley - - 20,300 Death Talley, Califor-
nia 275 ft. below sea
level
S. America — Mt. Aconcagna .. 22.8-35 Sea level
Antarctica — Mt. Markham - - 15,100 Sea level
Europe — ^Mt. Elburz (Cancasns) 18,481 Caspian Sea (U.S.S.R-)
92 ft. below sea level
Australia — ^Mt. Koscinsco - • 7,305 Lake Eyre, 40 ft. below
sea level
LAKES
Area Area
Sg. Miles Sq. Miles
Caspian Asia-Europe . 170,000 Great Bear Lake
Superior (N. America) 31.820 (N. America) . . 12,000
Tictoria Nyanza (.Africa) 26500 Great Slave (N. America) 11,170
Aral (Asia) . . 24400 Nayasa (.Africa) . . 11.000
Huron (N. .America) . . 23,010 Erie (North .America) 9.940
Michigan (N. .America) 22.400 Winnipeg (North America) 9.39S
Tanganyika (.Africa) 12.700 Ontario (North .America) 7,540
Baikal (Siberia) . . 12,150 Ladoga (Europe) . . 7,100
Balkhash (Asia) . . 6,670
VOLC.ANOE5
Active feet Dormant feet
Cutonasi (Ecuador) . . 19,550 Llullaillaco (Chile) . . 20544
3It. Wrangel (U.SA.) 14.000 Demavend (Iran) .. 18,600
Manna Loa (Hawaii) . . 13,675 Semerou (Java) . . 12.050
Erebus (.Antarctic) ., 13,000 Halcakala (Hawaii) .. 10,032
Nyiragongo (Belgian Guntur (-Java) .. 7,300
Congo) . , 11,560 Pelee (W. Indies) . . 4,430
Biamna (.Aleutian Is.) . , 11.000 Krakatoa (Sunda Strait) 2,600
Etna (Cicily) . , 10.741 Two-Shima (Japan) . . 2,480
Chilian ((^ile) . - 10,500 Extinct feet
Nyamuragira (Belgian .Aconcagua (Chile) . . 22,976
Congo) . . 10,150 Chimborazo (Equador) 20,500
Paricutin (Merico) . . 9,000 Kilimanjaro (Tanga-
.Asama (Japan) . . 8500 nyika) . . 19.340
Hecla (Iceland) .. 5,100 .Antisana (Equador) .. 18.850
Kilauca (Hawaii) . . 4,090 Elburz (Caucasus) . . 18.526
Vesuvius (Italy) . . 3,700 Popocatapetl (Jlerico) 17,750
Stromboli (Lipari Is.) . - 3,000 Orizaba (Mexico) . . 17.400
Fujiyama (Japan) . . 12,395
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
59
TEN LARGEST ISLANDS
feet Baffin (Canada) . . 197,754
Greenland (Denmark) 840,000 Sumatra (Indonesia) . . 167,620
New Guinea (Nether- Honshu . . 89,009
lands, Australia) . . 316,861 Great Britain
Borneo (Indonesia, (Mainland) . . 84,186
Gr, Br.) . . 290,012 Victoria (Canada) . . 80,340
Madagascar (France) 228,682 Ellesmere (Canada) . . 77,392
DESERTS
Gobi (Mongolia, Asia)
Sahara (North Africa)
Kalahari (South Africa)
Libyan (East Sahara)
Kizil Kum (Central Turkistan)
Kara Kum (South-west Turkistan)
Atacama (North Chile)
Approx, size.
300.000 sq. m.
3,500.000 sq. m.
120.000 sq. m.
500.000 sq. m.
70,000 sq. m.
110.000 sq. m.
400 m. long
Talka Makan (South Sinkiang, China) . . 700 m. long
Great Arabian (most of Arabia) .. . . 1,500 m. long
Thar (N. W. India) . . About 300 m. by 380 ra.
Great Australian (Western portion of Australia) About half the
continent
Nubian (East Africa) .. . . 100,000 sq. m.
Colorado (S. E. California) .. . . 200 m. long
Mohave (S. E. California) . . . . 15,000 sq. m.
GEOGRAPHICAL SURNAMES
Island of pearls — Bahrein (Per-
sian Gulf).
World’s lonliest island — Tristan
De Cunha (Mid-Atlantic).
Ttoof of the World — Tibet.
Holy Land — Palestine.
Island of Cloves — Zanzibar.
Land of White Elephant — Siam.
Empire City — New York.
Pillars of Hcrcides — Strait of
Gibraltar.
Kev of the Mediterranean —
Gibraltar.
Rose-pink City — Jainur.
Whiteman’s grave — Guinea coast
of Africa.
Sugar bowl of the world — Cuba.
Windy City — Chicago.
Venice of the North — Stockholm.
Forbidden City — ^Lhasa.
Land of Cakes — Scotland.
China’s Sorrow — ^Hoang Ho.
Gate of tears — Strait of Bab-el-
Mandeb.
Pearl of the Antilles — Cuba.
The Corridor — A strip of land in
Poland separating Germany
from East Prussia.
Granite City — Aberdeen.
Eternal City — Rome.
Gift of the Nile — Egypt.
Land of the Midnight Sun —
Norway.
Land of Morning Calm — ^Korea.
Hermit Kingdom — Korea.
Playground of Europe — Switzer-
land.
City of Seven Hills — Rome.
Land of Firing Sun—^apan.
Dark Continent — Africa.
Emerald Isle — ^Ireland.
Land of Maple — Canada.
60
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Land of Five Rivers— The Punjab. Bengal’s sorroju— Damodar.
Gateway of India — Bombay. Never Never land — ^\'ast prairies
City of Palaces — Calcutta. of northern Australia.
Land of Golden Fleece — ^Aus- Queen of the Adnatic — ^Venice.
tralia. The Down Under — .Australia.
City of Sky-Scrapers — Nem York. Herring Pond — ^.Atlantic Ocean.
Cockpit of'Ev.rope — The Balkans. Great White Tfay — Broadrray
Land of Thousand Lakes — (Nenr Y'ork).
Finland. City of Dreaming Spires —
City of Magnificent Distances — Oxford.
Washin^on D.C. Garden of England — Kent.
LONGEST TUNNELS
Miles _ IUjics-
East Finchley-3Iorden . . 175 Einiutaka (N. Z.) . . 55
Simplon (Switzerland-Italy) 125 Ricken, Switzerland . . 55 .
.Appennine, Italy . . 115 Grenchenberg Do . . 55
St. Gothard, Switzerland 95 Tauren. Austria . . 55
Loetschbeg, Switzerland 9 Otira, A". Z. . . 5
Mont Cenis, Italy . . 85 Ronco, Italy . . 5
Cascade, U.S.A. . . 72 Hauenstein, Switzerland . . 5
Arlberg, Austria . . 65 Colie di Tenda, Italy . . 5
Moffat, U.S-A 6 Connaught, Canada .. 5
Shimzu, Japan . . 6
3I0UNT.4IN PASSES
ft. high ft. high
.Alpine (Colorado, U.S..A,) 13,550 St. Bernard (Siriss Alps) 8.100
Bolan (Baluchistan) 5,880 St. Gotthard (Sv.-iss Alps) 6.936
Brenner (Austrian Alps) 4,588 Shiph.a (Bulgaria) .. 4.300
Khybar (.Afghanistan) 3,373 Simplon (Swiss .Alps) .. 6,595
F.AMOUS CAYES AND CAIYIRNS
Mamoth Cave (Kentucky. U.S.) 4 m. long 125 ft, high.
Caverns of .Adelsburg (Trieste),
Carlsbad Caverns (S. W. New Mexico). ct
Cheddar Cave (Somerset).
Fingal’s Cave (Scotland).
Blue Grotto (Island of Capri, Italy).
SHIP (
Length
in vulcs
White Sea (u.e.s.t.) . . 140
Gotta (Sweden) . . 115
Suez (Egypt) . . 100
Volga-Moscow (rus.s.r.) 80
Kiel (Germany) . . 61
Ahlga-Don (u.s.s.t.) . . 60
Panama (Panama Canal) 50
lANALS
Length
in. miles
Elbe-Txave (Germany) . . 41
Manchester (England) . . 355
Welland (Canada) .. 275
Princess Juliana (Holland) 20*
.Amsterdam . . 16?
Corinth . . . , 4
Sanlte Ste. Marie (U.S. —
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
61
GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD-BREAKERS
Highest Mountain System
Longest Mountain System
Highest Plateau,
Longest River
Largest River (in_ volume)
Largest River Basin
Largest Salt Water Lake ..
Largest body of Fresh Water
Largest group of Islands . .
Largest Artificial Lake
Largest north to south
stretch of land
Largest inland sea
Largest ship canal
Deepest Ocean
Highest Auto Road . .
Highest Capital City
Largest Island ..
Densest population
Hottest Region
Coldest Regions
Largest Continent
Largest Poninsida
Highest Country
Biggest Ocean
Most northerly Town
Largest Desert
Largest City
Highest Peak
Densely Populated Country
Rainiest Place
Largest Volcano
Highest Active Volcano
Smallest Continent
Deepest Lake
Highest Lake
Saltiest Sea
Smallest Independent State
Largest Unbroken Political
Unit
Largest Delta
Himalayas.
Andes.
Tibet.
Mississippi-W[issouri, 4,500 miles long.
Amazon.
Basin of Amazon, 2,720,800 sq. miles.
Caspian Sea.
Superior.
Malaya Archipelago.
Lake Mead at Boulder Dam (U.S.A.).
America : N. and S. extend from
Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean.
McditeiTanean Sea.
White Sea Canal, 140 miles long.
Pacific Ocean.
Mount Evans Highway (Colorado,
U.S.A.).
La Paz (Bolivia).
Greenland, 840,000 sq. miles.
Monaco (33,898 per sq. mile).
North-west Sahara, Azizia (Tripolita-
nia), Death Valley (California), and
Thar Desert of North-west India.
Verkoyansk in North-East Siberia
where temperature is 94° below zero.
Asia.
India.
Tibet.
Pacific Ocean.
Hemmerfest, Norway, 275 miles north
of Arctic circles.
Sahara (Africa).
London (Population, 8,346,000).
Mt. Everest (29,028 ft.).
China.
Cherrapunji (Assam),
Mauna Loa (crater 3.7 sq. m.). Largest
volcanic mt. in cubic content.
Kotopaxi (Equador), 19,560 ft.
Australia.
Lake Baikal (Siberia).
Lake -Titicaca (Bolivia, 12,000 ft.
above sea).
Dead Sea.
Vatican City (109 acres).
U.S.S.R.
Sundarban delta (8,000 sq. miles).
62
BINDTJSTAN yeak-book
Longest ThorougTifare
Highest City
Largest coral fomwJtion . .
Lowest body of water
Deepest place in the ocean
Broadway, New* Torli.
Phari, Tibet, altitude 14,300 ft.
Great Barrier Keef, (Australia).
Dead Sea.
Off the Island of Mindanao, Philip-
pines sounding of 35,410 ft, reachA
Tt'ORLD PSTREMES OP CLIMATE
Coldest Place — ^^erkoyansk (Si- Highest mean annual tempera-
heria) — 94°F (126° below free- tare — S6°F at Massawa, Eri-
zing point) on Jan. 3, 1885. trea, Africa.
Hottest Place — Azizia (Libya) — Lowest mean annual tempera-
136°P (Sept. 13, 1922) and ture — 14 °F at FrambeLm, An-
Death Valley (California) — tarctica.
134 °P. (July 10, 1913). Wettest Place — 366 inches in
Minimum recorded Rainfall — ^.04 one month at Cherrapunji.
inch at Iquique, Chile — average Assam, July, 1E61. Average
yearly fall during 40 years. annual rainfall is 424 and 499
inches.
WATERF.ALLS
{The following arc notable chiefly for height)
Height ft. Height ft.
Angel (Venezuela) .. 3212 Garsoppa (India) .. 829
Yosemite (U-S-A) .. 2425 Kaieteur (B. Guiana) .. 741
Southerland (N.Z.) -. 1904 Maletsunyane (Basutoland) 6S2
Ribbon (U.S.A.) , . 1612 Aughrabies (S. Africa) 450-480
Gavarnie (France) - . 1385 Tequendama (Colombia) 475
Staubbach (S^vitzerland) 9S0 Glomach (Scotland) .. 370
Vettitfos (Norway) ,. 900 Grand Falls (Labrador) 316
Multnomach (U.SA.) . . 850
{The following combine considerable height with •colume)
Ht, in ft. Width in Mac:, flood
yds. flow in at.
^t. per sec.
Guaira (Brazil-Paragaay) .. 90-130 5.240 over 1,500,000
Niagara (Canada-U.SA.) .. 158-1 75' 1.316 over 290,000
Paulo -AJTonso (Brazil) .. 275 ' 19 over 500.000
Iguassu (Brazil-Argentina) .. 237' 300 over 450.000
Victoria (N.-S, Rhodesia) .. 236-354’ 1,530 250,000
Khon Cataracts (Indo-Cbina) 50-70 14,000 over 1,750!000
Cauvery (Siva Sundaram, India) 300’ 918 over 600,000
Garsoppa (India) .. 829 17,800 120,000
Aughrabies (S. Africa) .. 450-480 20 500,000
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
6S
POLAR RECORDS
Arctic
Year
Explorer
No.
Latitude
1854 ..
E. K. Kane (U.S.)
78°
45'
1871 ..
Capt. Hall (U.S.A.)
82°
11'
1875 ..
Capt. Nares (G.B.)
83°
20'
1882 ,.
Lieut. Greely (U.S.A.) ..
83°
24'
1892 ..
Lieut. Peary (U.S.A.)
83°
27'
1895 ..
Fridtjof Nansen (Norway)
Duke d’ Abruzzi (Italy)
86°
14'
1900 ..
86°
34'
1902 ..
Lieut. Peary (U.S.A.)
84°
17'
1904 ..
Zeigler Polar Expedition (U.SA.)
82°
4'
1906 ..
Commander Peary (U.S.A.)
87°
6'
1909 ..
Commander Peary (U.S.A.)
90°
(Pole)
, ,
1926 ..
Commander Byrd (U.S.A.)*
90°
(Pole)
1926 ..
Amundsen -Ellswortb-N obile'j-
90°
(Pole)
1928 ..
Gen. U. Nobile f (Italy)
90°
(Pole)
1937 ..
Pavel Golvin, (Soviet Russia)^
90°
(Pole)
1937 ..
Otto J. Schmidt and four others*
(Soviet Russia)
90°
(Pole)
1952 ..
Lt. Col. Benedict (U.S.A.F.)
• •
90°
(Pole)
•-
Antarctic
Year
Explorer
No.
Latitude
1774 ..
Capt. Cook (G.B.)
.. 71°
10'
1823 ..
Capt. Weddell (G.B.) ..
.. 74°
15'
1842 ..
Capt. Rose (G.B.)
.. 78°
10'
1900 ..
Borchgrevink (G.B.)
.. 78°
50'
1902 ..
Capt. Robert F. Scott ( G B.)
.. 82°
17'
1909 ..
Lieut. Shackletoii (G.B.)
.. 88°
23'
1911 ..
Roald Amundsen (Norway)
.. 90°
(Pole)
• •
1912 ..
Capt. Robert F. Scott (G.B.)
.. 90°
(Pole)
1935 ..
L. Ellsworth* (U.SA.)
.. 76°-
79°
68'
1947 ..
Adml. Richard Byrd* (U.S.A.)
.. 90°
(Pole)
FIRST ASCENTS OF MOUNTAINS
Mont. Blanc (France-Italy), Chimhorazo (Ecuador), E.
M. G. Paccard & J, Balmat, 1786. ‘WTiyuiper, 1880.
Jungfrau (Switzerland), J. R. Mt. Cook (New Zealand), W. S.
& H. Meyer, 1811. Green, 1882.
Matterhorn (Switzerland), E. Kilimanjaro (Tangansdka),
"WTiymper, 1865. Meyer, 1887.
Elbrus (Caucasus), D. W. Aconcagua (Chile- Argentine),
Freshfield, A. W. Moore, & C. C. M. Zurbriggen, 1897.
Tucker, 1868.
*By airplane.
fBy airship.
^4
nmOUSTAN TEAS-BOOK
First Ascents of Mountains — {Condd.).
Ut, St. Elias (Alaska), Duke
-of Abruzzi, 1897.
3ft. Kenya (Kenya), H. J-
Macxnder, 1899.
Ruv:eit:ori (Central Africa),
Duke of Abruzzi, 1906.
ML McKinley (Alaska), Par-
ker-Brovnie Expdt.
ML Logan (Alaska), A. H.
McCarthy, 1925. _
Illampu (Bolivia), German-
Anstrian Expedition.
Kr iGodroin Ajssten, Karako-
ram), Italian Expedition, July 31,
1954.
Everest (Nepal), British Ex-
pedition, 1953.
Kanchenjunga (Nepal), Bri-
tish Exp. led by Charles Evans.
Alay 25, 1955.
ML Cho-Oyun (Nepalese Hi-
malayas), by Aastnan Expedi-
tion Oct. 19, 1954.
Manga Parvat by Austrian-
German Exp. led by Peter Schen-
brenner, July 4, 1953.
3If. Annap'uma by Maurice
Herzog (French), June 3,’ 1950.
ML Mwdtv.m (Jammu £;
Kashmir) by French Exn. Aue.
28, 1953.
Lhotsc by Svriss Exnidition,
May, 1956.
Mahalu by French Expedition,
May, 1955.
Mansabi by Japanese Eraedi-
tion. May, 1956.
FA3IODS STRUCTURES OF THE MORLD
Cheops Pyramid of Egypt —
Near Gizeh, erected by the
Pharaoh Cheops descended from
the fourtla dsmasty in B. C. in
2700-2675. Cheops had the Py-
ramid bniit to serve him as a
tomb. It is 481 ft. height, its
base being 750 ft, square.
Great Sphinx of Egypt— A
st.one image of a crouching lion
vrith a ^ human head, at Gizeh in
norihern Egypt 'and carved about
3500 B.C. The total height of
Sphinx is about 66 ft., its body
is* 189 ft. in length.
Alhambra — A group of build-
ings-erected chieSy between 1348
and 1354 by the Moorish King
A1 Ahmar and his successors oa
■a hill above Granada in southern
Spain. It is claimed to be the
■crowning achievement of the
iloors in Spain.
Pantheon — ^At Rome -was built
in 27 B.C, It was used as temple,
laterally Pantheon was intended
--as a temple of “all the Gods”.
Leaning Tower of Pisa — A
round white marble bell-tower
at Pisa, Italy and containing
eight stories enclosed by • colu-
mns. The tower leans about 14
feet out of the perpendicular,
its height being 183 feet on the
north side and 179 feet on the
south side. It was built in 1350.
Parthenon of Athens — cons-
tructed in Acropolis, Temple of
Athena, Goddess of Thought
This most beautiful b-ailding of
the world -was constructed by
Pericles in 447-432 B.C.
Great M’all of China — A vrall
of about 1,500 miles long extend-
ing along the boundary between
nortliern China and "Mongolia.
It was raised in 213 B.C. to serve
as a rampart ' to defend the
coun^ against foreign invasions
'and in 1400 it -was reconstructed
in stones.
Great Buddhist Temple of Java
— A monument of Buddhist ar-
chitecture, known as Boro Bu&or
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
65
Famous Structures of the World — iConcld.).
and built of volcanic lava bet-
ween A.D. 750 and 850. It is
one of the architectural wonders
of the world.
Acropolis at Athens — A hill
about 260 feet in height located
in south-eastern Greece. At the
summit are ruins of numerous
temples originally enclosed by
Doric and Ionic columns and
built of marble by Pericles and
Cimon in the 5th century B.C.
The most notable of these struc-
tures include Parthenon which
contained a gold and ivory statue
of Athena.
St. Peter’s at Rome — ^The
largest Cathedral in the world
covering an area of 18,000
square yards is located in
Rome, Italy. It was completed
in 1632. The Cathedral’s Neat-
est length is 636 feet, its height
is 435 feet.
Mayan Temples — ^Buildings
erected by the Mayan Indians, S.
America, who attained a high
civilization before the birth of
Christ. The temples, now in ruins
were built on lofty pyramid-shap-
ed terraces and were frequently
ornamented with columns in the
form of feathered snakes.
Colosseum of Rome — ^The con-
struction of this famous amphi-
theatre was completed in 80 B.C.
Its greatest circle had a dia-
meter of 185 m. and its smallest
156 m. and was 48.5 m. high.
■ It seated 85,000 spectators. It
served for circus performances,
for the fight of the gladiators,
animal fights etc. In this era
the first Christians were thrown
in the Colosseum to the wild
animals.
Potala of Tibet — ^The fortress-
palace of Dalai Lama, the ruler
of Tibet. The structure is over
6
900 feet in length and resem-
bles a fortress with many gilded
roofs and towers at various
levels — the highest being more
than 400 feet from the ground.
Shawe Dagon Pagoda — A gild-
ed bell-shaped structure at Ran-
goon containing eight hairs of
Buddha. Its base is 1,355 feet
in circumference and the top is
encased with gold leaf support-
ing 1,500 little bells of silver and
gold. It is 367 feet high.
Lomonosov University of
Moscow — was opened in 1953.
It is the highest scientific build-
ing in the world. It contains 32
floors and 45,000 rooms. The
Amphitheatre of Geo^aphic
Education is situated in the
centre. There are 112 elevetors
for the service of the students
and one can reach the top floor
in 37 seconds.
Taj Mahal — A domed square
mausoleum of white marble at
Agra in India built during the
period from 1630 to 1649 by Em-
peror Shah Jahan as a burial
place for his wife Mumtaz Ma-
hal. Tajmahal is the perfect
gem of Moslem art.
Colossus of Mysore — A statue
of 57 feet in height representing
Gomateswara, a saint of the
Jain religion. It was carved in
983 A.D. from a solid rock on a
MU top that rises 470 feet above
a plain in Mysore. The image
is 26 feet broad at the shoulders.
Angkor Vat — A structure 796
ft. long and 588 feet wide in a
city in Cambodia, French Indo-
China, comprising a royal city
of 59 sq. miles area and temple
Angkor Vat. Built in 9th cen-
tury by the Khmers, the enclosed
temples, palaces and public
building of stone are completely
HINDUSTAN TEAR BOOK
^6
Famous Structures of the World — {Concld.).
covered -with sculptured scenes
which picture the life of Khmer
civilization now extinct. The
largest of five pagoda rises 250
feet above foundations at the
centre of the temple.
' Kremlin of Moscow — was con-
structed in the city surrounded
by a wall. It contains several
buildings and domes among
which the most famous is the
Tower of Ivan the terrible where
the largest bell in the world is
placed.
Empire State Building—in
New York is the tallest building
of the world, 1,250 ft. high in
102 stories. The building was
completed in 1931.
KNOW YOUR NEW COINS
At present you count money in rupees, annas and pies. For
your convenience the Government of India have decided to introduce
Decimal Coinage from 1st April, 1957.
Under the new coinage system, your rupee shall have 100 Nayd
Paise. There will be seven new coins in use : —
100 Nayc Paise
60 Naye Paise
25 Naye Paise
10 Naye Paise
5 Naye Paise
2 Naye Paise
1 Nayaa Paisa
One rupee.
One half of a rupee.
Quarter of a rupee.
1/lOth of a rupee.
l/20th of a rupee.
l/50th of a rupee.
1/lOOth of a rupee.
Tnipoi-tant Points — The rupee will remain the standard coin with
^ no loss or gain in its value. The change-over from the old to the
new coins will be gradual. For at least three years, both the old
coins and the new coins would be current. During this period pav-
ments can be made or accepted either in new or old coins or in both.
GENERAL INFORMATION
LONGEST RAILWAY STATION PLATFORMS
feet Bournemouth {Eng.) . . 1,734
Storvik (Sweden) . . 2,470 Perth (Scotland) . . 1.714
Sone (India) .. 2,415 York (Eng.) .. 1.704
Kharagpur (India) .. 2,3.30 Cambridge (Eng.) .. 1,629
Bulawayo (Rhodeeia) .. 2,302 Edinburgh (Scotland) .. 1.608
New Lucknow (India) .. 2,250 Aberdeen (Scotland) .. 1,596
Bezwada (India) .. 2,210 Trichinopoly (India) . .. 1,546
Manchester Victoria Ex- Ranaghat (India) .. 1,522
change (L.M.S.) .. 2.194 Crewe (Eng.) .. 1,509
Jhansi (India) .. 2,025 Dakor (India) .. 1,470
Kotri (N.W.R., Pakistan) 1,896 Victoria (Eng.) .. 1,430
Mandalay (Burma Rail- New Castle (Eng.) 1,365
ways) . . 1,788 Bristol (Eng.) . . 1,300
LONGEST BRIDGES
(With length in feel of waterways)
Lower Zambesi (Africa) 11,322 Hardinge (Pakistan) .. 5,384
Storsstromsbroen Victoria .Jubilee (Canada) 6,325
(Denmark) .. 10,499 Moerdijk (Uelherlands) 4.698
Tay Bridee (Scotland) 10.289 S.vdney Harbour (Anst.) 4.124
Sone Bridge (India) .. 9.839 .Jacques Carlior (Canada) 3.890
Godavari (India) .. 8.881 Queensborouch (U.S.A.) 3.720
Forth Bridge (Scotland) 8.291 Ilrooklyn (U.S.A.) .. 3,451
Rio Salado (Argentina) 6.703 Torun (Poland) .. .. 2.291
Golden Gate (U.S.A.) .. 6.2fi0 Quebec Bridge (Canada) 3,205
Rio Duke (Argentina) 6,866
NOTABLE TELESCOPES
REFRACTOR REFLECTOR
Size Observa- Location Size Observa- Location
in tory _ in tory
inches inches
40 Yerkea Williams Bay 30 Alleghny Pittsburgh,
U.S.A, U.S.A.
36 Lick Mt. Hamilton, 30 Risr.hoff-
Califomia sheim Nice. Franco
32-7 Vniv. of 30 Poidkova Leningrad
Paris Meudon, France u.s.s.r.
31-6 Astro- 200 Palomar - Mt. Palomar,
physical Potsdam, Ger- California
many
68
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Notable Telescopes — {Conoid.')
REFRACTOR
Size ■ Observa-
iinches) tory
100 Mt. Wil-
son
82 McDonald
74 Danlap
72 Dominion
Astro-
physical
REFLECTOR
Location Size Observa- Location
{inches) tory
69 Perkins Delaware, u.s.
Pasadena, Cali- 61 Harvard Harvard tr.s.
fomia 60 Bloem-
Mt. Locke, ti,s.A. fontein S. Africa
Eichmoad Hill, 60 Mt. Wil~
Canada son Pasadena, tj.S.
60 Cordoba Argentina
Victoria, B.C.
LIBRARIES OF THE WORLD
Books
Mss.
Books
Mss.
British Museum
Bibliotheque Na-
6,000,000
-•
Bibliotheque Ro-
yale (Brussels)
2,000,00
tionale {Paris)
State Library
6,000,000
150,000
Biblioteck Na-
cional (Madrid)
" 1 , 500,000
{Berlin)
State Library
2,850,000
• •
Royal Library
(Stockholm)
800,000
{Munich)
Nationalbliothek
2,000,000
• •
Lenin State Li-
brary (illoscow)
15,000,000
(Vienna)
Biblioteca Nazio-
1,450,000
••
Public Library
(Leningrad)
10,000,000
nale {Naples)
Biblioteca Nazio-
1,400,000
11,000
National Diet Li-
brary (Tokio)
3,600,000
nale (Florence)
Biblioteca Nazio-
3,450,000
• •
Library of the
Congress
nale (Rome) .
University Library
.1,940,000
(Washington)
New York Public
10,000,000
(Amsterdam)
.1,500,000
. .
Library (N.Y.)
5,800,000
LARGEST BELLS
Approximate Approximate
weight in weight in
tons tons
Great Bell at Moscow
St. Paul’s (London)
17
(World’s largest)
220
Great Tombs (Oxford)
17
Great Bell, Mingoon,
Seus (France)
13
(Burma)
125
York
12
Great Bell (Peking)
55
Erfuz Cathedral (Prus-
Novgorod (Russia) .
31
sian Saxony)
13
Bell (Cologne Cathedral)
26
Montreal (R. G. Cathe-
St. Issue's Cathedral,
dral)
13
(Leningard)
22
Big Ben (Westminster,
Oulmutz (Austria)
18
Eng.)
12
Vienna
18
Gorlitz (Silesia)
10
Notre Dame (Paris) . .
18
Brugs
10
GENERAL INFORMATION
69
TALL BUILDINGS AND TOWERS
No. of No. of
stories feet stories feet
Empire State (N.Y.) 102 1,250 Waldorf-Astoria
Chrysler (N.Y.) 77 1,046 (N.Y.) .. 49 626
Eiffel Tower (Paris) . . 984 Cathedrals
60 Wall Tower (N.Y.) 66 950 Ulm Cathedral (Ger.) . . 629
Bank of Manhattan St. John the Divine
(N.Y.) . . 71 927 (N.Y.) . . 600
E.C.A. (U.S.) . . 70 850 Cologne Cathedral . . 612
Woolworth (N.Y.) 60 792 Rouen Cathedral (Pr.) . . 485
City Bank (N.Y.) 64 745 Strausshurg Cathe-
Terminal Tower (U.S.) 62 708 dral (Germany) .. 468
600 6th Avenue 60 700 St. Stephen’s Cathe-
Metropolitan Bldg. dral (Vienna) . . . . 441
(N.Y.) .. 60 700 Salsbury .. 440
Chanin Tower (U.S.) 66 680 Seville . . 400
Lincoln (U.S.) 63 673 Antwerp . . 397
Irvine Trust (U.S.) 60 664 Pyramid of Cheops
General Electric (U.S.) 60 641 (Egypt) . . . . 460
HIGHEST AND LARGEST DAMS
Highest (Concrete) feet Largest (Earth fill and or rocTc-
♦Grand Dixence (Switxer- fill) Cubic yds
land) . . 921 Port Peck (U.S.
♦Mauvoisin Do. .. 776 1940) .. 126,628,288
Hoover (U.S. 1936) . . 726 Oahe (U.S.) . . 78,000,000
Bhakra (India, 1954) . . 680 Garrison (U.S.) . . 69,000,000
Shasta (U.S. 1945) .. 602 Fort Randall (U.S.) 27,000,000
Kurobe No. 4 (Japan) . . 590 Kingsley (U.S. 1940) 26,000,000
Tignes (France) .. 590 Gatun (U.S. 1912) 26,107,000
Hungry Horse (U.S.) . . 664 Denison (U.S. 1944) 18,290,000
Grand Coulee (U.S. 1942) 660 Sardis (U.S. 1940) 16,562,000
Ross (U.S. 1950) .. 645 Hansen (U.S. 1940) 14,700,000
Fontana (U.S. 1944) . . 480 Cherry Creek (U.S.
Anderson Ranch (U.S.1950) 456 1950) . . 14,650,000
Chambon (France, 1934) 450
Pine Plat (U.S.) .. 440
Detroit (U.S.) .. 440
WORLD’S GREATEST RESERVOIRS
Capacity
Wainganga, (India) 33,300,000
Lake Mead, Hoover
(U.S.) . . 31,142,000
Oahe . . 23,600,000
Garrison . . 23,000,000
Fort Peck . . 19,400,000
Capacity
Pine Portage . • 11,^3^000
Roosevelt Lake,
Grand Coulee .. 9,402,000
Lac Casse, Canada 8,800,000
Bhakra, India • • 7,400,000
Hirakud, India . . 6,750,000
♦Under construction.
70
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
I
WORLD’S LONGEST SPANS BY TYPES OF BRIDGES
Type
Bridge Location Y ear
Completed
Cable Suspen-
sion
Transporter
Bridge
Cantilever
Steel Arch
Eyebar Suspen-
sion
Concrete Arch
Continuous Truss
Simple Truss
Continuous
Girder
Vertical Lift
Wichert Truss
Swing Span
Tubular Girder
Timber Span
Golden Gate
Sky Ride
^Quebec
Kill Van Kull
’Florianopolis
Sando
Dubuque
’Metropolis
Dusseldorf-
Neuss
’Capecord Canal
Homestead
’Fort Madison
’Britannia
•McKenzie
River
Pretressed Con-
crete Girder
Bascule
Simple Girder
Masonry Arch
Single- Leap
Bascule
Concrete Girder
Worms
•Soult Ste.
Marie
Harlem River
Plauen
•IGth St,
Villeneuve
San Francisco 1937
Chicago 1933
Canada 1917
New York 1931
Brazil 1926
Sweden 1943
Mississippi River 1943
Ohio River 1917
Rhine River 1951
Massachusetts 1935
Pittesburgh 1937
Mississippi River 1927
Menai Straits 1950
Coburg 1926
Germany 1953
Michigan 1914
New York 1951
Saxony 1903
Chicago 1919
Seine River 1939
BIGGEST, LARGEST, GREATEST, LONGEST
Span
(ft.)
4,200
1,850
1,800
1,652
1,114
866
845
720
676
544
533i
625
460
S80
S76
336
330
295
260
266
Largest archipalago
Highe.'Jt Mountain peak
Largest Desert
Largest Palace
Biggest Ship
Largest Diamond Mine
Tallest Statue
Tallest Church
Largest Church
Largest Diamond
Rainiest Place
. . Indonesia.
.. Mount Everest (29.028 ft.).
.. Sahara (Africa) 3,000,000 sq. m.
.. Vatican (Rome).
. . Queen Elizabeth (83.673 tons).
. . Kimberly. South Africa.
.. Statue of Liberty (N.Y.) from heel to
head 111 ft. ; base of the pedastal
to the top of the torch 305 ft.
.. TJlm. Cathedral (Ger. 629 ft. high).
.. Church of St. Peters (Rome).
.. The Cullinan.
. . Cherrapunji, Assam.
•Railroad Bridge
GENERAL INFORMATION
71
Biggest, Largest, Greatest, Longest — {Conoid.)
Biggest & Deepest Ocean ..
Longest Corridor
Longest Rly. Platform
liargest Pearl
Largest Bell
Largest Concrete Structure
Largest Sewage Disposal
Plant
Longest man-made water
supply line
Deepest Mine
Longest railway run ..
Largest Telescope
Largest Museum
Longest River . .
Largest River (in vol.) ..
Largest Railway Station . .
Largest Dome
Largest Building ..
Tallest To%ver ..
Largest group of Islands ..
Largest Delta . .
Largest Royal Palace
Deepest hole
Highest capital city
Highest Straight Gravity
Dam ..
Largest Theatre
Longest Dam
Highest Dam
Largest Single Country
Largest Freshwater Lake . .
Highest Lake ..
Loftiest active volcano
Largest & populous continent
Longest Wall
Highest Suspension Bridge
Tallest Building
Pacific Ocean (64,000,000 sq. _m.).
Rameswaram Temple Corridor, S,
India. About 4,000 ft. long.
Storvik (Sweden) 2,470 ft.
Beresford-Hope Pearl (1,800 grams).
Tsar Kolokol, Kremlin (Moscow)
weights 220 tons.
Grand Dixence (Switzerland).
Chicago Sewage System (U.S.A.).
Colorado Aqueduct (242 miles, U.S.A.).
Ooregum Section of the Kolar Gold-
Fields, Mysore, nearly 10,000 ft. deep.
Riga to Vladivostock (6,000 miles).’
At Mt. Palomar, California, diameter
of reflector is 200 inches.
British Museum (London).
Mississippi-Missouri.
Amazon.
Grand Central Terminal (New York)
with 47 platforms.
Gol Gambuz (Bijapur) 144 ft. in ac-
tual diameter.
The Pyramid at Gizeh, Egypt.
Eiffel Tower, Paris, 984 ft. high.
Malaya Archipelago.
Sundarban Delta, 8,000 sq. m.
The Palace at Madrid.
An oil well of 15,279 ft. in Texas, U.S.
La Paz (Bolivia).
Bakra Dam (India) 680 ft.
Blanquita Theatre (Havana) with-
6,500 Seats.
Gabel Awlia Dam, Egypt (16,400 ft
long).
Manvoisin ( Switzerland, _ 776 ft.).
Brazil (3,285,319 sq. miles).
Lake Superior.
Lake Titicaca (South America), alti-
tude 12,607 ft.
Cotopaxi (19,550 ft.), Equador.
Great Wall of China over 1,500 miles.
Royal Gorge, Colorado, U.S.A. 12,740'
ft. high.
Empire State Building (102 stories,
1,472 ft.).
72
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Biggest, Largest, Greatest, Longest — (Concld.)
Highest Country
Largest office building
Longest Tunnel
Largest Peninsula
Highest Tree
Largest Island
Densest Population
Largest Planetary Body
Biggest Park
Largest Archway
Highest City
Highest Airfield
Longest Thoroughfare
.. Tibet (Averaging 16,000 ft.).
. . Pentagon (U.S.A.) 34 acres, where
32,000 people work daily ; floor area,
approximately 6,500,000 sq. ft. has
17 miles of corridor.
. . Simplon (Switzerland) 12 m. 458 yds.
long.
India.
Giant Sequoia tree, Hamholdt State
Park, California— ^64 ft. high and
estimated to weigh nearly 2,000 tons.
Greenland (827,200 sq. miles).
Monaco (5,000 per sq. m.).
Jupiter.
Yellowstone National Park (U.SA.).
3,350 sq. miles.
Sydney Harbour Bridge (Australia).
Phari, Tibet, altitude 14,300 ft.
Ladakh airfield (Kashmir), 14,230ft.
Broadway in New York.
GREAT INVENTIONS
Invention
Date
Inventor
Nation
Adding Machine
1888
Burroughs
U.S.
Airplane
1903
Wright Bros.
U.S.
Air brake, railroad
1868
Westinghouse
U.S.
Airplane, hydro
1911
Curtiss
U.S.
Airship, Periol
1898
Dumont
Brazil
Airship, rigid
1899
Zeppelin
Ger.
Aluminium
1827
Wohler
Ger.
Antogiro
1920
Dela Cierva
Sp.
Automobile, gasoline
1887
Daimler
Ger.
Bakelite
• •
1908
Baekeland
U.S.
Balloon
1783
Montgolfier Bros. Pr.
Barometer
1643
Torriceli
Italy
Barometer, Aneroid
1799
W. J. Cante
Braille alphabet
, ,
1829
Braille.
Fr.
Bicycle
1842
MacMillan
Scotland
Block Signals, Ry.
1867
Hall
U.S.
Burner, Gas
1855
Bunsen
Ger.
Cash register
1879
Bitty
U.S.
Camera lucida
1807
Wollaston
Br.
Camera obscura
1660
Porta
It.
Cinematograph
1889
Friese-Greene
Eng.
Do. Talking
1927
U.S.A.
Caterpiller Tractor
, ,
1903
Holt
Cellophane
• .
1912
Brandenberger
Swiss
Celluloid
. .
1865
Parkes
Eng.
Cement, Portland
• •
1845
Aspdin
Eng.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Great Inventions — (Confd.)
Clock, Pendulum
Cotton Gin
Cream Separator
Camera, Kodak
Diesel engine
Disk Record
Dynamite
Dynamo
Elevator, brake , ,
Engine, automobile . .
Engine, internal com-
bustion
Engraving, half-tone
Electric light, incandes-
cent
Electric Fan
Fountain Pen
Galvanometer
Gas lighting
Gramophone
Gun cotton
Gyroscope
Gyrocompass
Gas mantle
Glass, laminated
Helicopter
Heliograph
Iridium
Ice-making machine
Indigo, synthetic
1657
1793
1880
1888
1895
1887
1867
1831
1862
1879
1885
1893
1879
1887
1884
1820
1792
1877
1865
1852
1906
1893
1909
1909
1877
1802
1861
1880
Lamp, arc .. 1879
Lamp, incandescent . . 1879
Lamp, Mei-cury-Vapour 1912
Lamp, Safety . . 1816
Lightning rod . . 1762
Linoleum . . 1860
Linotype • . 1884
Locomotive, 1st practical 1829
Locomotive, Steam . . 1801
Loom, power . . 1785
Litho^aphy . . 1796
Machine gun . . 1861
Margarine . . 1868
Match, Safety . . 1865
Match, friction . . 1827
Match, phosphorous . . 1831
Mercerization of Tex-
tiles . . 1877
Huygens
Whitney
De Laval
Eastman
Diesel
Berliner
Nobel
Faraday
Otis
Benz
Daimler
Ives
Edison
Wheeler
Waterman
Sweigger
Murdoch
Edison
Schoenbein
Foucault
Sperry
Welsbach
Benedictus
Breguet
Mance
Brewster
Gorrue
Baeyer
Walker
Brush
Edison
Hewtit
Davy
Franklin
Walton
Mergenthaler
Stephenson
Trevithik
Cartwright
Senefelder
Gatling
Mege-Mouries
Lundstrom
Walker
Sauna
Mercer
Dutch
U.S.
Swedish
U.S.
Ger.
Swedish
Eng.
U.S.
Ger.
Ger.
U.S.
U.S.
ii.s.
Ger.
Scottish
U.S.
Ger.
Fr.
U.S.
Aus.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng,
Eng.
U.S.
Ger.
U.S.
U.S.
U.S.
U.S.
Eng.
U.S.
Eng.
U.S.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
U.S.
Fr.
Swed.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
74
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
Great Inventions — (concld.)
Jificropiione
1877
Berliner
U.S,
ilonotype
1887
Lanslon
XJ.Sa
lilotor A.C.
1892
Tesla
TJ.S,
Slotor Car (Petrol)
1887
Daimler I
Ger.
Jlotor Cycle
1885
(do)
Ger.
lilower, lavn
186S
Hills
U.S.
Movie Projector
1894
Jenkins
U.S.
Nvlon
. .
1937
Du Pont
U.S.
Parachute descent, 1st.
1785
Blanchard
Fr.
Phosphorus
1669
Brandt
Ger.
Pendulum
1581
Galileo
Italian
Photo, Colour
1891
Lippman
Fr.
Photo film
1888
Eastmaii-
Goodwin
U.S.
Photography
1814
Niepce
Fr.
Pin, Safety
1849
Hunt
U.S.
Piano
1709
Cristofori
It.
Powder, Smokeless
1863
Schultze
Ger.
Printing:, Movable type
1440
Guttenburg
Ger.
Printing Press, rotary
1847
R. Hoe
Ger.
Printing Press, Rotary
1846
Hoe
U.S.
Phonograph
, ,
1877
Edison
U.S.
Pneumatic Rubber Tyre
1888
Dunlop
U.S.
Propeller, Screw
1837
Cricsson
Swedish
Radar
1922
Taylor & Totmg
U.S.
Padio telephone
• •
1906
Dp Forest
U.S.
Pmdio
1895
Marconi
Ital.
Radio beacon
1928
Donovan
U.S.
Padioactivity
1896
Becquerel
Fr.
Pailway, Steam
1825
Stephenson
Eng.
Rayon
, *
1883
Swan
Eng.
Rubber, vulcanised
1839
Goodyear
U.S.
Revolver
18.35
Colt
U.S.
Record, Disc
1896
Berliner
U.S.
Semaphone
1794
Chappe
Fr.
Sextant
1590
Brahe
Ger.
Soda water
1907
Thomson
Eng.
Spectacles
, „
1310
Armatus
It.
Spectroscope
1861
Kirchhoff &
Bunsen
Ger.
Steamboat
1807
Fulton
U.S.
Sewing Machine
, *
1846
Howe
U.S.
Sleeping Car
, *
1897
Pullman
U.S.
Steam Engine
« «
1765
Watt
Eng.
•Spinning Jenny
1769
Jlargreaves
Eng.
Steel
• «
1857
Bissemer
Eng.
5teel, Stainless
1916
Brearly
Eng.
Stereoscope
18.38
Wheatstone
Eng.
Talking Machine
• •
1877
Edison
U.S.
GENERAL INFORMATION
75
Great Invention — (Concld.),
Tanl<, military .. 1914 Swinton Eng.
Telegraph, Magnetic 1837 Morse U.S.
Telephone .. 1876 Be.l U.S.
Tractor, Caterpiller .. 1900 Holt U.S.
Telephone amplifier 1912 De Forest U.S.
Telescope, Reflecting 1688 Newton Eng.
Telescope, Refractive 1250 Roger Becon Eng,
Televi.son .. P-ii'-il Sent
Thermometer (Air) . . 1592 Galileo Itelian
Torpedo .. In.O \v ..i.eiead Eng.
Thermometer .. 1701 Reaumer_ Fr.
Thermometer . . 1714 Fahrenheit Ger.
Tire, Pneumatic . . 1888 Dunlop U.S.
Typewriter .. 1868 Sholes U.S.
Tank, Military .. 1914 Swinton Eng,
"Welding, Electric . . 1877 Thomson U.S.
"Waterproofing, rubber 1823 Macintosh Eng.
Wireless Telephone . . 1902 Fessenden U.S.
X’Ray . . 1895 Roentgen Ger.
DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS IN ELECTRICITY
1745 — Von Kleist : Leyden jar
condenser.
1752 — Franklin : Lightning rod
and nature of lightning.
1791 — Galvani: Theory of animal
electricity.
1800 — Volta (It.) : Electric bat-
tery.
1805 — Brugnatelli (It.) : Elec-
troplating.
1810 — Davy (Eng.) : Electric
Arc lamp.
1816 — Rene Lainnec : Stethos-
cope.
1823 — Sturgeon (Br.) ; Electro-
magnet.
1825 — Faraday (Eng.) : Ben-
zine.
1826 — Balard (Fr.) : Bromine.
1828 — Henry ; Electromagnetism
and induction.
1831 — ^Faraday (Br.) : Electric
dynamo.
1832 — Morse : Electric telegraph.
1834 — Moritz Jacobi ; Electric
1861 — Paccinnote (It.) : Elec-
tric armature.
1870 — Gramme; First industrial
dynamo.
187G — Bell: Telephone.
1878 — Crookes; Cathode ray.
1878 — Edison : Electric incandes-
cent lamp.
1885 — Stanley ; Electric Trans-
former.
1888 — Hertz (Ger.) : Electrical
Waves.
1892 — Tesla ; Alternating cur-
rent motor.
1892 — Steinmetz : Laws of alter-
nating current.
1895 — Roentgen : X-ray.
1896 — Marconi : Practical wire-
less.
1897 — Thomson : Isolation of the
electron.
1904 — Fleming; First diode radio
lube.
1907 — De Forest : Triode radio
Motor. tube.
1852 — Gauss: System of absolute 1914 — Coolidge ; Tungsten fila-
clectric measurements. ment lamp.
1925 — Baird : Television.
76
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
medicine and physiology
Circulation. ^ Blood 1907 Shull ; Development
1737_Linnaeus 7“" Cla^sTfic^Uon
■I > 70 ^ T and animals.
1796— Jennp : Vaccination for
small-pox.
■ Chlorine.
iRi^n = Iodine.
= Iodine-
1818— Faraday (Eng.) ; Ether
(anaesthetic).
1819— Laennec : Invention of
stethoscope.
1820— Pelletier _ & Caventon
loor o • Quinine.
1825 — Scheele (Swed.) : Glyce-
cerine.
1831 Eugene Souherran : Chlo-
roform.
1842— W. Long (U.S.) .-Anesthe-
tic ether.
1847— Stapson (Eng.) ; Chloro-
1880 — Nicolaier :
1907-
. Salvarsan.
McCollum : vita-
of
1880-
. Discovery
utanus germs.
-Eberth (Ger.) ; Discovery
IRS? bacillus.
1882— Metchnikov : Function of
18 R? corpuscles.
Klobs: Diphtheria bacil-
ius, — -ttoDim (U.S.) ’
1885— Pasteur (Fr.) : Prerentive
of rabies. — waksman (TJ.S )
1890— T75tyii1 *'
of rabies.
1890— Emil von Behring (Ger)'
189 4 S’-Phl^hcria antitoxin.
1894— Kitasato : Discovery of
ion., plague bacillus.
1894— Roux : Perfection of diph-
1 RQQ U}®ria antitoxin.
1901 Aspirin,
laui— Takamine : First hormone
isolated. Isolation of ad-
renalinc.
1906 — ^Wasserman : Test fn.
sj-phillis. ^
ciupineni of
hybrid com.
-Willslatter : Constitution
inin chlorophyll.
1910— Pavlov : conditioned re-
flex.
1910 — Ehrlich
1912- 14 — E. V.
mine A.
Vitamin C.
1913 Schick ; Test of suscepti-
5919 tn diphtheria.
1913— Goldberger : Cause and
ir.ic control of pellagra.
1915-16--E. V. McCollum : Vita-
mine B.
1918 ^Rabi (Ger.) ; Quinine, syn-
thetic.
1920— C^mette, Guerin (Fr.) :
mIIIv t; Vitamin D.
1922— E. V McCollum : Vitamin
Insulin.
1926— Minot, Whipple and Mur-
phy : Liver treatment of
ansemia.
1932— Domagk ; Sulfa drugs as
"sctericides.
1994~n' = Deuterium
1934— Domagk (Ger.) : Sulfani-
lamidc.
1935 W. M. Stanley : Virus,
crystalized.
1940— Roblin (U.S.) ; Sulfadia
zine.
vu.o./ : Strep-
tomycin.
1946— Du Vigneaud ; Synthetic
penicillin.
1948— B. M. Duggar (U.S.) ; An-
reomycin. ^
1949— Armour & Co (U.S.) :
ccine.
GENERAL INFORMATION
77
THEORIES
Alternating Current, Laios of : Heredity, Laws of : G. Mendel,
Steinmetz, 1592. 1865.
Atomic Theory : Joint Dalton, Intelligence testing, modem : A.
1803. Binet & T. Simon, 1905.
Atomic numbers : H. Moseley, Isotopes, Theory of : P. Soddy,
1913. 1912.
Atom Smashing Theory : Ra- Light, Electromagnetic theory
therford, 1919. . of 3. C. MaKwell, 1873.
Blood circidalion : W. Sarvey, Midtiple proportion, Laios of :
1628. John Dalton, 1808.
Classifieation of Plants & Ani- Molecidar hypothesis : A. Avo-
wals : C. Lennaeus, 1737-53. gadro, 1811.
■Combustion, Nature of : Lavoi- Ohm’s Law : G. S. Ohm, 1827.
sier, 1777. Ongin of Species : Darwin,
Conditioned Reflex : J. Pavlov, 1859.
1910. Periodic table : D. Mendeleev,
Displacement of water, Theory 1869.
of : Archimedes, 3 Century Photo-electric cell. Principles of:
B.C. A. Becquerel, 1839.
Dynamic theory of heat : Kel- Psychoanalysis : S. Freud, 1904.
vin, 1851. Quantum Theory : Max Von
Electromagnetic Waves : Hertz, Plank, 1901.
1886. Refraction of light. Laws of :
Electron, Wave nature of : Louis W. Snell, 1621.
de Broglie, 1924. _ Relativity, theories of : A. Ein-
Evolution by natural selection : stein 1905-53.
Darwin, 1859. Spectrum Analysis : R. Bunsen
Falling bodies, law of : Galileo, & G. Kirchnoff, 1859.
1590. Sidfanilamide Theory : Gelmo
Gravitation, Law of: Newton, (Gr.), 1908.
1687. Uranium fission theory : Hahn,
Germ Theory : Pasteur, 1876. (Gr.), Bohr. (Danish), Fermi
Gases, Laws governing : Joseph (Italian), Wheeler, Einstein
Gay-Lussac, 1809. (U.S.).
Water, Synthesis of : H. Cavan-
dish, 1781.
NOBEL PRIZES
[Dr. Alfred Bernhard Nolel, a Sv.'edish Scientist, was' born in
1833 and died in 1896. He was the inventer of dynamite. He left a
fortune of £1,750,000 and a large part of this was bequeathed to a
fund which was to provide annual prizes to those persons who had
most contributed to the benefit of manldnd. These are five prizes,
awarded for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature
and peace. Each prize is worth £ 12,000.]
Physics
1901 W. K. Roentgen (Ger.). 1903 A. H. Becquerel, France
1902 H. A. LorenTz and P. and_ Pierre and Marie
Zeeman (Denmark). Curie (France).
78
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Physics — {Conoid.).
1904 Lord Rayleigh (England).
1905 Philipp Lenard (Ger.).
1906 3. J. Thomson (Eng.).
1907 A. A. Michelson (U.S.).
1908 G. Lippman (Fi-ance).
1909 G. Marconi (Italy) and F.
Braun (Germany).
1910 J. D. Van der Waals (Hol-
land).
1911 W. Wien (Ger.).
1912 Gustaf Dalen (Sweden).
1913 H. Hamerlinghonnes
(Denmark).
1914 M. Von Laue (Ger.).
1915 W. H. Bragg and W. L.
Bragg (Eng.),
1916 No oirnrd.
1917 C. G. Barika (Eng.).
1918 Max Planck (Germany).
1919 J. Stark (Ger.).
1920 C. E. Guillaume (Swite.).
1921 A. Einstein (Ger.).
1922 Niels Bnhr (Denmark).
1923 R. A. Millikan (U.S.).
1924 Karl M, G. Seigbahn
(Sweden).
1925 James Franck (Ger.).
& Gustav Hertz (Ger.).
1926 Jean B. Perrin (Fran'-e).
1927 Arthur Compton (U.S.)
and Prof. Charles T. R.
Wilson (Ene.)
1928 Prof. 0. W. Ricardson
(Eng.).
1929 Due L. V. de Broglie (Fr.).
1930 Sir C. V. Raman (India).
1931 No award.
1932 W. Heisenberg (Ger.).
1933 P. A. M. Dirac (Eng.)
and Erwin Schroedinger
(Austria),
1934 No award.
1935 J. Chadwick (Eng.).
1936 V. F. Hess (Austria) and
C. D. Anderson (U.S.).
1937 C. J. Davisson (U.S.).
(3. P. Thomson (Eng.).
1938 E. Fermi (Italy).
1939 E. 0. Lawrence (U.S.).
1940-42 No awards.
1943 Otto Sterm (U.S.).
1944 I. I. Rabi ^U.S.).
1945 W. Pauli (Austria).
1946 P. W. Bridgman (U.S.).
1947 Sir E. Appleton (Eng.).
1948 P. M. S. Blackett (Eng.).
1949 Hideki Yukawa (Japan).
19.50 C. F. Powell (Eng.).
1951 Sir John Cockcroft (Eng.)
and E. T. S. Walton (Eire).
1952 E. Purcell & Felix Bloch
(U.S.)
19.53 Prof. Fritz Zemike.
1954 Dr. S. Max Bom & W.
Botbe (Ger.).
1955 W. E. Lamb & P. Kusch
(U.S.). _
1956 — Walter H. Brattain. W.
Shockley & John Bardeen
(U.S.).
Medicine and Physiology
1901 EL A. von Behring (Ger.). 1909 T. Kocher (Germany).
1902 Sir Ronald Ross (Eng.). 1910 A. Kossel (Germany).
1903 N. R. Finsen (Denmark). 1911 A. Gullstrand (Sweden).
1904 Ivan P. Pavlov (Russia). 1912 A. Carrel (America).
1905 Rohert Koch (Germany). 1913 Char'es Richet (France).
1906 Ramony Cajal (Snain) & 1914 R. Bamav (Austria).
Camillo Golgi (Ita'v). 191.5-18 No nirnrd.
1907 O. L. A. Laveran (Francel. 1919 Br. J. Bordet (Belgium).
1908 Paul Ehrlich (Ger.) & E, 1920 August Krogh (Denmark).
Metchnikoff (Fr.). 1921 No award.
GENERAL INFORMATION
7 &
Medicine and Physiology — (.Concld.).
1922 A. V. Hill (Eng.) and 1943 Henrik Dam (Copenhagen)
Otto Mayerhotf (Ger.). and Edward Doisy (U.S.).
1923 F. G. Banting and Dr. J. J. 1944 Joseph Erlanger and H. S.
R. McLeod (Canada). Gasser (U.S.).
1924 W. Einthoven (Holland). 1945 Sir A. Fleming, Sir How-
1925 No award. ard Florey and Dr. E. B.
1926 J. Fibiger (Denmark). Chain (Eng.).
1927 Julius W. Jauregg (Aust.). 1946 H. J. Muller (U.S.).
1928 Charles Nicolle (France). 1947 Dr. Carl F. and Mrs. P.
1929 F. G. Hopkins (Eng.). Cori (Czechoslovakia) and
& C. Eijkmann (Holland). B. A. Houssay (Brazil).
1930 Karl Landsteiner (US.) 1948 Paul Muller (Swiss.).
1931 Otto H. Warburg (Ger.). 1949 W. R. Hess (Swiss) & A.
1932 Sir C. Sherrington & C. D. F. E. Moniz (Portu-
E. D. Adrian (Eng.). gal).
1933 T. H. Morgan (U.S.). 1950 E. C. Kendall & Philip S.
1934 G. R. Minot, W. P. Mur- Hench (Switzerland) & T.
phy and G. H. Whipple ReicKstein (Swiss.).
(U.S.). 1951 Max Tbeiler (U.S.).
1935 Hans Spcmann (Ger.). 1952 S. Waksman (U.S.),
1936 Sir Henry Dale (Eng.) & 1953 Dr. Fritz A. Lipmann &
Prof. Otto Loewe (Aust.). Dr. Hans A. Krebs.
1937 Albert von Szent-gyorgyi 1954 Drs. J. F. Enders, F.
(Hungary). Robbins & T. Weller (U.S.).
1938 C. Heymans (Belg.). 1955 Hugo Theorell (Sweden).
1939 Prof. G. Domagk (Ger.). 1956 Andre Cournand (U.S.),
1940-42 No award. Dr. W. Forsmann (Ger.) &
D. W. Richards (U.S.).
Chemistry
1901 J. H. Hoff (Holland). 1919 No award.
1902 Emil Fischer (Germany). 1920 Walther Nemst (Ger.).
1903 S. A. Arrhenius (Sweden). 1921 Frederick Soddy (Eng.).
1904 Sir W. Ramsay (Eng.). 1922 F. W. Aston (Eng.).
1905 A. Von Baeyer (Ger.). 1923 Fritz Pregl (Austria).
1906 Henri Moissan (France). 1924 No award.
1907 E. Buchner (Germany). 1925 R. Zsigmondy (Ger.).
1908 Ernest Rutherford (Eng.). 1926 T. Svedberg (Sweden).
1909 Wilhelm Ostwald (Ger.). 1927 H. Wieland (Ger.). -
1910 Otto Wallach (Ger.). 1928 Dr. Adolf Windaus (Ger.).
1911 Marie Curie (France). 1929 A. Harden (Eng.) and
1912 V. Grignard and P. Saba- K. A. S. von Euler-Cheplin
tier (France). (Sweden).
1913 Alfred Werner (Swiss.). 1930 Hans Fischer (Germany).
1914 T. W. Richards (Eng.). 1931 Carl Bosch and F. Bergius
1915 R. Willstatter (Ger.). (Germany). _ .
1916-17 No award. 1932 Irving Langmair (U.S.).
1918 Firtz Haber (Germany). 1933 No award.
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
:S0
Chemistry—
1934 H. G. Urey (U.S.). ^ ^
1935 Frederic & Irene Joliot-
Cuiie (France).
1936 Feter J. "W. Dehye (Ger.).
1937 W. N. Haworth (Eng.) &
Panl Karrer (Swiss.).
1938 E. Kuhn (Ger.).*
1939 A. Bntenandt (Ger.) and
Leopold Ruzicka (Swiss.).
1940-42 No award.
1943 G. Heresy (Hnn.).
1944 Otto Hahn (Ger.).
1945 Arttnri Mrtanen (Finland).
1946 James B. Snmner, W. IL
Stanley & J. H. Northrop
(America).
-{Concld.').
1947 Robert Robinson (Eng.).
1948 Ame Telins (Sweden).
1949 W. F. Giangne (U.SA.).
1950 Otto Diels & Kent Adlei
(Germany).
1951 E. M. McMillian & G. T.
Seaborg (U.S_A.).
1952 Dr. A. J. P. Martin & E.
L. M. Synge (Eng.).
1953 Dr. H. Standinger
1954 Dr. L. Pauling (U.S-A).
1955 D. Mncent da Mgneaud.
1956 Sir Cyril Hirshelwood
(Eng.) & Prof. Nikolai
Semenov (U.S.SJl.).
Literature
1901 Rene F. A. SnUy-Fmd-
homme (France).
1902 T. klommsen (Germany).
1903 B. Bjomson (Norway).
1904 F. Mistral (France)
& Jose Ecbegaray (Spain).
1905 H. Sienkiewicz (Poland).
1906 G. Carduici (Italy).
1907 Rudyard Kipling (Eng.).
1908 R Eucken (Germany).
1909 Selma Largerlof (Sweden).
1910 Paul Heyse (Germany).
1911 JL Maeterlink (Belgium).
1912 G. Hauptmann (Ger.).
1913 Rabindranath Tagore (In-
dia).
1914 'No avcard.
1915 Romain Roiland (France).
1916 V. Heidenstam (Sweden).
1917 Karl Gjellerup and R
Pontoppidan (Denmark).
1918 No a-.card,
1919 C. Spitteler (Swiss.).
1920 Knnt Hamsun (Norway).
1921 Anatole France (France).
1922 J. Benavente (Spain).
1923 VT. B. Yeats (Ireland).
1924 TT. P.eymont (Poland).
:1925 G. B. Shaw (Eng.).
•Declined.
1926 Grazia Deled da (Italy).
1927 Henri Bergson (France).
1928 Sigrid Undset .(Norway).
1929 Thomas Mann (Germany)*
1930 Sinclair Lewis (U.S.).
1931 Erik A. Karlfeldt (Sweden).
1932 J. Galsworthy (England).
1933 Ivan (3. Bunin (Russia).
1934 Luigi Pirandello (Italy).
1935 No OTvard.
1936 Eugene O’Neil (U.S.).
1937 R. I»L du Gard (France)
1938 Pearl S. Buck (U.S.).
1939 Emil Sillanpaa (Finland).
1940-43 No atrard.
1944 J. Y. Jensen (Denmark).
1945 Gabriela Mistral (ChSe).
1946 Herman Hesse (Swiss).
1947 Andre Gide (France).
1948 T. S. Eliot (Eng.).
1949 Y7. Faullmex (U.S.).
1950 Bertrand Russell (Eng.).
1951 Par Lagerkvist (Sweden).
1952 Francois Mauriac (Fr.).
1953 "Winston ChurchiU (Eng.).
1954 E. Hemingway (U.S.).
1955 Halldor K. Lanness
(Iceland).
1956 Juen R. Jimenez (Spain).
GENERAL INFORMATION
81
Peace
1901 Henri Dunant (Switzer-
land) & F. Passy (Fr.).
1902 Elie Ducommun and A.
Gobat (Belgium).
1903 W. R. Cremer (Eng.).
1904 The Institute of Interna-
tional Law (Belgium).
1905 Bertha von Suttner (Aus-
tria).
1906 T. Roosevelt (U.S.).
1907 E. T. Moneta (Italy) and
Louis Renault (France) .
1908 K. P. Arnoldson (Sweden)
& Frederick Bajer (Den).
1909 Baron de Constant (Fr.)
& A. Beemaert (Belgium).
1910 International Permanent
Peace Bureau (Swiss.).
1911 Prof. T. M. C. Asser (Hol-
land) & A. Fried (Austria).
1912 Elihu Root (U.S.).
1913 H. la Fontaine (Belgium).
1914-16 No award.
1917 International Red Gross,
(Geneva).
1918 No award.
1919 Woodrow Wilson (U.S.).
1920 Leon Bourgeois (France).
1921 K. H. Branting (Sweden)
and Christian L. Lange
(Norway).
1922 F. Nansen (Norway).
1923-24 No award.
1925 Charles G. Dawes (Il.S.) &
Sir A. Chamberlain (Eng.).
1926 Aristide Briand (France)
& G. Stresemann (Germ.).
1927 F, Buisson (France) and
Ludwig Quidde (Germany).
1928 No award.
1929 F. B. Kellogg (U.S.)
1930 L. 0. J. Soderblom (Swe-
den).
1931 Jane Addams & Nicholas
M. Butler (U.S.).
1932 No award.
1933 Norman Angell (Eng.).
1934 A. Henderson (Eng.).
1935 Carl von Ossietosky (Ger,).
1936 C. de S Lamas (Argentine).
1937 Viscount Cecil (Eng.).
1938 Nansen International Office
for Refugees (Geneva).
1939-43 No award.
1944 International Committee
of Red Cross (Swiss).
1945 Cordell Hull (U.S.).
1946 Eamily G. Balch and John
Mott (U.S.).
1947 American Friends Service
Committee (U.S.) and Br.
Society of Friends Service
Council (Eng.).
1948 No aroard.
1949 Lord Boyd-Orr (Scotland).
1950 Ralph J. Bunche (U.S.).
1961 Leon JohnaUX (France).
1962 Albert Schweitzer.
1953 George C. Marshall (U.S.).
1954 No Award.
1956 U. N. High Commissioner,
for Refugees.
1956 No award.
INDIAN STONES AGAINST PLANETARY ACTIONS
Sun [Ravi) . . Ruby
Mars (Mangal) . . Coral
Moon [Chandra) . . Pearl
Mercury [Budh) . . Emerald
Jupiter [Brihas-
pati) . . Pokraj
Venus [Sukra) . . Diamond
Saturn [Shani) ., Sapphire
Ascending Node. , Gomed
[Rahoo)
Descending Node. . Cat’s eye
[Ketoo)
6
82
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
BIRTH STONES
January— Garaet — Constancy. August — P eridot, Sardonyx—
February — Amethyst — Sincerity. married happiness.
March — Aquamarine, Blue Stone September — S apphire — clear
— Courage. thinking.
April — Diamond — Innocence. October — O pal. Tourmaline —
May — Emarald — ^Love, Success. Hope.
June — Pearl, Alexandrite Moon- November — Tapaz—
stone — Health. December — Turquoise, Zircon —
July — Ruby — Contentment. Prosperity.
ANIMAL AND BIRD RECORDS
Tallest Animal — Giraffe. Largest of the sea birds — ^Alba-
Largest land animal — Elephant. tross.
Easiest Bird — Swift, sometimes Fastest animal — Cheetah,
flies 200 miles per hour. Largest sea animal — Blue Whale-
Largest quadruped of the dog Smallest Bird — Humming bird.
family — Wolf, Longest lived creature — Blue
Largest animal of the cat Whale (500 years).
family — Lion. _ Largest of the flat fish — ^Helibut.
Largest of man-like or anthro- Longest necfc— Giraffe.
paid apes — Gorilla. Largest living bird — Ostrich,
Heaviest bird — Condor. '
PERIOD OF GESTATION OF VARIOUS ANIMALS
Bear
7 months
Lion
.. 16 weeks
Beaver
4 months
Man
. . 9 months
Camel . ,
13 months
Opossum
. . 26 days
Cat .
55 to 63 days
Pig
p. 4 months
Cow
62 to 63 days
Puma
. . 15 weeks
Elephant
20 to 22 months
Rabbit
.. 30 to 32 days
Fox
62 to 63 days
Rat
. . 20 days
Giraffe
14 months
Sheep
. . 6 months
Goat
5 months
Squirrel
. . 30 days
Guinea pig
62 days
Tapir
. . 10 to 11 months
Horse
11 months
Wolf
.. 62 to 63
days
Kangaroo
39 days
SPEEDS
In Air
m.p.h. Arrow
.. 200
Carp
0-9
Woodcock
. . 13 Dive bomber . . 725
Plying fish
35
Vulture
» . 89 Transport
plane 195
Sail boat
30
Robin
. . 36 Bullet 2,000 ft. per
Passenger liner 35
Swallow
. . 110 second.
Light Cruiser
50
Homing pegion
62
Torpedo boat
60
Duck Hawk
. . 180 In water
m.p.h.
Outboard motor
Golden Eagle
. . 120 Swimmer
4-01
boat
74-39
Fighter plane
Perch
1-3
Racing speed
(about)
.. 700 Pike
10
boat
141-74
GENERAL INFORMATION
83
S p eeds — (Concld.)
On land
m.p.h.
Runner
21.7
Gazelle
60 Speed-test auto
_
Turtle
.01
White-tailed
mobile
394-h
Coral Snake
0.72
deer
49 Cheeta
70
Race horse
42-3
Greyhound
36 Steamlined
Rabbit
45
train
135 -h
Skater
25-3
HEIGHTS AND DEPTHS
Main achievements in the sky
Highest flight by balloon carrying instruments . .
Highest rocket flight
Highest flight in plane
Highest flight by passenger-carrying balloon
On and under the land
Highest point on land (Mt. Everest)
Tallest structure (Empire State Building)
Deepest oil well (Kern County, California)
Deepest mine (gold mine, Johannesburgh)
Under the Sea
Deepest point reached by submarine
Deepest point by man in rubber suit
Deepest point by man in metal suit
Deepest ocean bed in the Pacific Ocean
Greatest depth man has reached in the ocean by
bathycaphe
140,000 ft.
over 250 miles
83,235 ft.
72,395 ft.
21,018 ft.
1,472 ft.
21,480 ft.
9,180 ft.
800 ft.
450 ft.
500 ft.
35,640 ft.
13,287 ft.
LARGEST SHIPS
Name Gross tons Length Breadth Depth Speed
(ft.)
(ft.)
(ft.)
[knots)
Arcadia (Brit.)
29,736
687-7
90-2
35-7
22
Augustus (Italy)
27,090
680-4
87-5
33-0
21
Britannic (Brit.)
27,666
683-6
82-4
48-6
18
Capetown Castle (Brit.)
27,002
702-9
82-6
42-0
20
Caronia (British)
34,183 •
687-6
91-4
48-6
22
Cristoforo Colombo (Italy)
29,100
626-6
89-9
50-1
23
Edinburgh Castle (Brit.)
28,705
717-9
84-0
43-9
22
Georgic (Brit.)
27,469
682-8
82-4
48-6
18
Giulio Cesare (Italy)
27,078
680-6
87-5
33-0
21
Himalaya (Brit.)
27,950
681-7
90-8
36-5
22
Iberia (Brit.)
28,000
686-0
90-7
35-5
22
He do France (Fr.)
44,356
763-6
91-9
28-5
23
Liberte (France)
61,839
893-4
101-9
48-0
26i
Mauretania (British)
35,674
739-4
89-4
61-7
23
Nicuw Amsterdam (Neth.)
36,667
713-7
88-3
60-0
215
Orcades (British)
28,164
681-7
90-8
35-5
22
84
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
Oronsay (British)
Orsova (British)
Pasteur (France)
Pretoria Gastle (British) .
Queen Elizabeth (British)
Queen Mary (British)
United States (U.S^A.)
Ships —
{Coneld.)
27,632
681-7
90-8
35-5
22
28,790
690-0
90-6
35-5
22
30,447
670-7
88-0
52-6
22
28,705
717-9
84-0
43-9
oo
83,673
987-4
118-6
68-4
2Si
81,237
975-2
118-6
68-5
2Si
53,329
916-S
101-6
39-0
29
ATLANTIC BLUE RIBAND
1935 Normaiidie (France) 80,000 tons 4 days 3 hrs. 2n.
1936 Queen Mary (British) 81,237 tons 4 days 0 hrs. 27ib.
1936 Queen Mary (British) 81,237 tons 3 days 23 hrs. 57m.
1937 Normandie (Prance) 80,000 tons 3 days 23 hrs. 2m.
1938 Queen Mary (British) 81,237 tons 3 days 21 hrs. 45m.
1938 Q!ice7z Mary (British) 81,237 tons 3 days 20 hrs. 42m.
1952 United States (U.S.A.) 53,329 tons 3 days 10 hrs. 40m.
RECORD FLIGHTS AND JUMPS
Longest flight of Record distance of
homing pegeon 7,200 miles ski jumper 350.96 ft.
Firing range of Longest recorded
average heavy kick of a football 88 yds.
Gun over 20 miles Record baseball
"White-faced gib- throvr 44S ft. 5i is.
bon’s leap 40 ft.
Jump of a grass-
hopper 16 ft. 8 in.
DECORATIONS & MEDALS
^^ctoria Cross (Great Britain)
Iron Cross (Germany)
Legion of Honour (iSance)
Croix de Guerre (Prance)
Victory Medal (U.SN.)
NATIONAL AND
China . . Narcissus.
England . . Rose.
France . . Fleur-de-lis.
Germany . . Comflorver.
Greece . . Laurel.
India . . Lotus.
Ireland . • Shamrock.
Italy . . LUy.
Mexico .. Cactus.
Switzerland . . Chrysanthemum
Japan .. Edelweiss.
Scotland . . Thistle.
Militarj’ Cross (Belgium)
Medal for Valour (Italy)
Order of the Patriotic "War
(Soviet Union)
Order of the Rising Sun (Japan)
STATE FLOIiERS
Spain . . Pomegranate.
U. S. A . . Golden rod.
Persia .. Rose.
IVales . . Leek or DaS’odils
Prussia . . Linden.
Canada . . Maple leaf.
Egypt . . Lotus.
Holland . . Tulip.
Australia . . Golden Wattle.
Denmark . . Forget-me-not.
Spain . . Red carnation.
WORLD GAZETTEER
(A BRIEF GUIDE TO THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD)
ABYSSINIA — An empire in East Africa, official name Ethiopia,
The Emperor directly controls the government, though there now is
a Council of Ministers, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. All
members are appointed by the monarch. The actual form of govern-
ment is thus the personal rule of the Emperor. Population —
15,000,000. Eritrea, a country of E. Africa, a former Italian Colony
was federated with Ethiopia in 1952. Capital — Adis Ababa.
AFGHANISTAN — A mountainous Moslem kingdom lying bet-
ween Pakistan, Iran and Soviet Union. Afganistan runs all the way
from Iran eastward to China and forms a long barrier between
Soviet Union and Pakistan. The Government is constitutional
monarchy. Under the Constitution of Oct. 31, 1931 there is a
Senate of 43 nominated members and a National Council of 171
elected members with a Grand Assembly which is summoned on
important occasions. The administration is entrusted to the Council
of Ministers. The laws of Afghanistan are based on the “Shariat” or
Islamic law and tribal custom. The main routes to Pakistan
passes through the mountains, the chief being Khyber from
Kabul and Bolan from Kandahar. The country is mountainous and
undeveloped. It can be reached only by a few high passes. There are
no railways and navigable rivers. Afganistan’s rough mountains
have prevented the building of railroads. This has discouraged trade
and travel in the country. The country is divided into seven
major provinces. Each province is under a governor. Languages
spoken — Pashtii & Persian. Area : 270,000 square miles. Popula-
tion — 13,000,000. Capital — Kabul.
ALBANIA — A mountainous Baltic republic in southern Europe
bounded by Yugoslavia, Greece and Adriatic Sea, was incorporated
with Italy in 1939 but now a free republic. Under 1946 constitution,
Albania has a typical Soviet Government. Supreme power is vested
in the popularly elected national assembly, to which the Cabinet,
headed by the premier is responsible. Area : 10,029 sq. m. Popula-
tion — 1,250,000. Capital — Tirana.
ANDORRA — Republic of Europe in the Pyrenees mountains
under the joint suzerainty of France and Spanish Bishop of Urgel.
It has enjoyed undisturbed sovereignty since 1278. Area : 191 sq. m.
Pop. 5,231. Capital — Andorra.
ARABIA — A peninsula in south-west Asia inhabited by Arabs,
was a single political unit, now comprises the following States —
Aden Colony (British), Aden Protectorate, Bahrein Islands (Sul-
tanate), Kuwait (Sheikdom), Oman and Masqat (Sultanate), Qatar
(Sheikdom), Saudi Arabia, (Kingdom), Trucial Coast (Sheikdoms),
Y’emen (Kingdom).
86
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Smidi-Arahia — is the most important state of the peninsula
occupying nearly four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula. It consists
of Nejd, Hejaz and its dependencies. Area ; 927,000 sq. m. Popula-
tion — 6,500,000. Capital — Riyadh.
Sheikdom of Kmvait — is an independent Arab Sheikdom. It
extends along the shore of the Persian Gulf from lTaq_ to Saudi
Arabia. The principality has one of the world’s richest oil reserves.
Capital — Kmuait.
Sultanate of Oman and Masqat — occupies the mountainous
south-eastern part of the peninsula. The State is best known for its
date cultivation. Capital — Mascut.
Qatar — occupies the whole of the Qatar peninsula in the_ Per-
sian Gulf. It is ruled under British protection by a Sheik. Capital —
Doha. ,
Sheikdoms of Trucial Coast — extend along part of the Gulf of
Omah and southern coast of Persian Gulf. It is ruled by seven semi-
independent Sheikhs.
Kingdom of Yemen — is an independent state occupying the south-
western extremity of the peninsula. Capital— SctTum.
Aden — is a British colony and protectorate situated on the
volcanic southern tip of the Arabian peninsula along the Gulf of
Aden. The 20-odd sultans who rule their respective territories m
the protectorate are resnonsible to the British Governor of Aden.
Baherein Islands — ^These islands form an archipelago in the
Persian Gulf and are nominally an independent Sheikdom but are
actually a protectorate of Great Britain, The islands are important
for their oil, pearl, fisheries and strategic position. Area 213 sq. m.
Capital — M anamah.
ARGENTINA — Second largest South American Republic. It is
Federal Union of sixteen provinces and eight territories. The_ cons-
titution is modelled on that of U.S.A. but each province enjoys a
large measure of autonomy. -The executive is in the hands of the
President, who selects his Cabinet. The National Congress consists
of a Senate of 30 members and of a House of Deputies of 149 mem-
bers, ^th 11 non-voting delegates from National Territories. Argen-
tina is regarded as the most important nation in Latin America
besides Brazil. Economically it is the most developed of all : it has
43 p.c. of the foreign trade of South America. 64 p.c. of all South
American railwards and 55 p.c. of all automobiles. Argentina is a
world leader in wheat, corn, flaxseed ; alfalfa grown for feed to sup-
port huge heads of cattle is main crop ; it also leads in beef, mutton,
hides and wool. The language is Spanish. Area : 1,079,965 sq. m.
Pop. — 18,379.000. Capital — Buenos Aires.
AUSTRALIA — is a self-governing member of the British
Commonwealth of Nations and is a federal union of eight states —
Tasmania, Western Australia, Queensland, Northern Territory. South
Australia. New South Wales, Victoria and Australian Capital terri-
tory. TTie government is that of a Federal Commonwealth within
the British Commonwealth of Nations, the executive power being
vested in the Sovereign (through the governor-general), assisted
WORLD GAZETTEER
87
by a Federal Ministry. Australia is primarily an agricultnral coun-
try, one of the world’s greatest producers of wheat and wool, hut
industralisation has been extensive. There is much unique flora, e.g.
giant encal^tus, and fauna, e.g. kangaroo, wallaby and wambat,
platypus, sping anteater, koala bear and many unusual birds. Wool
is Australia’s greatest primary industry which produces 27 p.c. of the
world’s wool and 57 per cent of its marino wool. Australia is also
one of the largest producers of wheat. Area : 3,000,000 sq. m.
Pop. — 8,986,842. Capital — Canherra.
AUSTRIA — is a country of Central Europe. 'The country be-
came a free independent nation on the 15th May, 1955 for the first
time since German troops entered into the country in March 1938.
Austrian State Treaty signed on May 15. 1955 liberated Austria from
seventeen years of foreign occapation, first by the Nazis and then by
the Allies. 'The Treaty reestablished Austria as “a sovereign in-
dependent and democratic state with frontiers of Jan. 1. (1938 before
Hitler seized the country). Austria agreed never to form an economic
or political union with Germany. It is a federal republic comprised
of nine provinces (including Vienna), each of which has its own
elected assembly for the control of regional affairs. TTie federal
parliament consists of two houses. The President of the Republic
is elected by national popular vote for a term of six years. 'The
Government is administered by the Chancellor and his cabinet. Area:
32,388 sq. m. Pop — 6,912,959. Capital — Vienna.
BELGIUiM — ^North-west European Kingdom. Government is
consitutional hereditary monarchy with a bicameral legislatare con-
sisting of the King, the Senate, and the House of Deputies. Bel-
gium is the most densely populated country in Europe. Belgium is
also a great colonial power ; she possesses Belgian Congo in Central
Africa which is one of the world’s largest copper producers, the
greatest producer of radium and also producer of gold and diamond.
'The Belgrian Colonial Empire consists of Belgiam Congo (Africa)
and Ruanda-Urundi (U.N. Trust territory). Total area : 11,755
sq. m. Pop. — 8,757,691. Capital — Brussels.
BHUTAN — Bhutan is a small semi-independent state lying on
the south-east .slope of the Himalayas, bordered on the north by
Tibet and on the east, south and west by the Indian Union. 'The
inhabitants are Mongolians and follow Buddhism. Agriculture is
the chief industry. The country is governed by the hereditary king.
A treaty signed with India in August, 1949 increased India’s subsidy
to Bhutan and placed Bhutan’s foreign affairs under Indian control.
Area : 18,000 sq. m. Pop. — 300,000. Capital — Ptinakha.
BOLIVIA — South American Republic located in the west central
portion of the South America, Bolivia is a republic, electing by
popular vote a president every four years, 927-member Senate
every six years and a 111-member Chamber of Deputies every four
years. The president appoints the 10 members of his cabinet. Area :
416,040 sq. m. Pop. — 3,054,000. Capital — La Paz.
BRAZIL — By far the largest country in South America and
88
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
occupies nearly half of South America. In the world, it ranks after
U.S.S.R., China and Canada. Brazil is a federation of
twenty States, five territories and one federal district. The Presi-
dent is popularly elected for a five-year term. The National Con-
gress is composed of two houses — ^the Senate and Chamber of Depu-
ties. Brazil leads the world in the production of coffee and castor
beans and ranks second in cacao. The coffee crop represents
three-quarters of the world's supply. The language is Portuguese
with many dialects. Area : 3,291,416 sq. m. Pop. — 55,772,000.
Capital — Rio de Janerio.
BULGARIA — Balkan Republic. The constitution of 1947 mo-
delled after that of Soviet Union provides that the unicameral Na-
tional Assembly is the supreme organ of the State. The legislation
has enacted complete state ownership or control of industry, banking,
foreign and internal trade and collectivization of agriculture.^ The
Assembly elects a 15-member presidium, the president of _ which_ is
the nominal chief of state ; governmental administration is carried
on by the Premier and his cabinet who are responsible to the Assem-
bly. Area : 42,848 sq. m. Population — 7,160,000. Capital — Sofia.
BURMA — Burma's independence from Great Britain became
effective on Jan. 4, 1948. A Constituent Assembly was elected
on April 9, 1947 ; and the Constitution adopted on Sept. 24, 1947. The
orientation of the government is toward moderate socialism which
places emphasis on joint government-private enterprise, exploita-
tion of natural resources, government ownership of transport and
utilities, the e.xtension of co-operative enterprises and land
nationalisation. The Constitution provides for a government headed
by the president, who is elected by the two houses of Parliament
meeting in a joint session. The Union Parliament elected for
four-year terms, consists of the Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber
of Nationalities. "With the Burma proper it has four frontier areas
— ;S_han, Kachin, Karen and Karenni States and the Chin Special
Division. Due to continued political unrest Karen State w’as formally
inangurated in June 1954. The principal productions are teakwood,
rice, cotton, maize, tobacco, tin, silver and petroleum. The rubies,
sapphires and jade found in Burma, are unsurpassed in quality. The
Area : 3,845,744 sq. miles. Population — 14,009,429 (1951). Capital—
Rangoon.
CANADA — ^is an independent and Sovereign member of the
British Commonwealth of Nations with the second continuous
land area in the world, stretching across the northern part of the
north American continent. It is a federal union of 10 provinces
whose powers are laid doxm in British North America Act of 1867.
The executive powers rest nominally in the hands of the Governor-
General who represents the English Queen. Actually Governor-
General acts only with the advice of the Prime Minister and
members of the Cabinet. The Parliament has two houses — a
Senate and a House of Commons. Canada is one of the world's
leading sources of wheat, enormously rich in forests ; also ores,
metals, oils and other raw materials are produced in quantities.
WORLD GAZETTEER
89
Canada leads the world in production of newsprints, asbestos, nickel
and platinum. Of special interest is the uranium ore mined in the
northern Canada, one of the only two places so far known in the world
where raw material for atomic energy can be mined easily. Cana-
dian fishing are among the most extensive and prolific in the world.
Area ; 3,845,744 sq. miles ; Population — 14,009,429 (1951). Capital —
Ottawa.
CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION— was established by Act
of the British Parliament in 1953. It affects Northern and Southern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia
have a Governor, an executive council and a legislature, Nyasaland
is a protectorate. Under the Constitution of 1953, federation has a
virtual self-governing status and each of the three territories will
retain status in local matters.
CEYLON — The island of Ceylon lies in the Indian Ocean 13 miles
off the southern tip of India at its closest point. It is now a self-
governing Dominion of British Commonwealth from 1948. Under the
new Constitution, Ceylon’s Government is headed by the Crown-ap-
pointed Governor-General, who is advised by a Council of Ministers
headed by a Prime Minister. The bicameral parliament consists of
a House of Representatives and a Senate. The administration of the
island is in the hands of the Cabinet of Ministers who are collectively
responsible to the legislature. Area : 25,332 sq. m. Population —
8,384,000. Capital — Colombo; Flag : dark red ■with yellow border
finials in corners, yellow lion symbol in centre ; two vertical stripes
of green and saffron at pole
CHILE — A democratic State lies on the west coast of South
America. In Chile, the only natural nitrate in the world is found.
So sixty per cent of the world’s iodine is obtained as a by-product of
nitrate processing. World’s second largest copper is Chile, official
language is Spanish. Area : 286,397 sq. m. Population — 6,238,000.
Capital — Santiago .
CHINA — Republic of Asia since 1912. It is second in size and
first in population among the countries in the world. It occupies a
vast area in south-east Asia including China proper, Manchuria,
Mongolia, Tibet and Sinkiang (E. Turkestan etc.) ; most densely
populated country in the world. Soviet-type of government has been
established by the communists in 1949 who control whole of China
except Formosa. The Chinese People’s Republic established in 1949,
has as its primary legislative body the Central People’s Government
Council and as its executive the State Administrative Council. There
are subsidiary bodies dealing with military affairs, justice, finance
etc. Provincial People’s Governments have been set up for the pro-
■vinces. Three religions of China are Confuseanism, Taoism and
Buddhism. China proper : 3,760,339 sq. m. Population — 463,493,418.
Capital — Peking. Two separate governments however continue to
claim sovereigntly over all China. Republic of China under Chiang
Kaishek governs only the island of Formosa, on the other hand
Communist China controls the 18 provinces on the continent. Civil
90
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
war between Republic of China and Peoples’ Republic of China
continue unabated.
C0L03IBIA — South American Republic located in north-west of
South America. Area : 447,536 sq. m. Pop. — 12,657,070. Capital —
Bogota.
COSTA RICA — is the most southern State of Central America.
The Government of Costa Rica is republican, democratic and repr^
sentative. Government functions are exercised through four semi-
independent but interrelated branches : the Executive, the Legisla-
tive (Single Chamber), Judiciary and the Electoral Organisation.
Area : 32,000 sq. m. Pop. — 898,000. Capital — San Jose.
CUBA — The Pearl of Antilles is the largest island in the West
Indies. It is the largest sugar cane producer in the world. Tobacco
ranks second in importance. The Government is by the President,
Senate and House of Representatives. Area : 44,164 sq. m. Pop. —
5,926.000. Capital — Havana.
CU5IBODI.4. — became an independent country in 1955. National
Assembly in September 1955 declared the country’s independence
from France. (Constitutional reform included a parliamentmr gov-
ernment and the vote for women. Population : 3,800,000.
CZECHOSLOVAKI.A. — A central European republic formed in
1918 as one of the succession states of the Austro-Hungurian
Empire, it then comprised Bohemia, Moravia, with .Austrian Silesia,
Slovakia and Ruthenia. Ruthenia was however ceded to Russia in
1945. In 1948, after the establishment of the People’s !^public, the
old provinces were abolished and the countrj* was divided into
19 regions . It has a Soviet type constitution promulgated
on June 8, 1948. There is an unicameral Parliament, the supreme
organ of the State with control over Courts and Civil Service. The
government is headed by the President elected by Parliament for a
seven-year term and the Prime Minister and his cabinet, who are ap-
pointed by the President but are responsible to the Parliament. The
constitution contains guarantees of civil liberties and provides that
the state shall conduct all economic activity in the public interest
on the basis of single economic plan. Czechoslovakia possesses one
of the richest territories in Europe, both in the matter of natural
resources and industrial developments. Area : 49,330 sq. m. Pop. —
12,815,000. Capital — Prague {Praha).
DENMARK — Kingdom of north Europe. The Government is a
hereditary monarchy. The King and Parliament jointly hold legis-
lative power. There is an unicameral Parliament of 179 members.
Danish dairy products are world famous and the country in normal
times exports more butter than any in the world. Area: 16,576 sq. m.
Population — 4,405,000. Capital — Copenhagen.
DOMINKILAN REPUBLIC — The Republic (formerly San Do-
mingo) occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island which Colum-
bus named La Espanola (now Hispaniola) when he discovered it on
his first voyage in 1492, lies east of Cuba between -Atlantic Ocean
and the Caribbean _ Sea. Area : 19,300 sq. m. Pop. — 2,167,000.
Capital — Cuidad Trujillo.
WORLD GAZETTEER
91
EQUADOR — Republic in the Pacific coast of South America :
Equador is the world’s chief source of the supply of balsa, a light
wood. Area : 287,000 sq. m. Population — 3,300,000. Capital — Quito.
EGYPT — An independent Kingdom of N.-E. Africa. It is the
largest and the most influential of Arab States. In Oct. 1951 Egypt
abrogated the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty of alliance due to the
failure of negotiations for the revision of the 1936 treaty because
of the British refusal to recognise Egyptian sovereignty over the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The army led by Gen. M. Naguib seized
power on July 23, 1952 and King Parouk abdicated in favour of his
infant son. The monarchy was abolished and republic proclaimed
on June 18, 1953 with Naguib holding the posts of both provisional
president and premier. He relinguished the latter post on April 18,
1954 to Gamal Abdel Nasser, leader of the ruling Military Junta.
An agp-eement was reached with Britain on July 27, 1954 on broad
terms for evacuation of the Suez Canal Zone. A new constitution
is to be drafted during three-year transitional period beginning in
1953. Area : 386,000 sq. m. Pop. — 22,000,000. Capital — Cairo.
EL SALVADOR — is the smallest of the six Central American Re-
publics and the only one without an Atlantic Sea coast. Area : 13,176.
Population — 1,986,000, Capital — San Salvador.
FINLAND — Republic in N.-W. Europe declared an independent
state in 1917 ; fringed by islands and dotted with lakes, the State
was an autonomous Russian State, but proclaimed an independent
state in July 29, 1917 and a republic in 1919. Under the constitution
there is a single Chamber composed of 200 members elected by
universal suffrage. The legislative power is vested in the Chamber
and the president. The highest executive power is held by the
President who is elected for a period of six years. One of the chief
occupations in Finland is lumbering : articles made from wood in-
clude matches, constructional timber, paper and cellulose. The Pre-
sident is chosen for a term of six years. Area : 130,165 sq. m.
Pop.— 4.11,835. Capital — Helsinki.
FORMOSA — Island off the coast of China held by the
Nationalist forces. Area : 13,800 sq. m. Pop. 7,617,753. Capital —
Taipei.
FRANCE — Republic of Western Europe bordering on Spain in
the S.-W. Italy, Switzerland and Germany in the E., Belgium and
Luxemburg in the N.-E., and facing the Mediterranean, Atlantic
Ocean and English Channel on the S., W. and N. resnectively.
The Constitution of the Fourth Republic came into force in Dec. 1946
and vested the Government in the National Assembly elected by the
universal suffrage, and the Council of the Republic, an advisory
body elected by the Commissions and depts. Both are assisted by an
Economic Council. The President of the Republic is elected by both
houses, presides over the Council of Ministers, the Supreme Council of
Justice and the Armed Forces, and nominates the President of
the Council of Ministers at each new legislature. _ The President of
the Council arranges his cabinet and must have his policy approved
before his ministers are appointed.
92
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Under the Constitution, the French Union consists of 90 De-
partments of Metropolitan France, seven Overseas Departments and a
number of Overseas Territories, Trust Territories and Associated
States.
GERMANY — After the fall of Germany in the WorId_ War II,
for the purposes of control, Germany was divided in 1945 into four
national occupation zones each headed by a military governor assisted
by appropriate supervisory and operating staff. Efforts to unify
Germany were totally unsuccessful, and the western powers were
unable to agree with U.S.S.R. on any fundamental issue. So on
May 31, 1948 U.S. Britain, France and Benelux countries agreed to
set up a German State comprising the three western zones. The
Federal Republic of Germany came into formal existence on_ Sep-
tember 1, 1949 when Allied High Commission transferred to it the
administration of the U. S., British and French Zones of occupation
of Germany. On May 8, 1949 the German Constituent Assembly at
Bonn approved the constitution for Western Germany.
The Constitution provides for a parliament with two houses.
A special assembly chooses the president for Five Years. The presi-
dent nominates the chancellor subject to the approval of the lower
house. The occupying powers, France, Britain and U.S. restored the
civil status. Sept. 21, 1949. The U.S., Great Britain and France con-
cluded peace contract agreements with Westem Germany in 1952
restoring nearly complete independence and making it a member
of the free European Community. Further protocols signed in Oct.
23, 1954 by Westem Germany and 14 other westem nations gave the
Federal Republic virtual Sovereignty. Following the ratification oi
agreements, the Republic became officially independent on May
5, 1955.
German Democratic Republic comprises Soviet zone of occuji^
tion of Eastern Germanj'. It was proclaimed on Oct. 7, 1949 wim
its seat at Berlin on the basis of a Constitution adopted on May 30,
1949 by a People’s Congress. The Constitution is Soviet in nature.
The Soviet Union proclaimed it a Sovereign republic, March 26, 1954.
Area ; 94,723 sq. m.; Population : 49,516,000 ; Capital — Bonn.
GREAT BRITAIN & NORTHERN IRELAND— The United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland comprising England,
Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Island of Man and the Chaniml
Islands lies on the north-west comer of Europe. Parliament is the
legislative governing body for the United fcngdom with certain
powers over the dependent Empire but none o\'er the Dominions. It
consists of two houses — the House of Lords and the House of
Commons. United _ Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a
queen and a Parliament. Supreme legislative power is vested in
Parliament. The executive power of the Crown is exercised by the
Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. Great Britain is second only
to U.S.A. among the industrial nations of the world, hlost im-
portant manufacture is heavy goods such as machinery, tools, bridges
and locomotives. Area : 94,300 sq. m. Population — 51,113,000. Capi-
tal — London.
WORLD GAZETTEER
93
GREECE — is located at Balkan peninsula in south-western
Europe stretching down into Mediterranean Sea. Greece is a cons-
titutional hereditary monarchy. Nominal executive power is vest-
ed in the king but the government is administered by the Council of
Ministers, headed by the Premier who must enjoy the Assembly's
confidence. Area : 51,246 sq. m. Pop. — 8,150,000. Capital — Athens.
GUATEMALA — Republic of Central America. Area : 42,042
sq. m. Pop. — 3,012,000. Capital — Guatemala.
HAITI — It occupies the western third of the island known as
Hispaniola, the second largest of the Creator Antilles lying between
Cuba on the west and Puerto Rico on the east. It is the only
negro republic v;ith western hemesphere. Area : 10,714 sq. m.
Pop. — 3,112,000. Capital — Port-au-Prince.
HONDURAS — ^Republic of Central America. Area : 43,227 sq.
m. Population — 1,533,000. Capital — Tegucigalpa.
HUNGARY — European Republic formed out of Austro-Hun-
gary ; it is abode of the Magyars. The Soviet type of constitu-
tion was adopted by the Parliament on August 18, 1949 which de-
clared Hungary to be a ‘people’s republic’. The supreme organ of
state control was declared to be the Parliament with deputies elect-
ed for 4 years by direct vote. When Parliament is not in session,
power is exercised by the presidium headed by the chairman. Exe-
cutive power is vested in the cabinet headed by the premier. Hun-
gary’s bauxite deposits are considered one of the largest in the world.
Area : 35,902 sq. m. Population — 9,500,000. Capital — Budapest.
ICELAND — Island in the North-Atlantic Ocean, now republic ;
it is close to the Arctic circle in the North Atlantic ; constitutionally,
the president is elected for four years by popular vote. Executive
power of the state resides in the prime minister and his cabinet.
The Althing is composed of two houses. Iceland has no army or
navy. Area : 39,758 Pop. — 152,506. Capital — Reykjavik.
INDIA — ^It is now independent Republic since 1950. The domi-
nion is one of the largest and richest nations in the world. Area :
1,221,889 sq. m. Pop. — 356,891,624. Capital — Ne^v Delhi.
IRISH REPUBLIC — Is now sovereign independent and democra-
tic state from 1949 and the constitution affirms the right of the Irish
nation to choose its own form of government; to determine its rela-
tions with other nations and to develop its life in accordance with its
own genius and traditions. The head of the State is the President
elected by the direct vote for 7 years. The parliament consists of the
Dail elected by the universal suffrage and proportional representa-
tion and the Senate of 60 members. Area ; 26,600, sq. m. Pop. —
2,997,000. Capital — Dublin.
INDONESIA — is a republic of S. E. Asia comprising territory
formerly, known as the Dutch East Indies. Indonesia comprises
about 3,000 islands, the five largest being Java, Sumatra, Western
Borneo, Celebes and Western New Guinea. Indonesia is one of the
richest countries in natural resources. There are vast supplies of
94
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
tin, oil and coal, and sizable deposits of bauxite, manganese, copper,
nickel, gold and silver. Until March 1942, Indonesia was a Nether-
land overseas territory. Following Japanese Military occupation
(1942-45) Indonesian Nationalists proclaimed a republic, Aug. 17,
1954. Pour years intermittent warfare between Netherlands and
Indonesian forces were terminated by agreements signed Nov. 2, 1949
transferring sovereignty. Over all Indonesia except Netherlands
New Guinea to the new Interim Government known as Republic of
the United States of Indonesia. On July, 1950 member states agreed
to form a strongly Centralised Government and accordingly a Unita-
rian state with an amended constitution was proclaimed and its name
was changed Republic of Indonesia. The Netherlands-Indonesia
Union with Netherlands Queen at its head created in 1949 began to
dissolve, Aug. 10, 1954, when new protocols governing future relation-
ship were signed. Legislative power is in the hands of a House of
Representatives numbering about 212. Area : 905,522 sq. m.
Population — 81,100,000. Capital — Jakarta.
IRAN — ICingdom of Western Asia, also known as Persia, Iran
is a constitutional monarchy. Executive power is exercised by a
cabinet headed by the prime minister who is appointed by the Shah
and is responsible to the Majlis (Parliament) which has 136 popu-
larly-elected members. The Shah has power to dissolve the Majlis.
Iranian oil field in the south-west territory at the head of the Persian
Gulf is the richest single field in existence. Area : 628,060 sq. m.
Population — 19,000,000. Capital — Tehran.
ISRAEL — The Jewish State in Palestine was established in 1948
in fulfilment of the aspirations of Zionism and following a decision
of U.N. Assembly on the partition of Palestine between Jews and
Arabs. Israel is a democratic State. It occupies the major portion
of Palestine. It lies on the western edge of Asia bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea. On Nov. 2, 1917, British Government made a
declaration, known as Balfour Declaration which viewed with favour
the establishment in Palestine of a home for the Jewish people.
This principle was incorporated in the mandate to Britain which
came into force in 1923. The British mandate on Palestine ended
at mid-night on May 14, 1948 when the Jewish National Council pro-
claimed a Jewish State of Israel. This led to the war against Israel
by Arab States. But armistice agreement was signed under U.N.
auspices which left Israel as an independent State. The declaration
of independence of the Jewish National Council on May 14, 1948
stated that the new nation would be “based on the precepts of liberty,
justice and peace taught by the Hebrew prophets.” The constitu-
tion provides a republican form of government headed by a President
elected for a 6-year term by the Chamber of Deputies. Legislative
power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, the members of which
are elected by the vote of all citizens. The government is adminis-
tered by the cabinet, which is headed by the premier and is respon-
sible to the Chamber of Deputies. Area : 8,048 so. m. Ponulation
1,698,000. Capital — Jerusalem.
IRAQ— Arab Kingdom in the Middle East ; formerly known as
WORLD GAZETTEER
95
Mesopotamia ; now one of the states lying between Arabia and Iran ;
created as a result of World War I when under the treaty of Lous-
anne (1923), Turkey renounced the sovereignty over Mesopotamia.
The constitution is a constitutional monarchy, hereditary in the
family of King Faisal with a Chamber of Deputies of 155-members
elected by manhood suffrage and a senate of not more than a quarter
of the total number of Deputies ; the Senators are appointed by the
King. Iraq is one of the great oil-producing countries of the world.
Area : 171,600 sq. m. Population — 5,100,000. Capital — Bagdad.
ITALY — Republic of Europe, stretching from the Alps south-
east into Mediterranean with the islands of Sicily, Sardania, Elba
and 70 smaller ones : under Italy’s nev.r Constitution of 1948 the
state is described as a “democratic republic founded on work’’
The President is elected for seven years by parliament in joint
session with regional delegates. The Cabinet headed by the
premier and nominated by the president, must enjoy the confidence of
parliament which is composed of the Chamber of Deputies popularly
elected for a five-year term and the senate. Italy is ordinarily the
world’s largest producer of mercury ; it is also an important producer
of sulphur. Area : 116,228 sq. m. Population— 46,889,000. Capital
— Rome.
JAPAN — Island Empire of Asia, is situated in the North Pacific
Ocean off the coast of China and Siberia. It was under the control
of Allied powers upto 1951. The new constitution effective on May 3,
1947, made drastic changes in Japan’s political system. The Emperor
retains only ceremonial functions and the executive power is vested
in the cabinet, headed by the premier and collectively responsible to
the Diet. Law-making power is solely vested in the Diet, composed
of two houses — House of Representatives popularly elected and
House of Councillors. A bill of rights guarantees certain basic-
liberties.
On Sept. 8, 1951, 48 nations signed a treaty of peace with Japan
restoring Japan’s sovereign equal status in the community of nations.
On the same day U.S. and Japan signed a bi-lateral treaty under
which U.S. obtained the right to maintain armed forces in post-
treaty Japan. Area : 142,644 sq. m. Population — 88,000,000. Capi-
tal — Tokio.
JORDAN (Hashemite Kingdom of) — ^was formerly known as
Trans-Jordan, is an independent state of western Asia, formerly an
Arab State in the Palestine mandate. Conquered from the Turks by
the British in World War I Jordan was separated from the Palestine
Mandate in 1920 and placed in 1921 under the rule of Abdulla ibn
Hussain. In 1923 Britain recognised Jordan’s independence subject
to the mandate. During World War II, Jordan co-operated com-
pletely with Britain. On March 22, 1946, Britain abolished the
mandate and recognised the full and complete independence of Jordan.
Under the new constitution of 1952, legislative power is vested
in Parliament. Area : 37,500 sq. m. Population — 1,500,000. Capital —
Amman. Jerusalem.
KOREA — East Asiatic country on a peninsula between Manchu-
96
HINDUSTAN 'YEAE-BOOK
ria and Japan. It ■was an independent country in ancient times,
•was placed under Chinese sovereignty in 1627 and •was annexed by
japan in 1910. At the World War 11 in 1945 Russian trops occupied
the northern half of Korea do-wn to the 38th parallel and U.S. troops
occupied the southern half. Russia set up a puppet government
wliich on May 1, 1948 proclaimed jurisdiction over the whole coimtry.
With U.N. supervision, elections were held in South Korea and the
Republic of Korea was declared ■with Seoul as capital, Aug. 15, 1948.
Russia announced on Jan. 1, 1949 that occupation troops had been
•withdra^wn from North Korea. U.S. •withdrew its last troops from
South Korea on June 29, 1949. Early on the morning of Sunday,
June 25, 1950, the Communist North Korean army invaded the
Republic of Korea, attacking south ward across the 38th parallel.
U.S. armed intervention was ordered on June 27, 1950 and on the
same day the U.N. invoked military sanctions against North Korea.
After several months of fighting several hundred thousand Chinese
Communist troops entered the conflict. An armistice was signed at
Panmunjon on July 27, 1953. The armistice contemplated an inter-
national political conference on the status of Korea but negotiations
for arranging broke down. The question was discussed ■without
result at the Geneva Conference on Far Eastern problems (April 26—
June 19, 1954).
South Korea is a republic -with legislative powers vested in a
bicameral parliament and executive power in a popularly elected
President and a cabinet headed by a premier. North Korea is a
typical soviet State under the constitution adopted on Sept. 2, 1948.
U.N. Security Council declared North Korea as aggressor and deman-
ded its ■withdrawal to the 38th Parallel. An armistice was signed
by the United Nations and communist delegates at Panmunjon
on July 27, 1953.
LEBANON — The Republic of Lebanon is in the Levant. It
occupies a strip of land along the Mediterranean coast about 120
miles long and 30 to 35 miles wide. It is formed from the five
former Turkish Empire districts of North Lebanon, Mount Lebanon,
South Lebanon. Beirut and Bekaa and became independent on Sept.
1, 1920. The States were administered under French mandate 1920-
1951. In 1941 France jdelded its powers to the Syrian and Lebanese
governments. Foreign troops were withdra'wn in 1946. Area :
4,000 sq. m. Pop. 1,383,000. Capital Bcimt.
LIBERIA — Independent Negro Republic of West Africa on the
Guinea Coast. It is Africa’s only republic. The government is
modelled after that of the United States. Area : 43,000 sq. m.
Population 2,750,000. Capital — Monrovia.
LIECHTENSTEIN — is an independent Alpine principality bet-
ween Austria and Switzerland. The constitution of 1921 provides
for a legislature of 15 members elected by direct universal suffrage.
Area : 62 sq. m. Pop. — 13,571. Capital — Vaduz.
LIBYA — Ivingdom of North Africa comprising Tripolitania,
Cyrenaica and Fezzan with a Mediterranean coastline of nearly 1000
miles between Egypt and Tunisia and stretching appoximately the
WORLD GAZETTEER
97
same distance south to the Sahara. In 1912 an Italo-Turkish war
left Libya in Italian hands. After the Italian defeat of 1943 Tripoli
and Cyrenaica remained under British and Fezzan under French
military government. In comformity with a resolution of the
General Assembly of U.N. on Nov. 21, 1949, Libya became on Dec. 24,
1951 the first independent state created by the United Nations. Libya
has a federal form of government and a hereditary monarchy.
Government is by a two-chamber parliament. Area : 679,340 sq. m.
Population — 1,340,000. Joint capitals — Tripoli and Bengazi.
LUXEIMBURG, GRAND DUCHY OF— Luxemburg is a European
Grand Duchy situated between Gepnany, Belgium' and France. It
was given its present rank as principality by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. Area : 999 sq. m. Pop. — 304,000. Capital — Lncxemburg.
JIONGOLLAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC— is also known as Outer
Mongolia. In 1916 Mongolia threw off its allegiance to China and by
a treaty was recognised as an autonomous republic. Negotiations
■with Russia after 1917 revolution led to an alliance and by 'treaty,
U.S.S.R. acknowledged the sovereignty of China over Outer Mongolia,
but by the Russian-Chinese treaty of August 25, 1945 China recog-
nised the complete independence of Mongolia. The government of
the republic is strikingly similar to Soviet system. The parliament
is elected by universal suffrage. Area : 1,750,000 sq. m. Pop. about
1,000,000. Capital — Ulan Bator Khoto.
MONACO — ^A tiny independent principality in south of France;
is located on the Mediterranean with land frontiers joining Prance
at every point. It is noted for an exceptionally mild climate and
magnificent scenery. It is the smallest State in the world. Area :
0.6 sq. m. Pop. — 21,202 Capital — Monaco.
MALAYA, FEDERATION OF — ^The Federation of Malaya be-
came effective on Feb. 1, 1948. It consists of four former Federated
Malaya States of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Pahang, the
five former Unfederated States and two British settlements of Malcca
and Penang -with Province Wellesly. Singapore became a separate
Crown Colony and Labuan was transferred to North Borneo, April,
1946, when the former Colony of Straits Settlements was dissolved and
the interim Malayan Union formed. Each State in the Federation is
governed by its native rule subject to the advice of the British
Commissioner, except in reli^ous matters. The Central Government
comprises an executive council headed by the High Commissoner and
a federal legislative council. Rubber and tin are the chief products.
The Malaya States are the world’s richest source of tin centering in
the Kinta Valley in the State of Perak supplying about one-third of
the total world’s supply. Its mixed population is approximately
divided : 50% Malaya, 40% Chinese 107o Indians, Pakistani & other.
Area ; 50,690 sq. m. Pop. — 5,506,000. Capital — Kuala Lnimpur.
jMEXICO — A Federal democratic republic of 29 states. Presi-
dent is elected for six years and is ineligible to succeed himself,
governs with a cabinet of his appointed ministers. 'The Federal
Congress has two houses — Chamber of Deputies and Senate.
7
98
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Each of the 29 States has considerable autonomy with a
popularly elected governor, legislature and local judiciary.
Mexico has a great mineral wealth and produces petroleum,
silver, gold, copper, lead, quicksilver, iron and coal. She is the
world leader for the production of silver, sisal, hemp and chicle for
chewing gum. Area : 760,373 sq. m. Population — 28,000,000. Capital
— Mexico City.
MOROCCO — one of the Barbary States, is situated in the north-
west of African continent. The Empire theoretically is an
absolute monarchy, but the country is divided into three
zones — the French, the Spanish and the International Tangier Zow.
The country is under French protectorate which encompasses the
whole of Morocco from Algerian frontier to the Atlantic Ocean and
from Sahara Desert in the south to the boundary of the Spanish zone
in the north. The Spanish zone is the northern strip. Area : 172,104
sq. m. Pop. — 10,442,000. Capital — Rabat.
NEPAL — A land-locked country lying between India and Tibet.
It occupies slopes of the Himalayas bound in the north by Tibet,
south and west by India and east by Sikkim and Bengal.
Nepal has two great distinctions of containing Mt. Everest, 29,028
(ft.), the tallest mountain peak of the world and some of the toughest
fighting men in the world — Gorkhas. After a revolution in 1950, a
representative government has been established in 1950 with ICing
as constitutional head. The traditional supreme authority of the
Prime Jlinister no longer exists. Area : 54,000 sq. m. Pop. — 8,596,000.
Capital — Katmandu.
NETHERLANDS — Kingdom in North Western Europe. It is a
constitational and hereditary monarchy. Executive power is vested
exclusively in the sovereign while the legislative power vests with
the sovereign and THvo-Chamber legislature. Area : 12,850 sq. m.
Population — 10,666,941. Capital — Amsterdam.
NICARAGUA — is the largest central American Republic lying
between the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. Area : 57,143 sq. m.
Pop. — ^1,166,000. Capital — Managua.
NEW ZEALAND — A dominion of the British Commonwealth in
the south-west Pacific Ocean. The dominion consists of North Island
and South Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands and some small
Pacific Islands. Area ; 105,072 sq. m. Population — 1,961,000. Capital
—Wellington.
NORWAY — Kingdom of north Europe. Norway is a constitu-
tional and hereditary monarchy with succession in direct male line.
The King’s executive power is exercised by a Council of State or
cabinet consisting of the prime minister and at least seven other
councillors. The legislative power is vested in the Storting which
comprises an upper house consisting of one-fourth of the 160 mem-
bers of the Storting the remainder constituting the lower house.
Norway is one of the greatest seafaring nations and its merchant
marine is the third largest in the world. In the North Cape area is
the phenomenon known as midnight sun. The sun does not set from
WORLD GAZETTEER
99
the middle of May until the end of July, nor does it rise above the
horizon approx, from Nov. 18 to Jan. 23. Varicoloured Northern
Lights are visible in winter. Forests cover nearly one-fourth of the
area. They are the principal sources of vrealth, and the paper and
wood pulp industries flourish. Area : 125,064 sq. m. Pop. — 3,309,000.
Capital — Oslo.
PANAMA, REPUBLIC OF — ^It occupies the entire Isthmus of
that name connecting Central and South America and separating the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It stretches 450 miles. Panama Canal
is the country’s big economic asset. On Nov. 18, 1903 Panama grant-
the canal zone to the U. S. by treaty. Area : 28,575 sq. m. Pop. —
887,400. Capital — Panama.
PAKISTAN — A. new Muslim State was formed by the partition
of India on August 14, 1947. It is the world’s largest and most in-
fluencial Muslim State. Under its new constitution, it is a
“Islamic Republic” where the laws should be framed according to
Quoranic principles. It is divided into two parts : Western part is
made up of Baluchistan, Sind and N. W. F. Province and the western
part of the Punjab, princely State of Bhawalpur and a few other
small muslim states which has now been formed into one unit
state, while Eastern part consists of the Eastern half of
Bengal and the Sylhet district of Assam. Over half of the
population is concentrated in East Bengal which contains only 16 p.c,
of the total area. Area : 364,737 sq. m. Pop. (1951) — 75,842,165.
Capital — Karachi, Flag — dark green rectangle with white vertical
bar at mast ; white crescent and white heraldic five-pointed star in
centre.
PARAGUAY — South American Republic. Since the adoptation
of the 1940 constitution, Paraguay is a semi-authoritarian republic.
Area : 157,600 sq. m. Pop. — 1,530,000. Capital — Asuncion.
PERU — Maritime republic situated on the Pacific coast of
South America. The Government of Peru consists of a
President and two Vice-Presidents, elected by direct suffrage for a
period of 6 years. Legislative authority is vested in a Congress
composed of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate. Peru has vast
mineral resources. It ranks fourth in world in silver production
and mines about 25 p.c. of the world’s vanadium. Area : 514,059 sq.
m. Population 9,200,000. Capital — Lima.
PHILIPPINES — ^is the largest island Igroup in the Malaya
Archipelago. It is an archipelago of approximately 7,083 islands
lying about 500 miles off the south-east coast of Asia.
The larcrest islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, and Pala-
wan. The independence of the Philippines was proclaimed on July
4, 1946 in accordance to the Act passed in the American Congress in
1934. The Philippines have a republican form of Government based
on that of the United States. Executive power is exercised by the
President popularly elected for a 4-year term and assisted by a
Cabinet appointed by him. The popularly elected Congress has two
houses — ^the Senate with 24 members and the House of Representa-
100
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
lives vrifh not more than 120 members. Area : 115,600 sq. m. Pop. —
21,440,000. Capital — Quezon City.
POLAND — ^Independent Republic of central Europe known^ as
Polish People’s Republic. Poland’s new constitution describes
Poland as a people’s republic in which the highest authority is parlia-
mentary body. In most respects it follows the pattern set by the
U.S.S.R. constitution of 1936. The office of the President has been
abolished and the Council of State is the highest organ of the
government. Area : 120,355 sq. m. Population — 26,500,000. Capital —
Warsaw.
PORTUGAL — ^is a Republic of S.-W. Europe occupying the wes-
tern part of the Iberian Peninsula, bounded on the north and east by
Spain and on the south and west by the Atlantic Ocean. Under the
constitution of 1933 revised in 1951, Portugal is a Unitary Corporative
republic. The President is elected popularly for a term of seven
years. It has a National Assembly of 120 members for a term of _4
years. There is also a Corporative Chamber which handles economic
and social matters and advises National Assembly. Area : 35,466
sq. m. Pop.— 86,93,600. Capital — Lisbon.
RUMANIA — ^Independent kingdom of the Balkans ; according
to new Constitution of 1948, Rumania is a “People’s Unitary and In-
dependent State’’. It is socialistic in nature. The highest authority
of the government is Grand National Assembly. Virtually all the
powers formerly vested in the King are exercised by a 19-member
presidium of the National Assembly; certain area has been ceded to
Russia. Area ; -92,000 sq. m. Pop. — ^16,100,000. Capital — Bucharest.
SAN MARINO — ^Independent republic bounded .by Italian
territory, lying some 12 miles S.-W. of Rimini. It claims
to be the oldest state of Europe having founded in the 4th
century and is one of the world’s smallest states. San Marino, the
capital is situated on a spur of the Apennines. Government is by a
council of 60 and the State is under Italian protection. Area : 38
sq. m. Population — 13,500.
SAARLAND — Situated on the North-Eastern frontier of France, '
Saarland is defined in its Constitution of 1947 as “an autonomous
democratic and social country, economically linked to France”. It
has an area of 800 sq. miles and a population of 976,476. Coal mining
and steel production are its principal industries. By the treaty of
Versailles, Saar was placed under the control of the League of Nations
for 16 years and at the end of this period the territory reverted to
Germany following plebiscite. It was occupied by U.S. Army in
March, 1946 and from 1945 to 1947 was incorporated in the French
zone of occupation. In 1947 its independence was recognised. The
land is now governed by an elected legislative assembly of 60 mem-
bers. Area : 800 sq. m. Population — ^976,476. Capital— ^aar6rucfcen.
SOUTH AFRICA — ^The Union of South Africa is a Dominion
within the British Commonwealth of nations. It extends from the
southernmost point of the Africal continent to the course of
Limpopo region. It consists of the following provinces — ^Trans-
WORLD GAZETTEER
101
vaal, Cape of Good Hope, Orange Free State and Natal. The capital
of the Union is Pretoria, though Union’s Legislature meets in Cape
Town. It is the richest gold and diamond producing country in the
world and one of the richest in uranium. Area : 472,733 sq. m.
Pop. — 12,648,575. Capital — Pretoria (seat of administration) and
Cape Toivn (seat of legislature).
SPAIN — Nominal monarchy of S.-W. Europe. It is separated
from Prance by the Pyrcnnees mountain. It was proclaimed a repub-
lic on April 14, 1931. Spain has a dictatorship form of government
under General Franco. Franco is the head of the State, national chief
of the Falange party, prime minister and Caudillo (leader) of the
empire. Practically, the country is ruled by the Cabinet (appointed
by Franco), the National Council of the Falange Party and, to a lesser
extent, the Cortes (Parliament). The principal function of the
Cortes is the planning and formulation of laws without prejudice
to Francos’ veto power. On April 1947, Franco himself
declared Spain a kingdom a^in. He was to remain head of the
State, and upon his death or incapacity, the government and a Coim-
cil of the Realm constituted by the law are to nominate as King
“that person of royal blood who is most qualified by right” subject
to the approval of the Cortes. Area : 196,700 sq. m. Pop. — ^28,638,977.
Capital — Madrid.
SUDAN — It was formerly Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. It
lies between the Sahara and the equatorial forests and extends from
the Atlantic to Ethiopia. After the defeat of Sudan by the British
forces in 1898, a Condominium was established in agreement with
Egypt and reaffirmed in 1936 which provided for the appoint-
ment of a Governor-General by Egypt. In 1951 Egypt abrogated
the 1936 treaty and Egyptian King began to style himself as the
“King of Egypt and Sudan” which was not recognised by Great
Bi'itain and by the majority of Sudanese. A compromise agreement
was signed on Feb. 1953 providing for the liquidation of the dual ad-
ministration and the determination by the Sudanese on either Union
•with Egypt or complete independence. Authority during three-year
transition is vested in the British Governor-General and a five-man
commission. Area : 967,500 sq. m. Pop. 8,764,000. Capital : —
Khartum.
S'W’EDEN — Kingdom of North Europe, Government is a consti-
tutional hereditary monarchy. Executive and judicial authority is
vested in the Eng alone but his resolutions must be taken in the
presence of the Council of State (Cabinet) headed by the Prime
Minister ; the Council is appointed by the Eng, but is responsible
collectively to the Riksdag (Parliament). The Riksdag has _ an
upper chamber elected indirectly by the pro-rincial and municipal
councils for eight years. The lower chamber of 230 members^ is
directly elected by popular vote for four years. Sweden is an im-
portant source of high grade iron ore and also exports lumber, pulp
and paper and is kno'wn for its special technical industries (ball
bearings and electrical appliances). Area ; 173,347 sq. m. Pop. —
7,191,316. Capital — Stockholm.
102
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
SWITZERLAND — is the federal republic of Central Europe
and is a federation of 22 sovereign cantons. Each canton has its
own legislature, executive and judiciary Department with the right
to veto over federal legislation through referendum. The national
authority vests in a parliament of two Chambers — State Council to
which each canton sends two members. The lower house —
National Council has 196 members, one representative to each
24,000 population. The executive power is vested in the Federal
Council of seven members. President serves for one year. On the
basis of international treaties and guarantees, Switzerland is perpe-
tually neutral. Switzerland enters into no military alliance and is
not a member of the U. N. or NATO. It is however a member of
various international commissions of the U.N., W.H.O.; etc. German,
French and Italian are official languages of Switzerland. Dairying
and stock-raising are the principal industries. Area : 15,944 sq. m.
Pop. — 4,925,000. Capital — Bame.
SYRIA — The republic is in the Levent covering portion of the
former Ottoman Empire. It had been under French mandate since
1914-18 war, became an independent republic during 1939-45 war.
The constitution is based on to some extent on that of the U.S. was
passed in 1950. Area : 72,234 sq. m. Pop. — 5,433,784. Capital —
Damascus.
THAILAND — ^Kingdom of South-eastern Asia. It is a consti-
tutional hereditary monarchy. The Constitution provides a uni-
cameral Parliament, half nominated and half elected. The govern-
ment is administered by the Prime Minister and his Cabinet who is
responsible to the Parliament. Area : 200,148 sq. m. Pop. — 19,192,000.
Capital — Bangkok.
TRIESTE — Seaport of the north Adriatic on a like-named gulf.
It was a territory under Italy from 1920. After the 2nd World War,
it was a debateable territory between Italy and Y'ugoslavia. In 1947
the Free Territory of Trieste was constituted as a compromise bet-
ween Italian and Yugoslav claims, under the aegis of the United
Nations Security Council ; as a temporary expedient the territory
was divided into two parts, namely, the 'Italian Zone (A) in the
north (including Trieste City) guarded by U.K. and U.S.A. forces
and the larger but less populous Yugoslav Zone (B) in the south.
TURKEY — ^Republic of Asia and Europe. The European terri-
tory was reduced to the city of Constantinople and a narrow strip
of country around it. It is 9,254 sq. miles including the city of
Istanbul and Adrianopole and is separated form Asia by the Bhos-
phorus and Dardanelles. The Turkey in Asia has 285,246 sq. miles.
The Turkish State is defined as “republican, nationalist, populist,
etatist, secular and revolutionary.” The president is chosen from
the deputies of the National Assembly ; his term of office is identical
with the life of each Assembly. 487 members of the Assembly arc
elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Area : 296,503
sq. m. Population — 20,902,628. Capital — Ankara.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA— Federal Republic of North
WORLD GAZETTEER
103
America extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Canada
to Mexico with outlying areas in Alaska, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Guam
and other Pacific islands. United States consists of 48 States and
the federal district of Columbia. U.S.A. has a federal government.
The Federal Government is based on the separation of powers — the
President, House of Congress and the Supreme Court being designed
to balance and restrain each other — hence the famous concept of
‘checks and balances’. Each State is self-governing in local matters,
but confides to the Central -Government at Washington the control
of foreign affairs and the army and navy. Police, education, public
health, etc., remain within the scope of the individual states. The
capital is Washington which belongs to no state, being administered
directly by the Federal Government. Executive power is vested in
the President elected by popular vote every four years. He chooses
the members of the Cabinet, who are not (as in England) members
of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in Congp:ess, com-
posed of a two houses ; the Senate with two members from each
State elected to serve six years and the House of Representatives
composed of a number of members varying according to the census
elected for two years. There is adult suffrage. The third main
component of the constitution is the Supreme Court at Washington.
Area ; 3,026,789 sq. m. Pop. — 163,900,000. Capital — WashingtoTi.
U.S.S.R. — ^It is a Federal State of East Europe, North and West
Central Asia. The U.S.S.R. emerged as a political entity under the
leadership of Lenin after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and tho
downfall of the empire of Russia. It was proclaimed formally,
1922, after a confused interim period of civil war, war with Poland
(1920), the first State basing its constitution on Marxist com-
munism. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is composed of Rus-
sian, Ukrainian, Bylorussian, Azerbaijan, Georgian, Armenian,
Kazak, Turkmenian, Kirghiz, Tadjek, Uzbek, Karelo-Finnish, Eslo-
nian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republics.
It is the largest country in the World, stretches across two conti-
nents from the North Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Finland. Vast
territory of U.S.S.R., one sixth of the earth’s land_ surface, contains
every phase of climate except the distinctly tropical and a varied
topography. The constitution of December 5, 1936 provides that the
highest organ in the U.S.S.R. is the Supreme Soviet consisting of
two equal houses ; that members thereof shall be chosen on the
basis of universal, equal and direct^ suffrage by secret ballot for a
term of 4 years ; that regular sessions of each body shall be held
twice each year ; that there shall be a president of each house ;
that there shall be one Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, which shall
consist of a president, 16 Vice-Presidents (one Vice-President for
each constituent republic of the Union), a secretary and 15 members ;
that the Presidium shall act as an executive and directive body bet-
ween the sessions of the Supreme Soviet.
The U.S.S.R. is probably the richest country in the world in
mineral resources containing deposits of almost evei-y known mineral.
It ranks among the top-producing nations in coal, chromite, iron ore,
petroleum, gold, copper, manganese, and other products. The
104
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
richest mineral region is that of the Ural mountains. Area : 8,707,870
sq. m. Pop. — 213,000,000. Capital — Moscoiv.
URUGUAY" — Smallest republic in South America. Area : 72,172
sq. m. Pop. — 2,526,000. Capital — Montevideo.
VATICAN CITY — The independent sovereign State, created hy
the Treaty of 1929, of which the Pope is the head. It covers 109
acres in the heart of Rome and includes Vatican Palace, the Pope’s
official residence and the basilica and square of St. Peters. The
immediate government of the State of Vatican City is in the hands
of a Governor. He is assisted by a Counsellor General and by a num-
ber of offices. There is no political parties and no parliament.
Area : 109 acres. Pop. — 947.
Y’’ENEZUELA — is the northernmost State of South America.
Area : 352,150 sq. m. Pop. — 5,605,000. Capital — Caracas.
Y^UGOSLAVIA — is a federal republic of S.-E. Europe in the
Balkan peninsula and is a federation comprising the People’s Re-
publics of Serbia, Croatia, Slovakia, Bosnia-Harzagina, Macedonia
and Montenegro. Under the 1953 Constitution, Yugoslavia is a
federal republic. Executive power is vested in the federal execu-
tive council of 30 to 45 members elected by and from the federal
assembly and presided over by the president of the republic who is
elected by and is responsible to the federal assembly. The assembly
consists of (1) a federal council and (2) a council of producers. Area;
95,558 sq. m. Pop. — 16,927,275. Capital — Belgrade.
UNITED KINGDOM — The United Kingdom consisting of Eng-
land, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Isle of Man and the Chan-
nel Islands lies off the north-west comer of Europe. The United
Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a King and a
Parliament consisting of two houses : the House of Lords and the
House of Commons. Supreme legislative power is vested in parlia-
ment which holds office for five years unless sooner dissolved. The
executive power of the Crown is exercised by the Cabinet headed by
the prime minister. The Prime Minister, normally the head of the
party commanding a majority in the House of Commons, is appointed
by the Sovereigm with whose consent he in turn appoints the rest of
the Cabinet. All the ministers must be members of one or the other
house of Parliament. Area : 94,279 sq. m. Pop. — 60,033,000. Capital
— London.
VIET-NAM — ^Until 1954 a republic included in the federation of
Indo-China, French Union. It was established in 1946 to include Ton-
kin, Annam and Cochin-China with Saigon as its capital. Area :
127,000 sq. m. Pop. — 27.5 million. Capital — Hanoi.
In World War II, during Japanese occupation (1941-1945), the
Communist Viet Minh league was formed in 1941 and set up a
republic. In 1946 agreement was reached between Viet-Minh and
the French as to the federation of the three States as the Viet Nam
republic and as to their future independence, but differences arose
and suspicions mounted which led the Viet Minh Government
eventually commencing a guerrilla warfare and in 1949 agreement
WORLD GAZETTEER
105
■was signed promising Viet Nam complete independence -within
the French Union. But these negotiations fell through and Viet
Minh regarded themselves as the true government and rebel acti-vity
continued on large scale which resulted in the -virtual defeat of the
French. So in 1954, following a conference at Geneva an armistice
was signed foreshado-wing inter alia the partition of the country
along the 17th parallel of latitute. This resulted all but the coastal
end of Red River delta under Viet Minh control. Pending the hold-
ing of elections, the country lies divided into a northern Democratic
Republic and a southern State of Viet Nam.
SOME OVERALL RESULTS OF FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN
The following are some of the overall results of the first Five
Year Plan.
National income over the five years (1951-56) has increased by
about 18%.
Foodgrain production has gone up by 20%.
Output of cotton and of major oilseeds has shown an improvement
of 45 and 8% respectively.
Over six million acres of land have been brought under irrigation
through major works.
Another 10 million acres have been irrigated through smaller
irrigation works.
Industrial production has increased steadily. The interim index
(1946-100) of industrial production works out at 161 for 1955 as
compared wth 105 for 1950 and 117 for 1951.
The generation of electric power has gone up from 6575 million
KWH in 1950-51 to 11,000 million KWH in 1955-56.
The output of cement is estimated to have gone up from 2.7
million tons in 1950-51 to 4.3 million tons in 1955-56.
Several important industrial projects in the public sector have
been completed and considerable new investment, especially in the
field of producer goods and capital goods industries, has taken place
in the private sector.
Preliminary work in connection with the installation of three
steel plants and the heavy electrical plant has been completed and
the foundation laid for the larger tasks to be taken in hand during
the second Plan period.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
RULERS OR HEADS OF GOVERNIMENTS OF THE WORLD
Country Ruler Executive Head.
Afghanistan . . Zahir Shah, King. . . Sardar Md. Daud, F.SI.
Arabia-Saudi Abd-el-Aziz, King.
Australia . . Sir William Slim, G. G.’ . . R. G. Menzies, F.M.
Austria .. Dr. T. Koemer, P. .. Dr. Julius Raab, Chan-
cellor.
Argentina . • Edwards Leonerdo P.
Belgium . . Baudouin I, King. . . Achilla Van Acher, P.si.
Burma . . Dr. Ba U, P. - • U. Ba, Swe, p.m.
Bhutan . . Jig-me Wang-chuk.
Brazil . . Juscelino Kubitschek, P. . .
Bulgaria . . V. Chervenkov, P. . . Anton Yugov, p.m.
Canada . . Vincent Massey, G. G. .. Louis St. Laurent, p.m.
Chile . . Carlos Ibanez del Campo P.
China .. Mao Tse Tung, Chairman. Chow En Lai, P.M.
Ceylon .. Sir O. Goonatileke, G. G. S. W. R. D. Bandara-
naike, P.M.
Czechoslovakia A. Zapotocky, P. .. Viliam Sirokj', p.m.
Denmark . . Frederick IX, King. . . Hans Hansen, P.M.
Egypt . . G. A Nasser, P.
Finland . . J. K. Paasikivi, P. . . U. K. Kekkonen, P.M.
France .. P. Rene Coty .. Guy Mollet, p.m.
W. Germany Theodor Heuss, P. . . Dr. K. Adenauer, Chan-
cellor.
E. Germany . . W. Pieck, P. . . O. Grotewohl, p.m.
Ethiopia . . Haile Selassie I
Gt. Britain . . Elizabeth II, Q. . . Anthony Eden, P.M.
Greece . . Paul I. King. . . C. Karamanlis, P.JI.
Hungary . . Istvan Dobi, P. . . J. Kadar, P..M.
Iran (Persia) Mohammed Raza Pahlevi Hussein Ala, P.M.
India .. Rajendra Prasad, P. .. J. L. Nehru, P.M._
Indonesia . . Dr. A. Soekamo, P. . . Ali Sastroamidjojo, p.m.
Iraq . . Faisal II, King. . . Nuri es-Said, p.m.
Italy . . Giovanni Gronchi, P. . . Antonio Segni, P.M.
Irish Republic Sean T. I’Kelly, P. . . J. A. Costello, P.M.
Israel . . Issac Ben-Zevi, P. . . D. Ben Gurion, P.M.
Japan . . Hirohito, Emperor. . . Ichiro Hatoyama P.M.
Jordan . . King Hussain I . . Samir el-Rifai. p.m.
Korea (South) Lee Bum Suk, P. . . Dr. S. Rhee, p.m.
Korea (North) Kim Dn-bong, P. . . Kim II Sung, p.m.
Luxemburg . . Charlotte, Grand Duchess. Joseph Bech, P.M.
Liberia . . W. V. Tubman, P.
Mexico . . Adolfo R. Cortines, P. . .
POLITICAL INFORMATION
107
Country Ruler Executive Head.
Nepal . . Mahendra Bir Bikram. Tanka Prasad f.m.
Netherlands Juliana, Queen. .. William Drees, p.m.
Norway .. Haakon 'WI, King. .. Einar Gerhardsen, P.M.
Pakistan . . Iskandar Mirza, G. G. .. H. S. Shurawardy, P.M.
Peru . . Manuel A. Odira, p.m.
Philippine Is. R. Magsaysay, P.
Portugal F. Craveiro Lopes, P. .. Dr. A. 0. Salazar, p.m.
Poland .. A. Zawadski, P. .. J. Cyrankiewiez, p.m.
Saudi Arabia King Saud
South Africa Dr. E. G. Jansen, G. G. ., Mr. Strydom.
Spain .. Genl. Franco, Regent. . ..
Sweden . . Gustaf VI, King. .. T. F. Erlander, p.m.
Switzerland . . Max Petitpierre, P.
Syria . . Shukri al-Kuwalty, P._ . . Said Ghazzi, p.m.
Thailand . . Phumibol Aduldet, King. L. P. Songgp-am, p.m.
Turkey . . Celal Bayar, P. . . Adanan Menderes, p.m.
U.S.S.R. . . Marshal Voroshilov, P, . . Marshal Bulganin, P.M.
United States D. Eisenhower, P.
Vatican City Pius XII, Pope
Yugoslavia . . Josip Boriz Tito.
Sudan . . Ismail Azahari, p.m. .
PRESIDENTS OF THE U.S.
Name Politics Name Politics
1789-1797 G. Washington Fed. 1869-1877 Ulyssess Grant Rep.
1797-1801 John Adams Fed. 1877-1881 R. B. Hayes Rep.
1801-1809 Thomas JofFerson Rep. 1881-1881 James Garfield Rep.
1809-1817 James Madison Rep. 1881-1885 Chester A.
1817-1825 James Monroe Rep. Arthur Rep.
1825-1829 J. Quincy Adam Rep. 1885-1889 G. Cleveland Dem.
1829-1837 Andrew Jackson Dem. 1889-1893 B. Harrison Rep.
1837-1841 Martin Van 1893-1897 G. Cleveland Dem.
Euren Dem. 1897-1901 W. McKinley Rep.
1841-1841 W. H. Harrison Whig. 1901-1909 T. Roosevelt. Rep.
1841-1845 John Tayler Whig. 1909-1913 William H. Taft Rep.
1845-1849 J. Knox Polk Dem. 1913-1921 W. WJlson Dem.
1849- 1850 Zachary Taylor Whig. 1921-1923 W. G. Harding Rep.
1850- 1853 M. Fillmore Whig. 1923-1929 Calvin Coolidge Rep.
1853-1857 Franklin Pierce Dem. 1929-1933 H. C. Hoover Rep.
1857-1861 J. Buchanan Dem. 1933-1945 F. D. Roosevelt Dem.
1861-1865 A. Lincoln Rep. 1945-1953 H. S. Truman Dem.
1865-1869 Andrew Johnson Rep. 1953 D. D. Eisenhower Rep.
BRITISH PRIME MINISTERS
Sir R. Walpole (Whig) 1721 Duke of Devonshire (Whig) 1756
Earl of Wilmington (Whig) 1742 Duke of Newcastle (Whig) 1757
Henry Pelham (V^ig) 1743 Earl of Bute (Tory) 1762
Duke of Newcastle (Whig) 1754 George Grenville (Whig) 1763
108
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Lord Rockingham (Whig) 1765 Earl of Derby (Con) 1866
Duke of Grafton (Whig) 1766 B. Disraeli (Con) 1868
Lord North (Whig) 1770 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1868
Lord Rockingham (Whig) 1782 B. Disraeli (Con) 1874
Earl of Shelburne (Whig) 1782 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1880
Duke of Portland (Coal) 1782 M’quess of Salisbury (Con) 1885
William Pitt (Tory) 1783 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1886
Henry Addin^on (Tory) 1801 M’quess of Salisbury (Con) 1886
William Pitt (Tory) 1804 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1892
Lord Grenville ("V^ig) 1806 Earl of Rosebery (Lib) 1894
Duke of Portland (Tory) 1807 hi’quess of Salisbury (Con) 1895
Spencer Percival (Tory) 1809 Earl Balfour (Con) 1902
Lord Liverpool (Tory) 1812 Sir H. Campbell-Banner-
George Canning (Tory) 1827 man (Lib) 1905
Lord Goderich (Tory) 1827 H. H. Asquith (Lib) 1908
Duke of Wellin^on (Tory) 1828 H. H. Asquith (Coal) 1915
Earl Grey (Whig) 1830 D. L. George (Coal) 1916
Viscount Blelboume (Whig) 1834 A. Bonar Law (Con) 1922
Sir Robert Peel (Con) 1834 Stanley Baldwin (Con) 1923
Visct. Blelboume (Whig) 1835 J- R. McDonald (Nat.) 1924
Sir Robert Peel (Con) 1841 Stanley Baldwin (Nat.) 1924
Earl Russell (Lib) 1846 J. R. BIcDonald (Nat.) 1929
Earl of Derby (Con) 1852 J. R. BIcDonald (Coal) 1931
Lord Aberdeen (Coal) 1852 Stanley Baldwin (Coal) 1935
Viscount Palmerston (Lib) 1855 N. Chamberlain (Coal) 1937
Earl of Derby (Con) 1858 Winston Churchill (Coal) 1940
Visct., Palmerston (Lib) 1859 C. R. Attlee (Lab) 1945
Lord Russell (Lib) 1865 W. S. Churchill (Con.) 1951
Anthony Eden (Con.) 1955
SALARIES OF THE HEADS OF GOVERNBIENTS
President of U.S.A. . . . . $ 100,000 per year*
British Prime Minister . . £ 10,000 per year
President of the Indian Union . . Rs, 10,000 per monthf
Prime Blinister of Japan . . . . 110,000 yen per months
RULERS OF FRANCE SINCE WORLD WAR II
{Fourth Republic)
Vichy Government Fourth Republic
H. P. Petain . . 1940-44 Vincent Auriol . . 1947-54
Rene Coty . . 1964-
Provisional Government
Charles de Gaulle . . 1944-46
Felix Gouin . . 1946
Georges Bidault . . 1946-47
*P7tts taxable $50,000 for expenses and a non-taxable sum (not
exceeding $40,000 a year) for travelling and official entertainment
expenses.
I With emoluments etc.
t Exclusive of allowances.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
109
RULERS OF GERMANY SINCE WORLD WAR I
Fourth Reich Federal Republic of Germany
F. Ebert (President) 1919-25 (Western)
Paul Van Hindenburg' Theodor Heuss (President) 1949-
(President) . . 1925-34 Democratic Republic of Germany
Adolf Hitler (Fuhrer) 1934-46 (Eastern)
Wilhelm Pieck (President) 1949-
RULERS OF U.S.S.R.
Nikolai Lenin . . 1917-24 Georgi M. Malenkov . . 1953-64
Joseph Stalin . . 1924-63 Nikolai Bulganin . . 1954-
POLITICAL ASSASSINATIONS
1865 Abraham Lincoln, President
U.S.A., April 14.
1872 Earl of Mayo, Governor-
General of India.
1876 Abdul Aziz, Sultan of
Turkey, June 4.
1881 Alexander of Russia and
President Garfield, U.S.A,
1894 Marie F, Sadi-Camot, Pre-
sident of France, June 24.
1896 Nasr-ed-Din, Shah of
Persia.
1894 President Carnot of France,
1898 Empress Elizabeth of Aus-
tria, Sept. 10.
1900 Humbert of Italy.
1901 President McKinley, U.S.A.,
September 6.
1903 King Alexander and
his •w^e Draga of Serbia.
1905 Grand Duke Sergius of
Russia.
1908 King Carlos aud Crown
Prince of Portugal.
1909 Prince Ito of Japan.
1911 Stolypin, Premier of
Russia, 14th Sept,
1912 Jose Canalojas, Premier of
Spain.
1913 King George I of Greece.
1914 Archduke Francis Ferdi-
nand of Austria & his wife
1918 Czar Nicholas II and fami-
ly, July 31 ; President Paes
of Portugal.
1919 Amir Habibullah of Afgha-
nistan.
1921 Dato, Premier of Spain ;
Ta Kashi Hara, Japanese
Premier.
1922 J. Narutowicz, 1st Presi-
dent of Poland, Dec. 16 ;
Michael Collins, Irish Free
State Premier.
1928 Ex-President Gen. Alvaro
Obregon of Mexico.
1930 Premier Hamaguchi of
Japan.
1932 President Doumer of
France ; Ki Inukai, Japa-
nese Premier, May 31.
1933 Emir Faisal, King of Iraq,
Sept. 9 ; Ion Duea, Ruma-
nian Premier, Dec. 24 ;
King Nadir Shah of Af-
ghanistan.
1934 Austrian Chancellor Dr.
Dollfuss ; King Alexander
I of Yugoslavia ; M. Bar-
thow, French Foreign Mi-
1935 Huey P. Long, U. S. Se-
nator, September 10.
1936 K. Takahasi, Finance Mi-
nister, Admiral Saito, Ad-
miral Suzuki, Japan.
1937 General Baqir Sidqi, Dic-
tator of Iraq, August 12.
1938 E. Von Rath of German
Embassy, Paris.
1939 Rumanian Premier M.
Calinescan.
1940 Leon Trotsky, Exiled Rus-
sian leader, 21st August.
110
HmDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
Political Assassinations — {Concld.).
1942 Hydricli, German Protec-
tor of Bohemia-Moravia ;
Admiral Darlan of France.
1945 Mehar Pasha, Premier of
Egypt, February 24.
1946 Aoianda Slahidol, King of
Siam, July 9. _
1947 Gen. Atmg San, Tice-Pre-
sident of Burma and five
Cabinet Ministers.
1948 Mahatma Gandhi, Jan. 30
1948 Count F. Bemadotte, U.N.
mediator, Sept. 17 ; Premier
Nokrash 3 ' Pasha of Egypt.
1949 Syrian President Hosni
Ziam, Aug. 14 ; Abdul Hus-
sain, Ex-Persian Prime
Minister, Nov. 4.
1951 General Ali Eazmara,
Premier of Iran, Mar. 7 ;
King Abdulla of Jordan,
Jiily ; Liaquat Ali Khan,
Premier of Pakistan, Octo-
ber 16.
1955 President Antonio Kemon
of Panama.
FAMOUS ABDICATIONS
B.C. A-D.
Sulla, Homan Dictator 79 Wilhelm II (Germany) 1918
A.D. Karl (.Axistria) " 1918
Deocletian (Roman Emp.) 305 Muhammad IT (Turkey) 1922
Edward n (England) 1327 George 11 (Greece) 1924
Richard 11 (England) 1399 Amanulla (Afghanistan) 1929
Charles V (Germany) 1555 Alfonso (Spain) 1931
ilary Queen of Scots 1567 Prajabar dhak (Thailand) 1935
Christina (Sweden) 1654 Edward Vlil (England) 1936
James 11 (England) 1688 Zog I (Albania) 1939
Charles IV (Spain) 1808 Carol 11 (Rumania) 1940
Nepoleon I (France) 1814 Reza Shah Pelavi (Iran) 1941
Charlesx (France) 1830 Victor Emmanuel III
Louis Philippe (France) 1848 (Italy) 1946
Isabella I (Spain) 1870 Umberto (Italy) 1946
Abdul Hamid H (Turkey) 1909 Simeon (Bulgaria) 1945
Manoel (Portugal) 1910 Michael (Rumania) 1947
Pn-Yi (China) 1912 Wilhelmina (Netherlands) 1948
Nicholas 11 (Russia) 1917 Leopold HI (Belgium) 1951
Constantine (Greece) Faruk T (Egypt) 1952
1917 & 1922 Talal (Jordan) 1952
Ferdinand I (Bulgaria) 1918
FL-AGS OF COUNTRIES
Afghanistan — ^Three vertical Belgium — ^Three vertical bands,
bars, black, red and green ; black, yelow, red.
design in centre (red) bar Brarif— Green with 21 white
composed of a moso.ue endors- stars forming Southern Cross
ed by a crescent formed of on blue circle superimposed on
two ears of wheat joined at gold diamond in centre,
the bottom.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
111
Flags of Countries — (Concld.).
Bunna — Red with dark blue can-
ton bearing a large white five-
pointed star surrounded by 5
smaller stars of like pattern
and colour.
Ceylon — Dark red with yellow
border and finials in comers,
yellow lion symbol in centre,
two vertical stripes of green
and saffron at pole.
Chili — ^White and red horizontal
bars, with white star in blue
canton.
Denmark — Red with white cross.
Egypt — ^White crescent and three
five-pointed stars on green
field.
Etheopia — Three horizontal
bands ; green, yellow, red with
lion in yellow bar.
Finland — White with blue cross.
France — ^The ‘Tricolour’, three
vertical bands, blue, white, red
(blue next to flagstaff).
Greece — Navy blue ground quar-
tered by white cross.
Hungary — ^Horizontal bands, red->.
white-green, with coat of arms
in cen&e.
India — Three horizontal strips,
saffron, white and dark green,
with 24 spoke wheel of Asoka
in centre of w'hite band.
Indonesia — ^Two horizontal bands.
Red and White.
Iran — Three horizontal bars,
fp-een-white-red with golden
lion insignia in white portion.
Iraq — Black-white-green horizon-
tal bars ; vertical red trapi-
zoid near hoist, containing two
white stars.
Ireland — Vertical bars, green-
white-orange.
Italy — Three vertical bands,
dark green-white-red.
Israel — White, with two horizon-
tal blue stripes, the Shield of
David in the centre.
Japan — White charged with ris-
ing sun (red).
Mexico — Three vertical bars,
green-white-red, with eagle
and cactus emblem on white.
Netherlands — ^Three horizontal
bands, red-white-blue.
Norway — Red with white bor-
dered blue cross.
Pakistan — ^Dark green rectangle
with white vertical bar at
mast ; white crescent and
white heraldic five-pointed
star in centre.
Peru — Three vertical bars, red-
white-red, with coat of arms
on white.
Philippines — Blue and red hori-
zontal bars ; white canton with
gold sun, three gold stars.
Poland — Two horizontal bars,
white and red.
Portugal — Green and red verti-
cal bars with armillary sphere
and shield in centre.
Spain — Three equal horizontal
bands (red, yellow & red) with
coat of arms in centre bands.
Switzerland — White cross on red
ground.
Sweden — Ejrtended yellow cross
on medium blue field.
Thailand — Five horizontal bands,
red, white, dark blue, white
and red (the blue band twice
the width of the others).
Turkey — ^White crescent and
white five pointed star on red
field.
V:S.S.R . — Red ^ound with gold
hammer and sickle below five
pointed gold star in upper
comer nearest staff.
United Kingdom — Union _ Jack
(blue ground with superimpos-
ed crosses of St. George, St.
Andrew and St. Patrick in red
and white).
112
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
U.S.A . — ^Thirteen stripes and 48
stars.
OTHER
NATO flags — is navy blue with
white ensign.
Red Crescent flag — with a white
field is a flag of the Geneva
Convention. It is used in
place of Red Cross flag in all
Muslim countries except Iran.
Red Cross flag — is the most
widely used flag of the Geneva
Convention. It has Red Cross
against white background.
Yugoslavia — T h r e e horizontal
bars, blue, white, red with red
star in centre.
FLAGS
Red Lion Flag — is the ' flag of
the Geneva Convention in Iran.
Flag has a white field.
United Nations — ^White U.N. em-
blem (global map projected
from the North Pole and em-
braced in twin olive branches)
centred on a rectangular blue
banner.
NATIONAL DAY
Afghanistan — May 27 (Indepen-
dence Day).
Argantina—^vily, 9 (Proclama-
tion of Independence (1816).
Australia — Jan. 26 (Australia
Day).
Brazil — Sept. 7 (Proclamation
of Independence, 1822).
Burma — Jan. 4 (Independence
Day).
Belgium — July 21.
Canada — July 1 (Confederation
Day).
Ceylon — Feb. 4 (Independence
Day).
China — Oct. 1 (Proclamation of
Chinese Republic, 1949).
Egypt — ^Nov. 14 (Anniversary of
the Battle for Independence,
1922).
France — July 14 (Taking of the
Bastille, 1789).
Finland — Dec. 6 (Proclamation
of Independence, 1917).
India — ^15th August (Indepen-
dence Day).
Indonesia — August 17 (Indepen-
dence Day).
Ireland — March 17 (National
Day).
•Israel — April 27 (Independence
Day).
Italy — June (Founding of the
Italian Republic).
Japan — ^April 29 (Birthday of
the Emperor).
Mexico — Sept. 16 (Proclamation
of Independence, 1820).
Nepo(— Dussera Day.
Netherlands — April 30 (Queen’s
birthday).
Norway — May 17 (Constitution
Day).
Pakistan — ^August 14 (Pakistan
Day).
Peru — July 28.
Philippines — July 4 (National
Day).
Poland — July 22 (National Day).
Switzerland — ^August 1 (found-
ing of Confederation).
Thailand — June 24 (National
Day).
Turkey — Oct. 29 (Declaration of
the Republic).
U.S.A . — July 4 (Independence
Day).
U.S.S.R . — Nov 7 (National Day
of Soviet People, October So-
cialist Revolution in Russia,
1917).
U. K. — Queen’s ofiBcial birth-
day.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
113
ECAFE
ECE
ECO
FAO
GATT
ICEF
ICAO
ILO
IMF
IRO
ITU
NATO
NRA
MEDO
OEEG
POLITICAL ABBREVIATIONS
Economic Commis-
sion for Asia and
Far East.
. . Economic Council for
Europe.
. . European Coal Orga-
nisation.
. . Pood & Agricultural
Organisation.
.. General Agreement
on Trade and Tariff.
. . International Child-
ren’s Emergency
Fund.
. . International Civil
Aviation Organisa-
tion.
International Labour
Organisation;
.. International Mone-
tory Fund.
. . International Refu-
gee Organisation.
. . International Tele-
communication Union.
. . North Atlantic Trea-
ty Organisation.
. , National Recovery
Administration.
.. Middle-East Defence
Organisation.
.. Organisation for Eu-
ropean Economic
Co-operation (Mar-
shall Aid).
SHAPE
SEATO
SEADO
UNESCO
UNICEF
UNRRA
WHO .
WMO .
CARE .
UNCAFE
HNCIP .
Supreme Head-quar-
ters of Allied Pow-
ers, Europe.
South-East Asia
Collective Treaty
Organisation.
South East Asia De-
fence Organisation.
United Nations Edu-
cational, Scientific
and Cultural Orga-
nisation.
United Nations In-
ternational Child-
ren’s Emergency
Fund.
United Nations Re-
lief and Rehabilita-
tion Administration.
World Health Orga-
^ nisation.
World Meteorological
Organisation.
Co-operative for Am-
erican Remittances
Everywhere.
United Nations Com-
mission for Asia and
Far East.
United Nations Com-
mission on India &
Pakistan (Kashmir).
NAMES AND COLOURS OF FLAGS
Union Jack — ^British National
Flag.
Old Glory — Flag of U.S.A.
Flag of Truce — ^WTiite Flag.
Flag of Distress — Flown upside
do^vn.
Red Flag — Once a signal for
battle, now name given to
Communist and Soviet Russian
flags.
Bed Cross Flag — Same as Swiss
flag but with colours reversed.
Yelloto Flag — ^Flown on a ship
with persons suffering from
contagious or infectious
disease.
8
114
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
NATIONAL
Canada — ^The maple leaf forver.
U.S.— Star-spangled banner.
England — God Save the King or
Queen.
France — La Marseillaise.
Greece — Hall, oh, hail liberty.
ANTHEMS
Soviet Union — ^Hymn of the So-
viet Union.
Sweden — Song of the North.
Japan — Kimigayo.
India — Janagana-mana A d h i -
nayaka and Bande Mataram.
POLITICAL PARTIES AND GROUPS
Parties in U.S.A. — ^There are no fundamental differences between
two major political parties of the United States — the Republican
and the Democratic. Strictly speaking two parties can not be exactly
classified under the left and right pattern and there are conservative
and as well as progressive Republicans as there are conservative and
progressive Democrats. Republican Party is traditionally the high-
tariff party strong in the Northern and Central States. In foreign
policy the party wants honourable and just peace as the supreme
goal. In domestic policy, its objectives are a balanced budget, a
reduced national debt, an economical administration and a cut in
taxes. Democratic Party is. traditionally the low-tarff party,
strongest in the Southern States. In foreign policy it declared that
peace with • honour was the greatest goal. It reaffirms Wilsonian
principle of the, right of national self-determination, supports expan-
sion of world trade.
Arab League — ^An association of Arab States formed in 22nd
March, 1945. Its object is to maintain Arab solidarity. ^ The League
consists of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi-Arabia, Syria, Lebanon,
Yemen and Libya. Provision was made for admission of the Arab
portion of Palestine upon achievement of independence.
Arab Union — formed shortly after the League, is composed of
public leaders of the Arab world and is intended to rally" the people
to unity and to insure handling of essential Arab problems.
Kuomintang — The Chinese Nationalist Party formed originally
by the followers of Sun-Yet-Sen in 1905. The party aims at the
establishment of a modem, democratic, national- state in China. It
stands for national unity, territorial integrity and a strong central
government. It insists on full sovereignty of China and the aboli-
tion of any unequal treaties. The party has now being driven out
from the mainland of China by the communists and is now confined
to the Island of Formosa.
Centre Parties — Parties which are more conservative than left-
wing parties and more progressive than right-'wing parties.
Cominform — An organisation of the chief European communist
parties formed at Belgrade in October 1947 to co-ordinate the acti-
vities of the communist patties on the basis of mutual agreement.
Conservative Party (England) — One of the chief political parties
of England. It is the successor of Tory Party of the 18th and 19th
centuries. It is a party of the right, in favour of existing social and
economic system and is opposed to socialism. Its policy is directed
POLITICAL INFORMATION
115
at the maintenance of the Empire, at the development of home agri-
culture and industry and at the safe-guarding of private property.
The external policy of the party is traditionally nationa.ist and
imperialist. Conservative party is opposed to further nationalisa-
tion, and advocates where practicable, restoration of free enterprise.
Revolutionary Communist Party — A minor group professing
Trotskyism existing in almost all countries. They are left-wing
communists more radical and revolutionary than Stalinist, official
communists with whom they are in conflict.
Falangists — The Spanish Fascist Party led by General Franco.
I. L. P. — Independent Labour Party in England — a small semi-
radical group in British Labour with a Marxist programme — stands
between Labour Party and Communists.
Communist Party — is the world organisation of Marxist Socia-
lists which once operated through branch national parties very loose-
ly affiliated to the Communist International or “Comintern’, now
abolished by the order of Stalin. The ‘International’ has again been
revived under the name of ‘Cominform’ which is said to be the com-
mon information Bureau of Communist Parties of nine countries of
Europe.
Fianna Fail — De Valera’s radical Nationalist party in Ireland.
Labour Party (England) — It is the British Socialist Party com-
posed of Trade Unions, Socialists and Co-operative Societies which
came into official existence in 1908. It aims bringing about, by legisla-
tion, changes which will benefit the poorer classes. Nationalization of
basic industries and public utilities are main programme of the party.
The party’s policy^ is not based on Marxism — instead it is derived
from the ethical idealism of the labour, co-operative and radical
movements and the practical rationalism of Fabianism.
French Parties' — (1) Mouement Republican Populaire (M.R.P.)
is a bulkwork against communism and its programme has been
moderately leftist in character and at the same time it contains strong
catholic elements. The party stands for limited nationalisation,
collective bargaining, full employment and development of exports.
(2) Radical Socialist Party is a left centre party. The party
favours constitutional reform and better distribution of taxes and
reform of social security. (3) Independent Republicans solidly
devoted to defence of free enterprise. (4) Socialist Party.
Liberal Party — Progressive Party of England, stands for free
trade, was known as Whig Party in the l_8th and 19th centuries, once
a great political force, but now an insignificant party.
Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League, Burma (A.F.P.F.L.) —
is the national organisation of the Burmese people started by its pre-
sident late General Aung San who organised Burmese insurrection
against Japan in early 1945.
Popular Front — Political Party in different countries composed
of communists, socialists and other democratic parties against
Fascism and Nazism.
Egyptian Parties — The nationalist party of Egypt Wafd, esta-
blished in 1919 by Zaghlul Pasha, the great Egyptian nationalist.
1927 — the Saadist Party in 1938 and the Kotla (Ind. Wafdist bloc).
116
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Two factions split off from the Wafd after the death of Zaghlul in
in 1945. All Egyptian parties were nationalists in the sense that
they wanted to rid the country of the British influence. Moslem
Brotherhood — It has always claimed not to be a political party but
rather a national movement seeking to reform Egyptian life on the
basis of ‘Islamic principles'. It was suppressed some times.
INDIAN POLITICAL PARTIES
Indian National Congress — ^The object of the Indian National
Congress as adopted in 1948 is now “the well-being and advancement
of the people of India and the establishment in India by peaceful and
legitimate means of a Co-operative Commonwealth based on equality
of opportunity and of political, economic and social rights and aiming
at world peace and fellowship.’’ The Congress advocates a democra-
tic secular Government with a welfare State as a goal. It endeavours
to maintain a strictly independent position in world affairs.
Communist Party of India — Organised in its present form in 1934.
The party moulds its policy with reference to the policy of Russia
in international affairs, rather than according to the conditions ob-
taining in India. They look to Russia for guidance and inspiration
and follow orthodox international communist line. The party’s
aim is “the organisation of the toiling masses in the struggle
for the victorious anti-imperialist and agrarian revolution
for complete national independence, for the establishment of a
people’s democratic state led by the working class, for the realisa-
tion of the dictatorship of the proletariat, and the building up of
socialism according to the teachings of Marxism and Leninism.”
Proja Socialist Party — ^Formed by the fusion of the Socialist
Party and the Kisan Mazdoor Proja Partyl Party declares as its
objective the establishment of a democratic socialist society in India.
Forward Bloc — Came into existence in 1938 when Subhas
Bose sought to rally leftists against the Congress orthodoxy. It
favours a programme of direct action and repudiates all compromise.
The party’s objective now is the establishment of Socialist State
in India with complete severence of relations from the British
Commonwealth.
Forward Bloc (Marxist) — This is a group which has severed its
connection with the parent body and has formed a new party on
January 23, 1950. The Desh Sevak Party of Punjab, merged into it.
Bharat Sevak Samaj — ^New national organisation brought into
existence as a result of Government intiative. It is a scheme evolved
to rally all patriots for the task of quickly building up economic
strength of the country promoting the social well-being of the
community and mitigating privations and hardship . of its less-
favoured sections. It is not a political organisation. It welcomes
into its fold men of all thoughts save those who believe in destroying
the present order of things by, violent methods and those who want
to perpetuate the present day social injustice by believing in commu-
nal and sectarian idealism.
National Liberal Federation — was formed in 1908 when ■ the
POLITICAL INFORMATION
117
moderates broke away from the Congress and formed a separate
party. It advocated gradual progress through peaceful and consti-
tutional means as opposed to the revolutionary creed and policy of
the Congress. Their policy is very ‘moderate’ that it has never
found support of the Indian masses. It represents a doctrine which
has no place in a dyanamic India. The Liberals are opposed to direct
action of any sort. They are wedded to constitutional forms of agi-
tation whatever they may mean.
Scheduled Caste Federation — ^Party was established by Dr.
Ambedkar. It has no political or economic platform. It had cen-
tred all its agitation for demanding extraordinary privileges. After
partition it has changed its outlook.
Hindu Mahasabha — The aim of the Mahasabha is the protection
and promotion of all that contribute to the advancement, strength
and glory of Hindu Rashtra, Hindu culture and Hindu polity, and
as a means to that end, to achieve Hindu Raj and re-establish the
integrity of the State of Bharat by constitutional means.
Peasants and Workers Party — ^The party’s programme includes
“severance of all connection with British imperialism, abolition of
landlordism without compensation, confiscation of foreign capital
invested in banks and industries.’’ The programme also urges
nationalisation of big industries, banks and insurance companies and
the re-organisation of States on a linguistic basis. This is a Marxist-
Leninnist Party following the guidance of Cominform.
Democratic Vanguard — ^This party was formed in 1943 by those
who seceded from the Radical Democratic Party. Its object is the
“attainment of the democratic revolution’’ in India.
Rastriya Swayam Sevak Sangh — It was started in, 1925. Its
objects are the military training of the Hindus, development of social
consciousness and building up of character, and promotion of physi-
cal, intellectual and moral well-being of the Hindus and the
establishment of Hindu Rashtra. The party has now stated its main
objective as revival of Hindu culture.
Socialist Republican Party — ^was started by late Sarat Chandra
Bose in 1948 with the object of complete independence of India free
from all foreign influences. The setting up of Socialist Republic on
the linguistic basis and the establishment in the country of a Union
of Socialist Republics are the main objects of the party.
Sarvodaya Samaj — A fellowship of those who believe in the
Gandhian ideals. It is not an organisation but a voluntary brother-
hood of constructive workers who have faith in Gandhian ideals of
truth and non-violence. Its central idea is the insistence on the
purity of means in the same way as of ends. Khadi, Harijan up-
lift, service to Adibasis, , leprosy relief work and promotion of com-
munal harmony form the main activities of Samaj.
Revolutionary Socialistic Party of India — Preaches Marxist doc-
trine and wants to establish a socialist state in India through
revolution.
Revolutionary Communist Party of India — another _ Marxist
party in India which calls itself Leninnist, which characterizes Con-
118
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
gress as bourgeois organisation. It is anti-Soviet vrith Trotskyite
leanings.
Kishan Party — Is a peasant movement ■with socialistic outlook.
Its programme is the amelioration of the Indian peasants. Though
separate from the Congress, its programme is identical with
Congress.
Bharatiya Jan Sangh — A political party hounded in 1951 by Dr.
Shyama Prosad Mukerjee. It believes in Akhand Bharat and also
demands a more stiff attitude to works Kashmir question.
All India hluslim Majlis — ^Progressive Nationalist Party of
Muslims, was opposed to creation of Pakistan and supporters of
Congress ideals.
Jamiat-ul-ulema-Hind — An organisation of Moslem divines and
religious teachers. It has always supported the political programme
of the Congress. It was a supporter of Indian independence on reli-
gious grounds. It has now dropped its political programme.
Shia Political Conference — Represents Shia Moslems and is the
most important minority among the supporters of the Congress.
hlomin Ansar Conference — Its main policy has centred on oppo-
sition to hluslim League and to Pakistan. The Conference is the full
supporter of Congress politics.
Akali Dal — A politico-religious party of a section of the Sikhs.
It aims at the establishment of a Punjabi Suba as a homeland for
the Sikhs within Indian Union and advocates the adoption of Guru-
mukhi language as state language for the Punjab State. So far as
politics is concerned, the party has recently merged with the Congress
and wants to confine its activities to social, educational, economic and
cultural field.
Akhil Bharatiya Jan Sangh — A sectarian group pludged to Work
for an annulment of partition and for social and economic regerera-
tion of the country in conformity with national traditions and Hindu
culture.
Other Parties — ^During General Election of 1951 in India numer-
ous parties came into being, both Indiavide or provincial. The fol-
lowing are some of the parties which took part in the elections —
Ram Rajya Parishad, Akali Party, Lai Communists, Zamindara
League, Krishikar Lok Party, Gorkha League, Jharkand Party
(Chota Nagpur), Justice Party (Madras), Common Wealth Party,
Tamilavd Toilers Party, Ganatantra Parisad (Orissa), Janata
Party (Bihar) etc. i
POLITICAL TERMS
Absolutism — ^The system of unlimited government, the governed
havdng no representation, vote or other share in the administration.
An absolute ruler governs in accordance with his own will without
consulting the people and without being bound by any law. Abso-
lutism is opposite to constitutional government and democracy and
the antithesis to the separation of powers.
_ Amnesty— rAn act of Government granting exemption from cri-
minal prosecution and punishment.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
119
Ambassador — ^Higb ranking minister representing his govern-
ment in a foreigrn country.
Appeasement — A policy of pacification or yielding to the
demands of a potential enemy rather than opposing him by force.
Anschluss — German word meaning a “joining.” Politically, it
refers to the union of Austria with Germany effected on March 12,
1938.
Apartheid — An African word for “separateness.” It means
complete segregation socially and politically, of white and non-white
peoples, and among the non-whites of Bantus, Indians and coloured
peoples of half-castes in South Africa where Union of South Africa’s
Group Area Bill legislates for different residential and trading areas
for all sections to "make South Africa safe for the white races.”
Agent ‘Provocateur — A French term for political agent sent
during political or social conflicts into the adversary’s ranks to pro-
voke in the guise of an adherent incidents and compromising actions-
Austerity — A severe or enforced economy characterized by a
lack of luxuries (as post-war austerity of Great Britain).
Authoritarianism — The political system in which the government
is based on what is claimed to be the natural need for a strong and
resolute authority to direct the state without reference to the fluc-
tuating opinions of the people, as opposed to the democratic system
based on their freely expressed opinions. The term is a milder name
for absolutism. Totalitarian systems like Fascism, Nazism and
Communism are .extreme forms of authoritarian government, al-
though Soviet Union would reject the application of the term to
itself.
Anti-Semitism — Opposition to the Jewish race. The movement
became conspicuous in Europe during the last quarter of the 19th
century. The movement appears to be, based on economic rather
than religious or political cause. It flared up strongly in Nazi Ger-
many under Hitler.
Armed Neutrality — The position assumed by a neutral when
it sem'es notice on belligerents that it is prepared to protect its
neutral rights by force.
Autocracy — means the unlimited rule of an individual.
Autarky — A term used for the idea of national self-sufficiency.
The usual motive of autarky is the striving of domestic producers to
monopolise the market, preparation for war and blockade and a
general transference of nationalism to economists. Means for
fostering autarky include protective tariffs, a ban of imports, sub-
sidies and deliberate planing.
Armistice — Agreement between combatants to cease fighting.
It may be either temporary for the purpose of removing the wound-
ed or burying the dead or it may be a preliminary to a general peace.
Anarchism — A political doctrine standing for the abolition of
every organised authority and of State machinery. The anarchists
hold that every form of government tantamounts to tyranny. They
want to do away with all forms of state and government and to sub-
stitute for them free associations of individuals or groups without
any coercive organisation, without written law, police courts, prisons
120
HINDUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
or armed forces. . In snch a society men are expected to live toge-
ther harmoniously on the basis of voluntarily respected mutual
contracts.
Bamboo Curtain — ^hlilitarj’, political and propaganda barrier
isolating territory controlled by Chinese communists.
Ballot — ^The paper on which are printed the nam^ of candidates
for office in elections. The elector indicates ids choice by marking
a cross in plurality electoral systems.
Bicameral System — That form of government which consists of
two separate houses or chambers in which the concurrence of both
is necessary to the enactment of legislation. Adopted to act as a
check upon hasty or ill-considered legislation.
Bilateral — ^T^o-sided, a term used of agreements concluded be-
tween only two parties, as distinct from multilateral agreements
which are between several parties.
Biological warfare — ^Warfare in which living organisms, speci-
ally disease germs, are used against human, animal and -plant life;
also warefare invoUang the use of synthetic chemicals against plants.
Bhoodan movement — ^The rehabilitation of landless agricultural
worker is the primary objective of Bhoodan- movement. The philo-
sophy behind the Bhoodan movement is that ‘all the land belongs to
God’* or the community ■ and therefore it must be shared -with those
who are ready to work on it for the community. This movement
.was started on April 18, 1951 by Acharya Venoba Bhave. 'While it
began as a mere land-gift movement, it has gro-wn to inco^orate the
Sampattidan, -Konpdan, Haldan, Grihadan, Bxtddhidan, Shr’amdan, etc.
Balance of Power — ^This phrase means the preservation of an
equality of strength between countries or groups of countries. The
idea is that no one country shall become too powerful for the safety
of the others.
Blockade — A term used in international law for the prevention
of goods entering or lea-ving an enemy country by land or sea. Neu-
tral States are affected most by a blockade by sea, for if their ships
try to approach the ports of blockaded country, they and their car-
goes are liable to be confiscated by the blockading force.
Bourgeois — French word for the middle class. They comprise
capitalists, manufacturers, merchants, bankers, generally all inde-
pendent producers, traders and -employers, also directors and
managers and members of the professions with a corresponding in-
come and social status, in contrast to the Proletariat, the working
class -without any property who lives on selling its labour.
Bloc — means an association of legislative members or of poli-
tical workers of different parties, formed to support a certain mea-
sure or ministry. A French word meaning ‘mass’ or ‘group.’
Bolshevism — accepts the doctrine that an irreconcilable antago-
nism exists between the propertied class or bourgeois and the pro-
perty-less workers. It invites as inevitable and necessary class war
the object of which is . the destruction of all classes, except the prole^
tariat, in whose interest and by whom future society -will be orga-
nised and governed on a communistic basis.
Book burning— Systematic destruction, usually by a government,
POLITICAL INFORMATION
121
of books believed to contain dangerous ideas, hence, the supression
of ideas.
Brain Trust — ^In U.S.A. the nickname for a group of economists
and businessmen who were officially advisers to President F. D.
Roosevelt during the first year of his presidency and are believed to
have greatly influenced his ‘New Deal’ policy. The term has since
been applied to other groups of experts believed to be influencing
government.
Brainwashing — The forcible replacement of one set of political
ideas by another set, specially through indoctrination or mental
torture.
Buffer State — a small state established or preserved between
two greater states to prevent direct clashes between them.
Bureaucracy — government by an elaborate system of administra-
tive departments and officials which generally tends to become un-
wieldy and laborious in its operation. It produces red tape or over-
systematization. Its most frequently charged defects are rigidity,
conservatism and spirit of routine.
By-cleclion — Election to a seat rendered vacant during the run-
ning term of an elected body due to resignation, death or any other
subsequent disqualification.
Capitalism — the economic system founded on free enterprise and
private ownership of the means of production and , distribution.
■ Caucus — A meeting or conference of members, of a political
party in an ensuing election or other political contest.
Civil Disobedience — Refusal to co-operate ■, with government
without however using violence.
Coalition — is a combination of political parties having different
or opposed interests, effected with the object of carrying through or
resisting a particular policy.
. Commonwealth of Nations — Collectively the loose association of
States formerly subject to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland and now recognising the Queen of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland as “Head”. The term “Common-
wealth” countries’ covers both the self-governing members of the
Commonwealth and the Colonies.
•• Concordat — An agreed pact ; specially between Pope and a gov-
ernment equivalent to international convention.
, ■ Contraband — goods or merchandise the importation or exporta-
tion of v.’hich is forbidden ; in war time applied specially as between
neutrals and belligerents.
Communism — Represents revolutionary socialism, hostile to the
slow progress or gradual reform and progressive compromise. Com-
munism believes in the dictatorship of the proletariat for a transi-
tional period, after which a free society would come into existence
in which every body would contribute to the common weal 'according
to his capacity and receive a reward according to his need — Commu-
nism proclaims the equality of all peoples and races and believes in
the final establishment of an international order.
Colour bar — The denying by white men, Europeans or persons
of European descent, of legal and social rights to coloured persons.
122
HINDUSTAN ' YEAR-BOOK
Collective Responsibility — in countries vvitb parliamentary gov-
ernment, the joint responsibility of the government to the Parlia-
ment. The government is responsible for the political actions of
each member of it and each member is responsible for the actions of
the government.
Collective Security — Security of all the members of an associa-
tion of nations from aggression by any other nation or nations. _
Cold War — A struggle between two nations or groups of nations,
waged by use of political and economic strategy, propaganda and
other measures short of armed combat.
Corporate State — A state organised politically on the basis of
vocational corporations instead of territorial units. A corporate par-
liament does not consist of representatives of territoral constitu-
encies but of delegates of professional corporation who are sent to
the parliament according to the quota system.
Corridor — ^A strip of the territory of one State running through
that of another, usually to give access to the sea.
Coup D’etat — a sudden change of government by force effected
by holders of government or military power.
Constituent Assembly — is an assembly convened for the purpose
of drawing up a constitution, but it only comes and this is the vital
point — after there is a breahdown in the emsting machinery of
Government and a change has been brought about in the Status quo.
Condominium — A territory over which responsibility is shared by
two administering powers.
Conscientious Objector — ^Person who refuses to enlist in the mili-
tary service on moral or religrious grounds.
Colony — a company of people, purposely or otherwise trans-
planted from their mother country and remaining subject to the
jurisdiction of the parent State.
Croo-n Colony — A British Empire colony in which the Crown
retains some kind of control over legislation.
Customs Union — A union of states or nations for the purpose of
establishing orderly trade with one another and a common tariff on
imports, exports and goods in transit as now established in Low
Countries of Euroue.
Democracy— “Government of the people, by the people, and for
the people” — LiucnJn. It is based upon freely elected representative
institutions and upon an executive responsible to the people. It is
based upon the fundamental assumption of the equality of all indivi-
duals and of their equal right to life, liberty (including the liberty
of thought and expression) and the pursuit of happiness.
Demarche — Diplomatic term from the French, used for repre-
sentations whether moderate proposals or severe threats, made by
one state to another through diplomatic envoys.
Diarchy — A form of government in which the supreme power of
the state is vested in two bodies or persons.
Diehards — extremely orthodox and unbending members of a
party ; it was specially applied to the members of the Conservative
party.
Dictatorship — Control of Government or ruling power by a mino-
POLITICAL INFORMATION
123
rity or by an individual. In ancient Rome, the dictator was recog-
nised as a ruler. In modem times, Dictatorship flared up in Europe
after the World War I. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany
seized power unconstitutionally but with the support of the people.
Dollar Diplomacy — A nickname for the foreign policy of U.S._A.
for the purposes of expanding American financial and commercial
interests abroad under the guise of promoting international friend-
ship.
Dominion Status — Dominions “are autonomous communities
within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one
to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, united
by a common allegiance to the Crown.”
Diplomacy — Art of negotiation specially between countries.
Each country possesses a diplomatic service t • carrv on negotiations
with foreign countries. Some diplomats such as ambassadors, mi-
nisters, envoys, etc., go abroad and live in a foreign capital to keep
in touch with the Government. Their business is to watch over in-
terests of their country and to send regular reports upon all that
concerns it.
Electoral College — Any body of electors limited in number, meet-
ing in one place to choose a public official.
Extra-Territoriality — ^the legal fiction that foreign diplomats and
diplomatic agencies are outside their country of residence inspite
of physical presence. Embassies etc., form foreign islands, so
to speak, within the territory of a state. They are not subject to its
laws.
Extradition — Surrender of a fugitive from justice by one country
or state to the authorities of another.
Espionage — A French word which expresses more than English
word spying ; it implies an organised system.
Federalism — A system of government wherein political powers
of the state are constitutionally distributed between National
Government and the local Governments or member units which are
called ‘States,’ ‘Provinces,’ etc. The division of powers between
Federal government and separate states is laid down in the cons-
titution and varies between one another.
Fifth Column — Secret supporters of an enemy engaged in
sabotage or other subversive activity within defence lines.
Filibuster — A politician who attempts to delay, or stop the
passing of a bill by endless speech-making and other legitimate
practices.
Geneva Convention — An international treaty regulating the
treatment of the wounded in war, adopted at a conference held in
1864 and replaced by the existing agreement of 1906.
Guerilla — ^Irregular warfare. Guerilla warfare consists in
attacks upon a regular army by bands of irregular troops, usually the
inhabitants of an invaded country.
Genocide — The destruction of a human group, racial, ethnic, reli-
gious or national by slaughter, starvation, sterilization, compulsory
abortion, mass kidnapping or other violent means. The word
was coined by a Polish lawyer R. Lemkin. In 1948 the U.N. ap-
124
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
proved a new international law defining Genocide as a crime. The
convention having been ratified by 20 U.N. members, became effect-
ive Jan. 12, 1951.
Gentleman’s Agreement — ^An informal international agreement
based on a verbal exchange or corespondence, without a treaty or
convention being signed.
Gerrymander — A practice of laying out electoral districts to
ensure the majority of votes for party in power.
Hegemony — Eldership ; especially of one state or a group.
Imperialism — Policy of empire-building and conquests transcend-
ing national frontiers. It now means for every policy of conquest
and colonial expansion.
Internationals— Socialist movement in which socialists from
many countries are united. There have been three such movements
or Internationals, and each has held several Congresses. First
Intemntioval — accepted a programme drawn up by Karl Marx and
had lasted from 1866 to 1874. Second International, in which there
was trade union element, was organised in 1889. It sought to com-
pass the aims of Socialism by constitutional, not revolutionary action
and it held several congress between 1882 and 1930. The Third
International was organised in Moscow and was revolutionary in
its aims. It declared in favour of establishing communism by force.
Imperial Preference — In the British Empire, the trading system
whereby the members of that Empire give to each other prSerentaal
treatment in their tariff regulations and import quotas.
Iron Curtain — A barrier created by such means as censorship
and prohibition of free travel to isolate Russian controlled territory
from outside contacts, hence, any similar barrier against
communication.
Isolationism — The path of keeping aloof from affairs of other
countries.
Joint Responsibility — ^The guiding principle of the Cabinet sys-
tem of Government. Although every minister is in charge of a parti-
cular portfolio, all ministers are jointly responsible to the legislature
and a vote of no-confidence against one is a censure on alL
Lebensram — German word for fiiving space’, a new word for
German imperialism. It was used to stress that population is too
dense and to claim such territories as agricultural regions towards
Black Sea and co’.onies overseas.
Leftist — one who belongs to a radical or. revolutionary party;
also one who holds or advocates ultraliberal principles.
Lend-Lease — ^The system of lending- and leasing supplies and
installations to each other developed by the allies in the World War
II. It was started by President Roosevelt.
Marxism — ^The socialist doctrine following the theories of Karl
JIarx (Germany). His ideas are that all wealth is produced bv La-
bour and should go to labour, and that as this leaves nothing for the
capitalist, who can therefore never accept the system, the worker
must prepare for class war in which capitalism will be destroyed.
An essence of his theories is that history is largely determined bv"
oconotnic forces. ^
POLITICAL INFORMATION
125
Moratorium — A period during which no business engagements
are completed or debts or liabilities enforced. A moratorium is
declared by the government in times of a financiai crisis.
Most-Favoured Nation Clause — a clause customary in treaties
of commerce whereby signatories undertake to extend automatically
to the other party any reduction in tariff or other economic favour
which they may in future accord to any other country. Thus if a
country at a later date grants a tariff reduction in respect of some
articles to some other county, this will also apply to all the coun-
tries with which it has previously made trade treaties.
Naturalisation — The word is used for the admission of a person
of foreign nationality into that of a country he desires to adopt. An
oath of allegiance has to be taken.
Non-aggression Pact — Treaty between two or more states pled-
ging each not to attack the other and to settle their disputes by nego-
tiation or arbitration.
Non-intervention — Generally the principle of abstination from
interference with the internal affairs of other nations. It rests on
the recognition of sovereignty as the permanent factor in inter-
national relations and is one of the most often involved principles
in the policies of the world.
Non-belligerency — This word is used for sympathetic attitude;
short of fighting which a country adopts towards one side in war
time. It therefore differs from the strict impartiality called for in
neutrality.
Nationalisation — Taking management by the state of trades
and industries, etc., with or without compensation ; changes from
private to state ownership.
Neutrality — In international law, condition of a state abstaining
from participating in a war between other states and maintaining
an impartial attitude in its dealings with the belligerent states, wito
the recognition of this impartiality by the warring states.
Open Door Policy — System of keeping trade open to all coun-
tries, disregarding monopolies or preferences on equal terms with-
out privileges or discrimination.
Opposition — Freedom to oppose the existing government is fun-
damental to democracy and the British practice of calling the Oppo-
sition “His Majesty’s Opposition” on the analogy of “His Majerty’s
Government” is a recognition of the fact that the opposition is as
loyal and essential to the state as the government.
Ordinance — That which is ordained by authority. Ordinance is
an act promulgated by the chief of the state without passing through
the legislature of a country.
Panch Shila — five principles of co-existence jointly enunciated
by Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Chow En Lie.
The countries that have so far specially commended the ‘Panch Shila'
are-;-China, Indonesia, Burma, India, Nepal, Laos, Cambodia,
Democratic Republic of Viet Nam and Yugoslavia. The five prin-
ciples of Panch Shila are (1) mutual respect for one another’s
territorial integrity and soverignty, (2) non-aggression, (3) non-
interference in one another’s internal affairs, for any reasons of
126
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
an economic, political or ideological character, (4) equality and
mutual benefit and (5) peaceful co-existence. These principles also
formed the basis of joint declaration made by India and U.S.S.R. on
June 22, 1953 and also by Poland on June 27, 1955.
Parole — ^An oath taken by a prisoner of war that, if released, he
will not try to escape, nor during a war against his captorsi
Partisan — ^A member of a guerilla band working behind enemy
lines and engaged in such activities as sabotage, demolition, and
^versionary attacks.
Point of Order — A question raised by a member of a legislative
body as propriety of a motion 6r proceeding under the rules. The
presiding oflScer is required to rule on it immediately as his ruling
is subject to appeal to the floor.
Power Politics — (1) the policy of maintaining and expanding
national power for power’s sake, (2) the sum total of international
relations in a world consisting of sovereign states whose existence
depends on power, (3) by a more narrow definition, the use of threats
and force for the achievement of political objects in international
relations without consideration of right and justice.
Protectorate — A territory not formally annexed, but in respect
of which, by treaty grant, usage, ' sufferance and other lawful
means, the other state has power and jurisdiction.
Purge — Expulsion, possibly killing of unreliable, unruly, diso-
bedient or merely inconvenient members of a party.
Putsch — German word meaning “attempt to take by force”,
specially power, control of state.
Prize Court — This is a court of law set up in time of war to
decide whether a ship and its cargo captured by the navy is a lawful
prize or not. If it is decided that a captured ship is enemy property
or a cargo is contraband, they are sold and the proceeds are distri-
buted to all members of the navy at the end of the war.
Privy Purse — In England allowance from civil list for personal
use of the Sovereign.
Prohibition — Government action which prohibits by law the
manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors except for medical or
sacramental use.
Plural Voting — System allowing a person to cast more than one
vote in the same election. The voter is eligible to vote in more
than one constituency by virtue of its special position i.c., a city and
a university vote by the same person.
Pacifism — Opposition to war or military force in any form.
Pacifists believe that all international disputes should be settled by
arbitration. The various movements towards world peace are not
necessarily wholly pacifistic, as they often advocate defensive war
and oppose only aggressive war.
_ Provincial Autonomy — ^The_ system (specially in Indian Consti-
tution) under which States enjoy complete autonomy as far as the
States subjects are concerned and have concurrent jurisdiction with
the Centre on subject of common interest.
Proportional Representation — is the method used in an election
by which the votes are so counted that each party has representation
POLITICAL INFORMATION
127
in the elective body in proportion to its strength, so as to ensure the
representation of minorities.
Plebiscite — An expression of the will of the whole people, sought
in ratification or disapproval of a particular measure, already decid-
ed but regarding which their elected representatives hesitate to act.
It comes from the Latin plebs, the common people.
Protectorate — A territory, not formally annexed, but over which,
by grant, treaty, sufferance or usage and other lawful means another
State has power or jurisdiction i.e. Zanzibar.
Protocol — The rough-draft of a diplomatic document on which
diplomatic transactions tentatively commenced.
Privileges, Parliamentary — ^“the sum of peculiar rights enjoyed
by each House collective.y as a constituent part of the High Court
of Parliament, and by members of each House individually, without
which they could not discharge their functions and which exceed those
possessed by other bodies or individuals .” — Erskine May.
Pourparler — An informal preliminary conference of representa-
tives of different groups, functions or countries looking to a formal
agreement settling disputed questions between the parties.
Police State — A totalitarian state having repressive government
control of radio, press, culture, and economic and political life.
Pogrom — A Russian word for 'devastation’, a term for mass
raids on Jewish quarters in Tsarist Russia; killing, looting and arson
were practiced. They were later introduced into Germany by Nazis.
Public Relations — The activities of a corporation, government,
or other organisation in building and maintaining good relations
with the general public or with special groups.
Public Utilities — Electric light, gas, telephone, street car and
other services of use to a'.l members of the community.
Proletariat — The wage-earning class of a community collectively
i.e., propertyless class dependent on .^ale of labour. In Marxism, the
Proletariat is opposed to the bourgeoisie, the employing class and
will eventually overthrow it.
Politbureau — Short for political bureau, the leading body of
communist parties. The communist party of Soviet Union has a
Politbureau which is regarded by many as real government of Russia
Every communist party in whatever country has a Politbureau.
Quislings — Local traitors, names after the Norwegian traitor.
Major Quisling, who betrayed his country to the Germans ; specially
those who quietly prepared the way for Germany in her neighbour-
ing countries.
Radical — ^Persons of political views quite different from those
held by the majority of persons who, in politics, are in favour of
sweeping reforms or other changes in government or laws.
Racketeer — One who levies blackmail on industry by threats of
interference.
‘Reds’ — Slang term for revolutionaries, specially communists,
derived from Red Flag, the traditional symbol of revolt.
Republic — State in which the sovereign power resides in the elec-
torate, which is the body of the people having a voice in electing
128
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
representatives to rule them. There is no hereditary sovereign to
rule.
Residuary Powers — In Federal Constitution where the powers
are divided between the federal centre and the federating States or
units under a system of three lists — ^federal, state or provincial and
concurrent. Powers' relating to new spheres of administration ' not
covered by either of the three lists are known as residuary powers.
Reprisal — A retaliatory punishment inflicted by one country
upon another for an alleged illegal act.
Right and Left — In the legislative bodies, it is the fixed habit of
the conservative groups and parties to seat themselves on the right
hand side of the Speaker or President and of the liberal or radical
element to seat themselves on the left. The term ‘centre’ is used
for middle parties or groups.
Regent — One -who rules on behalf of a sovereigpi, .when a sove-
reign is a minor, or is insane, or in any other way incapable of rul-
ing, it is usual to appoint a regent to act for him.
Referendum — Bringing a proposed law before the people as a
whole for decision. • •
Reciprocity — Exchange of commercial privilege. It is usually
experienced when two nations make tariff concessions to each other.
Sabotage — At first this word was confined in its meaning to mali-
cious waste or destruction of an employer’s property by workmen,
as a means of enforcing demands in labour disputes. Now it is be-
ing applied more broadly, to define any malicious crippling or des-
truction of property especially as practiced by foreign secret agents
or sympathisers for the purpose of damaging military equipment.
Sanctions — Coercive measures taken to ensure fulfilment of in-
ternational treaty obligations. Sanctions were provided in the cove-
nant of the League of Nations against countries resorting to war in
defiance of the Covenant. U.N. Charter also provides for sanctions
though it does not use the word ‘sanctions’. •
Satellite — A state or country politically and economically
dominated by a more powerful neighbouring one.
Secret Session — ^Por the discussion of important questions, Par-
liament sometimes sits in secret when aU withdraws from the hotiso
except the members.
Sphere of Influence — A region normally undeveloped, politically
under the determinative power of a foreign nation.
Splinter Group — ^In politics, a group broken away from a larger,
original organisation.
Soviet — Council ; a local governing body in the U.S.S.R. com-
posed of peasants, soldiers and workers which send deputies to the
higher congress.
Straw vote — Unofficial polling of public opinion.
Suzerainty — A state that exercises political control over another
state in relation to which he is sovereign.
Syndicalism — A socialist movement aiming at trade union socia-
lism instead of State Socialism.
Scorched Earth — A wartime policy of destroying all resources
when defending forces had to withdraw before the invader.
POLITICAL information
129
Self-determination-f-The principle that every distinct people or
nation ought to have the right to determine the question of its in-
dependence, its form of government and its political^ destiny.
Tammany Hall — A name ^ven to the Democratic Party’s orga-
nisation in New York city, which sprang from Tanjmany Society of
1805. One of the famous political machines of American history —
,very influential in New York city and State politics, also in the
"Democratic party on a national scale.
Third Force — term originating in the post'World War II ;
France, where it was applied to the Socialists and M.R.P. interme-
diate between the communists and the right-wing supporters of De
<Jaulle. It has been applied elsewhere to policies intermediate bet>
ween Communism and Fascism and other right-wing forces. It is
applied also to a group of States — W. Europe which would he suffi-
ciently strong and influential to reconcile the U.StA. and U.S.S.R.
by co-operating with both.
Totalitarian — a believer in the complete centralisation of govern-
ment control under the political group and suppression of other
parties.
Total War — denotes the present form of war in which the dis-
tinction between combatants and non-combatants are fast dis-
appearing.
Theocracy — A state governed by God or priests.
Trotskyism — ^The yiews of Trotsky on. sooialisru, revolution and
the development of Soviet Union and the movement propagating
these ideas. After the overthrow of Trotsky in 1925-27, a number
■of communists supporting his opposition to Stalin formed revolu-
tionary communist parties which in 1936 established Fourth Inter-
national which held conferences in Paris in 1936 and 1948. They
are left-wing communists, more radical and revolutionary than Stali-
nist, the official communist with -whom they are in conflict. These
Trotskites have appeared in various countries as ‘Revolutionary
•Communist Party,’ ‘Revolutionary Socialist Party’ etc.
Trust Territory — A territory administered by a State appointed
"by and responsible to, the United Nations after the 2nd World War.
Trusteeship — Administration by a member of the United Nations
■of an area not yet ready for self-government. > ■
Unilateral action — Action taken by one party to an agreement
■without consulting the other parties in international affairs.
Ultimatum — Final statement of demands, rejection of which is
assumed to lead at once to breaking-off friendly relations and to war.
Underground — organised, secret opposition to the government
•or force in power.
V. E. Day — Victory in Europe, May 8th, 1945, the day of the
■official end of the European phase of the World War II.
V. J. Day — ^Victory in Japan, August 14, 1945, the day making
the end of the war in Japan.
Warmonger — people who desire war and support war-like policy.
Whigs — Old name for English liberals, no longer in use. It was
the description of liberal party in English Parliament after 1680.
Veto — The term is most used to-day with reference to the
9
130
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
United. Nations but its 'history dates from Roman times. -^Feto’is
Latin for “I forbid it”; it' was the weird used by the Roman magis-
trate when invoking the law- against some action. In many modern
States the Bang or -President has the power-of; vetoing measures
passed W the legislature. In the United- Nations, ’’only -the five per-
manent members out of the eleven members of the Security Council
have •the’’ power of veto, which prevents a decision being taken even
if every, other member is in favour -of it.'
Welfare State — A state that, by" its concern with public health,
insurance against sickness and unemployment and similar measures,
assumes a large share of ’•esponsibility for the welfare of its citizens.
Wishful Thinking — signifies 'optimism not always founded on
reality. ■ ' '
Whip — A member of a- political party assi^ed to the task of
rounding up members of that party'-to ensure their votes and to' hold
them in line with the party policy. ‘ /
Writ — A document directed to some public officer or private
person commanding him to do a certain act therein specified.-
. , .PLANS, POLICIES, TREATIES, ALLIANCES, COUNCILS,
CHARTERS, CONFERENCES, ETC.
ANZUS TREATY — ^was signed on - Sept. 1, 1951. This was
■for -the security -for Pacific- as an area and maintenance of a chain of
•defence against any aggression. The treaty declared “no potential
aggressor . could be under the illusion that any of them stand alone
-in the Pacific”. The treaty was joined by Australia, New Zealand and
•.United States. j ' • i-; • ’ , ' • ;
-• , Atlantic Charter — A joint declaration, was made by Roosevelt-
Churchiil on Augmst 14, 1941, stating (1) no aggrandisement; terri-
torial or other. (2) No territorial changes without expressed -wish
of the people concerned. (3) Right of all people io' choose the form
of their o-wn government. (4) Restoration of sovereign rights and
self-government to those who have been forcibly deprived of them.
(5) ■ A'ccesSi-.on equal terms to trade and to raw materials of the
world. (6)_ Fullest collaboration between all nations' in economic
field. (7) Final peace of the whole world after destruction of' Nazi
tyranny. . . . ■ • . ■
Arab -League — The Arab States -formed a Union by a pact signed
in Cairo . March . 22, 1945 for the- puipose . of maintaining Arab soli-
darity.- The • League . consists of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia,
Syria, Lebanon. Yemen and Libya. Provision -was made for admis-
sion of the Arab portion 'of Palestine upon aebie-vement of independ-
ence. The League’s Council approved- customs, and payments agree-
ments,- Sept.- 7, 1953.- : ••.•... -
Arab Security Pact — This is knovm .as Arab League’ Collective
Security and -Economic , Co-operation Pact concluded on . July 17,
.1950.; The- pact has ffipen -ratified, by: Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Jordan
andjUebanon. . This '^eaty links the '.signatory States into military,
-political , and economic alliance pledging resistance to armed- attack
POLITICAL INFORMATION
131
and reaffirming their obligations under Arab League and U.N.
charters.
Bagdad Pact (MEDO ) — A pact signed by Turkey, Pakistan,
Iraq, United Kingdom and Iran ; It has two aspects — military and
economic. Each country has pledged to come to the aid of the other.
Benelux — ^This is the combination of three countries — Belgium,
Luxemburg and the Netherlands which have established a complete
Custom Union among themselves. No longer are there any tariff
barriers between these three countries. All three are now together
called Benelux. The Benelux has been an influential example of
closer economic co-operation for recovery of Europe.
Bandung Conference — This conference also known as Asian-
African Conference met April 18-27, 1955 at Bandung, near Jakarta,
Indonesia. The conference announced its aims as elimination of
colonialism, independence and self-determination for all peoples, and
membership for all nations in the U.N. The conference was initiat-
ed by five members of .the' Colombo Group : India, Ceylon,' Pa-
kistan, Indonesia, Burma. ’
The conference condemned “colonialism in all its manifesta-
tions”, supported the rights of Arab refugees in Palestine and' terri-
torial revisions, asked France to grant self-determination and inde-
pedene'e to Tunisia} Algeria and Morocco and supported the claims
of Indonesia to West New Guinea. The conference supported prin-
ciples of the U.N. human rights, disarmament, prohibition of nuclear
weapons, economic co-operation and urged aid for Asian-African
countries from International Bank and U.N.
Brussels Pact — The pact was signed in March 1948 by Britain,
Prance and the Benelux countries. It is a military defence pact
and also equally an economic co-operation pact. It pledges all five
countries to cease from bilateral injury to one another and to enlarge
their commercial exhanges. , ' ‘
It was designed “to foi-tify and preserve the principles of 'demo-
cracy, personal freedom and, political liberty, the rule of' law and
constitutional traditions." ■* ’
Colombo Plan — This plan began from July 1, 1961. It was a
six-year plan of economic aid to South and South-East Asia agreed
on at the British-sponsored Conference at Colombo in January 1960
by Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Ceylon, India, New Zealand,
Pakistan. Later Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo, Sarawak pro-
mised co-operation. Burma and Indonesia sent observers to meet-
ings of Consultive Committee in London. The Project will raise
£1,868 million, help by governments, raised by bank loans, contribu-
tions etc., to support mills, power plants,- railways, irrigation, other
capital ’ goods, thus combating poverty and communism. United
States is not a participant, but will consult on Point Four funds in
Asia. The International Bank of Reconstruction and Development
will co-operate. Britain will contribute £100,000,000, Canada and
Australia each voted £26,000,000 for the first year.
Cominform — The Cominform (Communist Information Bureau)
was set up at a secret meeting in Poland of communist delegates
from nine European nations on Oct. 6, 1947. It was the successor
132
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
body to the Comintern (Communist International) -n-hich -was dissolv-
ed in 1943. The original Cominform linked the Communist Party
of Russia with those of the East European States and that of France
and Italy, the two West European countries with the biggest Com-
munist Party membership.
Commonwealth of Nations — is a free association of mne
sovereign independent states, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Ceylon and the Federa-
tion of Rhodesia and Nayasaland. The members are bound together
by the community of ideals and interest. All the members owe
common allegiance to the Queen of England and is the symbol of their
free association in the Commonwealth. India being a Republic with
a President as head of the state does not owe alligeance to the Queen,
but accepts her as the symbol of the free association of member
nations of the Commonwealth and as such head of the Commonwealth.
Council of Europe — ^An institution of consultive character found-
ed on May 5, 1949 in London. It consists of a Committee of Ministers
(composed of Foreign Ministers of member countries) and a consul-
tive assembly (delegations from several parliaments), the former
providing means of - co-operation between governments, the latter
a means through which the aspiration of the European peoples may
he formulated and expressed- Every member government has
to "accept the principles of the rale of law and of the enjoyment by
all persons within its jurisdiction of human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
The member countries are — ^Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Luxemburgh, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Turkey,
United Kingdom, Iceland and German Federal Republic (Associate
Member).
Declaration of Human Rights — was passed by the General
Assembly of UJ^. on Dec. 10, 1948. The declaration was designed
as a statement of what men and women are entitled to expect in a
civilized world. The Declaration of Human Eights proclaimed the
inherent rights of the individual as against the power of any totali-
tarian state. “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest. .... .to
arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home — No one
shall be forbidden to leave any country, including his own.„Hvery
one has the right to freedom of opinion and expression- The will of
the people shall be the basis of the authority of Governments ; this
shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections. Every one
has the right to work to protection against unemployment....
to join trade imions. Every one has the right to a standard of living
adequate for health and well-being of his famiIy„Every one has
the right to education.”
Dumbarton Oaks_ Conference — A meeting of the representatives
of U.SA., Great Britain, Russia and China held at estate known
as Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, recommending on Oct. 9,
1944 the creation of the United Nations, an intemation^ security
organisation.
Eastern Jlilitary Alliance — It is the military organisation of
POLITICAL INFORMATION
13S
Communist States in Europe to offset North Atlantic Treaty Orga-
nisation (NATO), the Western Military Alliance.
European Defence Community (EDC) — The 'treaty founding
European Defence Community was signed in Paris on May 27, 1952
by France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxem-
burg. Four supplementary agreements were signed : a protocol to
the NATO treaty extending guarantees of the NATO to EDC, a
reciprocal pact in which the EDC pledged the same guarantees to the
NATO, a treaty between the 6 EDC members and Britain committing
the 7 nations mutually to resist aggression against any one of the
group and a declaration by Britain, France and the U.S. that they
would regard any threat against EDC as a threat to their own
security and that they would maintain forces in Western Europe to
defend the North Atlantic area.
European Coal and Steel Community (E.C.S.C.) — It is a six
country alliance that seeks to strengthen Europe’s economy. The
members of the alliance are France, Belgium, West Germany, Italy,
Luxemburg and Netherlands.
Genocide Convention — ^was adopted by U.N. on Dec. 9, 1948. The
word genocide was coined by Prof. R. Lamkin of Poland to mean the
deliberate extermination of any human group on racial, religious or
linguistic grounds. The convention binds its signatories to prevent
and punish the crime of genocide.
Four Freedoms — President Roosevelt in his address to the Con-
gress of Jan 6, 1941 defined four essential human freedoms — (1)
Freedom of speech and expression, (2) Freedom of every person to
worship God in his own way, (3) Freedom from want, (4) Freedom
from fear. The programme was, substantially incorporated 'in the
Atlantic Charter (Aug. 1947).
Fourteen Points — ^Woodrow Wilson’s basis offered, Jan. , 8, 1918,
in a message to American Congress for an equitable and enduring
peace in settlement of World War I.
International Red Cross — Two international organisations are
known respectively as International Committee of the Red Cross and
the League of Red Cross Societies, both with headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland. The first of these is a wholly international agency
unconnected with any national society which attempts to main-
tain the basic Red Cross, principle of the ' Geneva convention ; the
second agency is a federation of autonomous national Red Cross
Societies designed to further co-operation among them.
Japanese Peace Treaty — was signed at San Francisco on Sept._8,
1951 by 49 nations. The State of War between Japan' and the .Mlies
was terminated. Japan’s full sovereignty was recognised as is its
right to apply the U.N. membership. Japan recognised the inde-
pendence of Korea, renounced all rights to Formosa, Pescadores,
Kuriles, Sakhalin, the Pacific islands formerly under mandate to
Japan, the Antarctic area, Spartly Island and the Paracels ; Japan
agrees to U.N. 'Trusteeship over Kyukyu and Daito Islands, the
Bonius, Rosario Island, the Volcano Islands, Parece Vela and
Marcus Island.
League of Nations — An organisation of many nations formed in
134
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
January,- 1920 for the’.promotion of international peace and . co-opera-
tion ; dissolved in April, 1946. ■ ■ . ; ..
Marshall' Plan — also , known as ■ Organisation for European Eco-
nomic '.Co-operation ; on June 5, 1947, the U.S. Secretary of State,
Marshall: made a speech in the Harvard University in which he out-
lined the. seriousness of the shortage of dollars for the economic
situation of Europe and suggested American assistance in the eco-
nomic recovery on - the understanding that the European countries
reached some agreement about their requirements and the part they
themselves would take in giving proper effect to the action of U.S.
A conference of sixteen nations of Europe willing to work the Mar-
shall Plan began in Paris on July 12, 1947 and formulated an eco-
nomic programme which aimed at restoring European economy
by the end of 1950 by (a) a strong production programme by
each participant, (6) creation and maintenance of internal financial
stability, (c) maximum mutual help between the participating
countries and (d) a solution of the problem of the European trading
deficit •with the American countries. The report calculated the
deficit for the 16 countries and their dependent territories ,at $22,440
million over 4 year period.
-. 1 , Munich AgreementrrSigned by Germany, Great Britain, France
and Italy , on September 29, 1938 at Munich. It provided for the
cession' to Germany of the Sudetan-German districts of Czechoslo-
vakia;, the new , frontiers were guaranteed by all the signatories.
The agreement was violated in March, 1939 by Hitler seizing what
was ; left of the country.
• Mutual Security Programme — ^The plan of all economic aids by
U.S. A., .is contained in the Mutual Security _ Act of 1951 which sanc-
tions millions of dollars for military, economic and technical assis-
tance to free nations. A large part of mutual security funds are
allocated for defence. The remaining funds are used to develop
manufacturing facilities, to provide technical training and to ensure
economic stability. ' • • . ,
•. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) — is an , associa-
tion of nations of North- Africa and. Western Europe. It is estab-
lished .by , a , treaty (North Atlantic Pact) signed in 1949 by United
States, • Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, : France, Belgium, Luxcm-
burgh,.- Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Italy and Portugal. They
joined NATO to prepare for a possible armed attack of the Soviet
Union and other Communist countries. NATO countries agreed to
unite their, militai’y strengths for collective defence and for preser-
vation of peace and. security in the North Atlantic area. Member-
ship 1 'vvas- opened to other States. Greece and Turkey .were admitted
in T952. The Council of NATO :1s its planning and organising body.-
A. European .army to' consist of fifty or more divisions were estab-
lished. Supreme Headquarters of Allied 'Powers in Europe (SHAPE)
was established in- France.
• Organisation, of American States (OAS) — ^This organisation was
chartered' in .1948 for co-operation and mutual repsect among Ame-
rican States.
r.i ^Philadelphia Charter-^wps' adopted - by -'the International Labour
POLITICAL INFORMATION
135 ,
Organisation at the Philadelphia Conference on May 10, 1944. It
declares : that labour is not a commodity ; that freedom of expression
and of association are essential to sustained progress ; that poverty
anywhere constitutes a danger to prosperity everywhere ; and that
war against want requires to be carried out with unrelenting vigour
within each nation.
_ Point Four — In Jan. 20, 1949 President Truman outlined four
major courses of action for American foreign policy. The fourth
point from which the programme took its name, called upon the
peoples of the United States “to help the free peoples of the world
through their own' efforts to produce more food, more clothing,
more materials for housing and more mechanical power to lighten
their burdens. ... It must be a wide world effort for achievement
of peace, plenty and freedom.” Point Four is meant to make the
scientific and technical knowledge of America available to free
nations for their agricultural and industrial development. On Sept.
1950 funds became available for a Technical Co-operation Programme.
Pan-American Union — An international body created by the 21'
American republics for the fostering of mutual understanding , and
co-operation, with essential duty of making effective the resolutions
adopted by the successive Pan-American Conferences. A general
conference of the member Republics is held, quinquennially known
as Pan-American Conference. The Union is financed by its 21
members on the basis of population.
S. E. A. T. O. — South-East Asia Treaty Organisation was signed
in Manila on Sept. 8, 1954 by Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan,
Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom and United States to
stren^hen defence in S. E. Asia and to develop economic measures
for social well-being. India did not join in the treaty, because
Mr. Nehru stated India’s participation in the Conference would be
inconsistent with her basic policy of peace of non-alignment with
the rival power blocs and with the role she had been called upon
to play as chairman of the supervisory commissions set up in
Indo-China.
Tariff Agreements (GATT) — ^Reciprocal tariff concessions, nego-
tiated at Torquay, England, were open to nations signing Torquay
Protocol of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
to which 35 nations had subscribed at Geneva. They cover four-
fifths of the world trade. At although the GATT was expected to
play only a “stop-gap role”, it has to its credit already three rounds
of tariff negotiations — Geneva (1947), Annecy (1949) and Torquay
(1950-51). These have resulted in the reduction or binding of tariff
rates on some 68,000 items affecting well over half the total world
trade. In addition to the achievement in the field of tariffs, the
General Agreement provides for a code of fair trading rules and the
elimination of discriminatory treatment in international commerce.
Tripartite Security Treaty — ^This is between U.S.A., Australia
and New Zealand, signed on Sept. 8, 1951 (1) to settle by peaceful
means any international disputes, (2) parties will consult together
wherever the territorial integrety, political independence or security
of any party is threatened in the Pacific.
136
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
■ UNICEF : — ^is a popular abbreviation for United "Nation Inter-
national Chjliren’s Emergency Fund. Established in 1946 and ad-
ministered directly by U. N. Secretariat, UNICEF is the world’s
largest voluntary international effort to improve the health and
weSare of children and mothers.
■Versailles, Treaty of — ^the peace treaty ending the war of 1914-lS
concluded between the Allies and Associated Powers and Germany
on. June 29, 1919. It imposed terms on Germany in regard to the
occupation of Rhineland territory for a period of years, the surren-
der of Alsace-Lorraine to France and parts of East Prussia to Poland,
the handing over to the Allies of Germany’s colonial possessions.
An important feature of this treaty was the establishment of
League of Nations.
Warsaw Pact — was si^ed by the . several communist countries —
U.S.S.R., Bulgaria, Albania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rumania and
Hungary on 14th blay, 1955 at Warsaw for a defensive alliance. It
provided for a unified command for all powers with headquarters
at Moscow.
.Western European Union '(W.E.U.) — Seven nations formally or-
ganised the Western European Union in 1955. Great Britain, Bkah’ce.
Belgium, Italy, Luxemburgh, Netherlands and Western Germany
ratified a treaty to establish the new defensive coalition.
WORLD POPULATION
Africa 208,000,000 Oceania 13,900,000
America, North 229,900,000 U.S.S.R. 213,000,000
America, South 118,100,000
Asia (Ex. U.S.S.R.) 1,307,000,000 World 2,493,000,000
Europe (Ex.U.S.S.R.) 403,100,000 (An U.N. Analysis for 1953).
POPULATION DENSITY OF THE WORLD
pop. per
sq. m.
World . . 43-1
Asia . . 126-9
Africa ' - . . 17-9
North America . . 24-5
South America . . 16-7
pop. per
sq. m.
Europe (Ex. European)
U.S.S.R.) . . 209-&
Australia . . 2-9
Oceania . . 14-7
U.S.S.R. . . 23-4
WORLD’S FIVE LARGEST CITIES
New York . . 12.3 million Shanghai . . 6.2 million
London . . 8.3 million Paris . . 4.8 millicfn.
Tokio . . 6.3 million
(U. N. Demographic Year-book, 1955).
ESTIMATES OF TOTAL POPULATION
(In thousands)
Argentina (1955) . . 19,108
Australia (1955) . . 9,202
Austria (1954) . . 6,969
Belgium (1954) .. 8,819
Bolivia (1964) .. 3,162
Brazil (1955) . . , 68,456
Bulgaria (1954) .. 7,350
Burma (1956) .. 19,434
Canada (1966) .. 16,601
Ceylon (1955) . . 8,588
Chili (1955) .. 6,774
China (1953) .. 582,603
Colombia (1955) .. 12,657
Costa Rica (1955) . I 951
Cuba (1953) .. 6,807
Cyprus (1964) ' . . 614
Czechoslovakia (1955) 13,089
Denmark (1965) - .. 4,439
Dominician Rep. (1955) 2,404
Egypt (1955)
. . 23,240
El Salvador (1955)
2,193
Equador (1954)
3,567
Finland (1955)
4,240
France (1955)
. . 43,300
Germany (1955)
. . 49,995
Greece (1954)
7,901
Guatemala (1955)
3,263
Hungary 1955)
9,808
Iceland (1955)
158
India (1954)
. . , 377,000
Indonesia (1954)
.../ 81,100
Iran (1955)
. . 21,146
Iraq (1954)
4,948
Ireland (1955)
2,909
Israel (1955)
1,748
Italy (1955)
. . 48,001
Japan (1965)
. . 88,900
Korea (1955)
. . 21,628
138
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Estimates of Total Population — (Concld.).
Lebanon (1955) ' ' ' 1,425
. Luxemburg (1954) ' . . >. 306
Malaya (1955) . . 6,059
Mexico (1954) .. 28,849
Netherlands (1955) . . 10,747
New Zealand (1955) 2,136
Necaragna (1955) .. 1.245
Non\-ay (1955) .. 3,425
Pakistan (1954) .. 80,167
Panama (1955) . ^ 910
Paraguay (1955)' , . 1,565
Peru (1955) .. 9,396
Philippine (1955) . . 21,849
Poland (1955) . . 27,278
Portugal (1955) . . 8,765
(17. N.
Monthly
Porto Pico (1954) - . 2,229
Roumania (1954) . . 17,300
Spain (1955) ' . . 28,976
Sweden (1955) .. 7,262
Switzerland (1955) . • 4,978
Syria (1954) .. 3,670
Thailand (1955) .. 20,300
Turkey (1955) 24,100
U. of S. Africa (1955) 13,669
U.S.S.R. (1954) 216,000
U. K.(1955) ■ .• 50,968
U. S. (1955) . . ^ 165,248
Uruguay (1953) . . 2,525
Yugoslavia 1955) . . 17,550
Bulletin of Statistics, June, 1SS6).
WORLD POPULATION ACCORDING TO . RELIGION, 1954
Christian
Jewish
Muslim
Zoroastrian
Shinto
Taoist
Confusion
799,908,066
11,627,450
321,931,336
140,000
30,000,000
50,053,200
300,290,500
Buddhist
Hindu
Primitive
Others
Total
. . 150,310,000
. . 309,949,000
. . 121,150,000
. . 348,336,448
.. 2,443,696,000
{Encyclopaedia Britamiica’s 195S Book of the Year).
LARGEST CITIES
London (1951) . . 8,346,137 Sao Paulo (1950) . .
.New York (1950) . . 7,891,957 Los Angeles (1953) , -
,Tokio (1954) .. 7,665,369 Cairo (1947)
-Shanghai. (1952) ... 5,407,000 Philadelphia (1950)
Moscow (1939) ;. 4,137,018 Detroit (1950)
Mexico City (1953) .. 3,795,567 Tientsin (1952)
Chicago (1950) .. 3,620,962 Wenna (1951)
Buenos Aires (1952) 3,403,625 Hamburg (1953)
Leningrad ,(1939) .. 3,191,304 Peking (1949)
• Bombay (1951) .. 2,840,01t Sydney (1952)
Paris (1947) ...,2,725,374 Bucharest (1954) ..
Calcutta (1951) 2,648,697' Mukden (1952)
Calcutta (Greater) 2,911,209 Madrid (1950)
Rip De Janeiro (1950) 2,413,152 Canton (1952)
Osaka (1953) .. 2,249,306 Madras (1951)
2,227,512
2,104,663
2,100,506
2,071,605
1,849,568
1.795.000
1,766,102
1,722,800
1 . 688.000
1,621,040
1,600,000
1.551.000
1,527,894
1.496.000
1,429,985
WORLD POPULATION
139
BIRTH RATES
(Number of Births per 1000 Population)
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
Australia
23.0
23.3
22.9
22.5
22.6
Austria
14.8
14.8
14.8
14.9
15.5
Bel^tnn
16.4
16.7
lfr.6
16.7
16.S
Canada
27.2
27.9
28.2
28.7
28.3
Ceylon
40.5
37.5
39.4
36.2
37.9
Chile
33.9
32.7
34.6
34.3
China
49.9
46.6
45.3
44.5
45.3
France
19.6
19.3
18.8
18.9
18.4
W. Germany
15.8 ■
15.7
15.5
15.7
15.7
India
24.9
24.8
26.7
28.4
30.5
Iran
17.4
19.2
19.5
18.3
40.9
Israel
32.7
31.6
30.2
27.3
27.2
Italy
18.4
17.9
17.7
17.8
17.7
Japan
25.4
23.5
21.5
20.1
-19.4
Malay
43.6
44.4
43.7
43.8
Mexico
44.6
43.8
45.0
46.4
Netherlands
22.3
22.4
21.8
21.6
21.4
New Zealand
24.4
24.8
24.1
24.7
24.0
Norway
18.4
18.8
18.7
18.6
18.7
Portugal
24.5
24.7
23.4
22.7
23.6
Spain
20.1
20.8
20.6
20.0
20.6
Sweden
15.6
15.5
15.4
14.6,
14.8
Switzerland
17.2
17.4
17.0
17.0
17.1
United Kingdom
15.8
15.7
15.9
15.6
. 15.4
United States
, ,
24.5
24.7
24.6
24.9 -
24.6
DEATH RATES
(Number of deaths, exclusive of still births, per 1,000 persons) .
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
Anstralia
.. 9.7
9.4
9.1
9.1
89.
Austria
. . 12.7
12.0
12.0
12.1
12.1
Belgium
. . 12.6
11.9
12.1
11.9
12.7
Canada
.. 9.0
8.7
8.6
8.2
8.1
Ceylon
. . 12.9
12.0
10.9
10.4
11.0
Chile
. . 15.0
13.0
12.4
13.1
China
. . 11.6
9.9
9.5
8.1
8.6
France
. . 13.4
12.3
13.0
12.0
12.0
W. Germany
. . 10.5
10.5
11.0
10.4
10.8
India
. . 14.4
13.6
15.0
13.2
12.7
Iran
.. 7.5
6.1
6.9
7.1
9.7
Israel
.. 6.4
6.8
6.3
6.4
5.8
Italy
. . 10.3
10.1
10.0
9.1
9.2
Japan
. . 10.0
8.9
8.9
8.2
7.8
Malay
. . 15.3
13.6
12.4
12.2
. ,
Mexico
. . 17.3
15.0
15.9
13.1
, ,
Netherlands
.. 7.5
7.3
7.7
7.5
7.6
140
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Death Rates — -(Coricld.).
New Zealand
.. 9.6
9.3
8.8
9.0
9.0
Norway
.. 8.4
8.5
■ 8.5
8.4
8.8
Spain
. . 11.6
9.7
9.7
9.1
9.8
Sweden
.. 9.9
9.6
9.7
9.6
9.4
Switzerland
. . 10.5
9.9
10.2
10.0
10.1
United Kingdom
. . 12.6
11.4
ii;4
11.4
11.7
United States
.. 9.7
9.6
9.6
9.2
9.3
(17. N. Monthly Bulletin of Statistics
June,
IPSe).-
MARRIAGE RATES
(Marraige per 1000 of popuIafio7i)
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
Australia
9.2
8.6
8.0
7.9
7,8
Austria
9.1
8.3
7.8
7.8
8.1
Belgium
.8.1
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.8
Canada
9.2
8.9
8.9
8.5
8.1
Ceylon
6.9
6.7
6.3
6.0
6.1
China
9.5
8.6
8.6
8.9
8.6
Finland
8.0
7.9
7.7
7.8
7.7
France
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.3
7.2
West Germany
10.3
9.4
8.9
8.6
8.7
Iran
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.2
7.2
Israel
11.7
11.3
9.6
8.7
8.6
Japan
8.0
7.9
7.9
7.9
8.0
Netherlands
8.8
8.4
8.2
8.3
8.3
Spain
7.5
7.7
7.6
8.0
8.1
Sweden
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.3
7.1
Switzerland
7.9
7.8
7.7
7.8
8.0
United Kingdom
8.2
7.9
7.8
7.7
8.0
United States
10.4
9.9
9.8
9.2
9.8
(Monthly Bulletin of Statistics,
U. iV
June,
1950),
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Sovereign Democratic Republic — Indian Constitution resolves to
«stablish a sovereign democratic republic. The country is absolutely
republic independent in its internal and external affairs. India being
a democratic republic the real fountain head of all powers are the
people. This sovereignty is vested in the people of the country.
The aim of the Constitution is to secure for all its citizens —
Justice, social, economic and political ;
Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship ;
Equality of status and of opportunity ; and to promote among
them all.
Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity
•of the Nation.
Territory and Extent — ^There are in India fourteen States, each
-with a Governor as its head such as Assam, West Bengal, Bihar,
Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Mysore, Jammu & Kashmir.
There are six territories such as, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Mani-
pur, Tripura, Andaman & Nicobor Islands and Laccadive, Amindive
and Minicoy Islands.
Fundamental Rights — ^The Constitution of India makes a decla-
ration of some fundamental rights which it guarantees, against vio-
lation by the State.
The Constitution contains rights which are declared fundamen-
tal and justiciable. These fundamental rights have been classified
under the following heads :
1. Right to equality. 6. Cultural and educational rights.
2. Right of freedom. 6. Right to property.
3. Right against exploitation. 7. Right to constitutional reme-
4. Eight to freedom of religion. dies.
Ripkt to Equality — ^Discrimination against any citizen on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth is prohibited,
in public employment. Constitution assures equality to opportunity
for all. It has established social equality by abolition of title, local
and foreign.
Right to Constitutional Remedies — The Constitution guarantees
the right to every citizen to move the Supreme Court for enforce-
ment of all fundamental rights. And for that purpose the Supreme
Court is given general powers to safeguard these rights as well as
the power to propose particular remedies, such as habeas coTrpus,
mandamus etc.
Rights to Freedom — guarantees (a) Freedom of speech and ex-
pression, (b) to assemble peacefully and without arms, (c) to form’
associations or unions, (d) to move freely throughout India, (e) to
reside and settle in any part of India, (/) to acquire, hold and dispose
of properties, (a) to practice any profession, trade or business.
Religious Freedom — Subject only to public order, morality.
142
HINDUSTAN YBAK-BOOK
health and some other,- essential provisions, all persons are equally
entitled to freedom of conscience and the right ' to profess, practice
and propagate religion freely.
Cultvxal and Educational Rights~The Constitution provides for
the protection of the interests of linguistic, cultural and religious
minorities and their right to establish and administer their own edu-
cational institutions.
Rights against exploitation — ^Traffic in human beings is declared
punishable offence. So too is began (forced labour) except witiiont
payment or any form of forced labour except compulsory service for
the State for public purpose.
Rights to- Property— yio person shall be unlawfully deprived of
his .property, movable or immovable. ‘ ,
Directive Principles — ^The Indian Constitution also includes a set
•of directives enjoining the, state to undertake within its means, a
number of welfare measures. These are intended to assure; citizens
an adequate means of livelihood, raise the standard of - living, im-
prove public ' health, provide free and compulsory education for
children, and assure that, the operation of the economic system does
not result, in the concentration of wealth and means of production
■to the. detriment of the common good.
UNION "EXECUTIVE— President — ^The Executive at the centre
consists of the President and a Council of Ministers. The President is
the executive head of the Indian Republic; All the executive powers
of the Unionrincluding the Supreme command of the Defence Forces
is formally vested in the President and all executive actions are
taken In his name. He is elected by an electoral college' consisting
of the elected members of both Houses of Parliament and Legislative
Assemblies of the States, by the system of proportional representa-
tion by si^le. transferable vote.
The' qualification of. the office of the President — (1) he should be
a citizen ofThdia; (2) must have completed the age of 35 years; and
(3) qualified for election as a member of the House of the People.
He will not be eligible for election if he holds a job in Government,
givin"!: him financial rewards.
‘ - Term: of office — ^The President holds office for five years and is
eligible for re-election.
Salary and Allownace-^Tibe President draws a salary of
Rs. 10,000 and usual allowance.
Impeachment — ^The president may be removed from office by im-
peachment for any violation of the constitution.
Vice-President — ^is" the ' ex-officio Chairman of the Council of
States (Rajya Sabha).; -Any. citizen of India aged thirty-five years
and above and qualified for the membership of the Council of States
can be elected to this office by both the Houses of Parliament at a joint
sitting'' on the basis of proportionaT representation by single trans-
femble vote, - His term of, office is five years. When the President
is ill; 'if -he resigns or dies or is removed or is for any reason absent,
his -place will -be -taken by the Vice-President, till a new President
IS elected. ■ - . , .t , .
- -Council of Ministers— The Constitution provides for a Council
CDNSTITUTION OF INDIA
143
of Ministers. The actual executive authority is discharged by the
Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers appointed by him, all
of whom are collectively responsible to the House of the People, the
lower chamber of the Parliament. The Council of Ministers holds
office during the pleashre of the President.
LEGISLATURE — Parliament — The Legislature of the India
Union tonsists of the President and two Houses — (1) Loh Sabim
(House of the People), (2) Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
The Lok Sabha — consists of not more than 520 members. These
members are directly elected by the voters in the several states. Every
adult' or grown-up citizen of India is given the right to vote. The
normal life of the House is five years. The minimum age for mem-
bership is 25 years for the Lower House. The House of the People
elects a- Speaker and a Deputy Speaker from amongst its members.
Rajya Sabha — consists of not more than 250 members of
.whom 12 are nominated by the President. The nominated members
should be men of learning and wide experience such as artists, wri-
•ters, scientists and social workers. The Council of States is not
subject to dissolution, a third of its members retiring after every
two years. The elections to the Council are indirect. The Vice-
President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States,
Powers and Privilages of the Parliament — The Constitution con-
fers! certain powers and privileges on members, of. the Houses of Par-
liament. No member of parliament “shall be liable to any proceed-
ings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him
in parliament or any committee thereof, , and no person shall be so
liable in respect of the publication by or under the authority of either
house of parliament of any report, paper, votes or proceedings. The
powers, privileges and immunities of member of each house of
parliament shall ‘be such as may from time to time be defined by
parliament by laws and until so defined, shall be those of the House
of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and of its
members and committees.”
The Difference between House of the People and the Council of
States is as follows — The difference is not merely in their size. The
powers given to them are not the same. The function of both is to
legislate but the greater part of this responsibility will be borne by
the Lower House. A bill has to be passed by both the Houses before
it becomes law. In case of a disa^eement between the two Houses,
a joinfsession of the two Houses is s‘ummoned to resolve the dead-
lock. The opinion of the Lower House will ultimately prevail owing
to its numerical majority. But it is to be noted here that the pro-
cedure regarding dead-lock relates only to Bills other than money
hills, for, as regards money bills the provision of the constitution is
that sole power shall belong to the Lower Hobse. Money Bills can-
not be introduced in the Council of States. They must, as a rule,
■originate in the House of the People.
JUDICIARY— Supreme Court of India. — The Supreme Court
of India consists ,of Chief Justice and not more than ten other
judges appointed by the President. Judges hold office until they
‘attain the age of 65 years.
144
HINDUSTAN -YEAMOOK
The Supreme Court decides dispute between the Government of
India and any State or States or between two or more- States involv-
ing any question of law or fact. Civil and Criminal appeals of a
certain kind from High Courts will also be heard by it. The Supreme
Court is also competent to order the enforcement of Fundamental
Eights. It has also Advisory Jurisdiction by which the President
can refer to it any question of public importance. The law, declared
by it is binding on aU courts of the country. ,
STATE GOVERNMENTS — States Reorganisation Act of 1955
and Behar and West Bengal Transfer of Territories Act, 1955 abolish
■the distinction of States as A B and C as envisaged in the Indian
•Constitutions. There are now two classes adminisfirative divisions —
(1) 14 States and six Territories. The 14 States are Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal. The six Territories, all of which are centrally-administered
are as follows — Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Himachal Pra-
■desh, Laccadive, Amindive and Minicoy Islands, Manipore and Tripura.
The full-fledged States enjoy the same democratic, administration as
the former Part A States.
States — ^There is a Governor for each State in whom all
■executive powers are vested. He is appointed by the Pre-
sident and holds ofHce during his pleasure. Any citizen of India
who has completed 35 years of age is eligible for the appointment as
Governor. Governor holds office for a term of five years unless he
•resigns earlier. Besides official . residence the Governor draws a
: salary of Rs. 5,500 per month and other allowance and privileges.
.The Governor will be assisted by a Council of Ministers with
-Chief Minister at the head of the Council to aid and advise the
-Governor. The Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor and the
-other Ministers are also appointed by him on the advice of the Chief
Minister. Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the Governors.
'The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Le^lative
Assembly of the State.
_ Every State has a legislature. Some States have two chambers,
-while others have only one chamber. Where there are two chambers,
-one is known as the Legislative Council and other as the Legislative
Assembly and where there is only one House, it is known as Legis-
-lative Assembly. Those with two Houses .are Bombay, Bihar,
Madras, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In all the States
“the Lower House is called Legislative Assembly and the Upper
House is known as Legislative Council.
Legislative Assembly of each State is elected by direct
election on the basis of adult franchise. The total of the Assembly
members shall in no case be more than 500 or less than 60. Its nor-
mal life is five years. Some seats may be reserved for Scheduled
'Tribes and Scheduled Castes. The Governor may also nominate the
-representative of Anglo-Indian community.
The total number of members of the Legislative Council of a
.•State IS not to exceed one-third of the total members in the Legis-
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
145
lativc Assembly, but in no case shall be less than 40. This is a per-
manent body ; one-third of its members retires every second year.
Half of its members is elected from local bodies, from among the
graduates of three years standing and teachers who have worked at
least three years. A third of the members is elected by the Legis-
lative Assembly from among non-members and the rest is nominated
by the Governor from among men of eminence in literature, art,
science or social service.
Territories — Union Territories have no popular administration
and even Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura which had a Legisla-
ture and ministry of their own, have none under the new set-up (Re-
organisation of States Act, 1956). The Territories are governed
now through an administrator each with whom some non-official ele-
ments are likely to he associated. Parliament is the sole legislating
authority for these Territories, while additionally the President has
power of making regulations in respect of Andamans and Laccadives.
Advisory Councils have been set up in Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and
Manipore with elected members of the Parliament from these areas to
advise the Union Home Jlinister in the matter of legislation to be^
placed before the Parliament, on the budget to be framed in respect
of them.
States .Judicial^ — ^The Constitution envisages a high court for
each State, The High Court consists of a Chief Justice and such other
judges as the President may_ from time to time deem it necessary to
appoint. The judges of a high court are appointed by the President
of India in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the
Governor of the State and in case of an appointment of a Judge other
than Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
They hold office until they attain the age of 60 years and are remov-
able from office in the same manner as a judge of the Supreme Court.
Relation between Union and the States — ^Parliament can legislate
for the v/hole or any part of the territory of India and the Legisla-
ture of a State for whole or any part of the State. No law, how-
ever, made by the Parliament can be considered invalid on the
ground of extra-temtorial jurisdiction. For the purposes of distri-
buting legislative powers between the Centre and the States, three
comprehensive lists have been drawn up. These lists are (1) Union
List, (2) Concurrent List, (3) State List.
The Parliament has “executive power” to make laws in regard
to the matters mentioned in the first list i.e.. Union List. The Conc~
current Last means that matters shared between Union and the
States, such as criminal lav/, civil procedure, preventive detention,
marriage and divorce, transfer of property other than agricultural
lands, contracts, bankruptcy, etc.
There are 66 items in the “State List.” Some of them are police,
administration of justice, prisons, local government, public health
and sanitation, forests, fisheries, etc. The legislature of a State has
"exclusive powers” to make laws in matters mentioned in this list.
Jurisdiction over all other matters not mentioned in the Con-
current and State Lists will belong to the Parliament. This means,
that the Union will acquire residuary powers.
10
146
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
As regards Administrative Relations, the executive powers ol
every State shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with the
laws made by the Parliament and any existing laws which apply m
that State, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to the
giving of such direction to the State as may appear to be necessary
for that purpose.
Union executive is empowered to give direction to a State
regarding construction and maintenance of the means of communi-
cation declared to be national or military importance. Parlia-
ment can declare certain highways or waterways to be national high-
ways or waterways. Union executive can also const^ct and main-
tain means of communication required in connection with naval, mili-
tary and air force works. The President may with the consent of
the Government of the State entrust to that Government functions
in relation to any matter to which the executive power of the Union
exists.
There is provision for the formation of an Inter-State Council
to investigate and discuss subjects in which States have common
interest and inquire into and advise upon disputes which may have
arisen between the States.
There are also Emergency provisions in case of grave crisis
created by war or internal disturbances in which President can
give direction to the constituent States as to how their authority to
be exercised. President can suspend from operation several articles
of the Constitution. During such period. Union Parliament has
power to legislate with respect of any of the matters enumerated in
the State List.
Election Commission — ^The superintendence, direction and con-
trol of elections to Parliament and Legislature of every State and
of President and Vice-President including appointment of a elec-
tion tribunals shall vest in an as Election Commission to be ap-
pointed by the President. The Chief Election Commissioner enjoys
conditions of tenure and service similar to those of a judge of the
Supreme Court.
There shall be only one general electoral role for every territo-
rial constituency and no person will be- ineligible for inclusion in
such role on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or any of them.
There is no property qualifications of the voters. Every person
who is a citizen of India and who is not less than twenty one years
of age and who is not otherwise disqualified is entitled to vote at
the elections of the House of the People and the Legislative
Assemblies of States.
Special provisions for certain classes — Seats shall be reserved
in the House of the People for (o) Scheduled Castes, (6) Scheduled
Tribes.
If Anglo-Indian community is not adequately represented in the
House of People, President may nominate not more than two mem-
bers of that community.
Seats shall be reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes m the Legislative Assemblies of the States. Anglo-Indians
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
147
are to be nominated by the Governor or Rajpramukh of a State, if not
adequately represented.
The reservation of seats and special representation shall cease
after ten years from the commencement of this Constitution.
Financial and the other provisions — ^There is a provision in the
Constitution for setting up of a Finance Commission to make recom-
mendations to the President as to the distribution between the
Centre and the Units of the net proceeds of certain taxes (like the
income-tax, excise duties, some export duties, etc.,) and the alloca-
tion between the States of such proceeds.
The Central and State Governments are required to set up res-
pectively the Consolidated Fund of India and the Consolidated Fund
of the States respectively. All revenues received by the Government
of India and the Government of a State are to be credited into their
respective consolidated funds. No money is to be appropriated from
the Consolidated Fund of India or of a State except in accordance
with an Appropriation Act passed by Parliament or the Legislature
of the State concerned. Provision has also been made for the estab-
lishment of a Contingency Fiend of India and a Contingency Fund
for each State to meet unforeseen expenditure pending proper autho-
risation hy the appropriate legislature.
Authority to Audit — ^As for auditing the funds, the Constitution
provides for the appointment of a Comptroller and Auditor General
of India by the President to keep watch on the finances and accounts
of the Union. It is his responsibility to see that the expenses voted
by the Parliament or the legislature of a State and laid down in the
Appropriation Fund are not exceeded or varied.
Trade and Commerce — The Constitution provides the broad
principles of freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse throughout
the territory of India. Union Parliament and the State Legislatures
are, however, authorised to prescribe limitations when there is scar-
city of any particular commodity or any other consideration of
national or public interest. But no Legislature, whether Parliament
or a State Legislature has power to make a law giving any prefe-
rence to one state over another or discriminating between different
States in respect of items relating to trade and commerce in the lists
of the 7th Schedule. Only certain Part B States are exempted
from this provision for a period of ten years.
Official Language — Hindi in Devnagri script shall be the official
language of the Union and the form of numerals for official use shall
be the international form of Indian numerals. The English langaiage
shall continue for all official purposes of the Union for a period of
15 years, but the President may authorise, during the said period,
the use of Hindi in addition to English language. If at the end of
15 years, it is found that Hindi will not be able to replace English
wholly. Parliament may provide for the use of English for such pur-
poses as may be specified by law.
The Constitution recognised the use of Assamese, Bengali,
Gujerati, Hindi, Karnataka, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya,
Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telegu and Urdu, any one or more of which
may be used as the regional languages of the Union.
148
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Amendment of the Constitution — ^Article 368 provides for the
amendment of the Constitution. The Constitution shall stand
amended when the President gives assent to any bill for the purpose
after it is passed in each House of Parliament by a majority of not
less than two thirds of the members of the House present and voting.
The only provisions, for the amendment of which ratification by the
legislatures of not less than one-half of the States has also been pres-
cribed, relate to the Supreme Court and High Courts, the distribu-
tion of legislative powers between the Centre and the States, the re-
presentation of the States in Parliament and the procedure for amend-
ment of the Constitution.
AMENDMENTS TO THE INDIAN
CONSTITUTION
Since the inauguration of the Constitution on January 26, 1950,
the following Amending enactments and Constitution Orders have
been passed —
1. Constitution (Amendment to First and ' Fourth Schedules)
Order, 1950 (C. O. dated 25th Jan. 1950).
2. Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951 — ^The first amend-
ment to the Indian Constitution was made by the provincial Parlia-
ment in 1951, known as The Constitution (First Amendment) Act,
The statement of Objects and Reasons to the first Amendment Bill
1951. By this. Article 19 and Article 31 were considerably amended,
states : “In the working of the Constitution during these 15
months certain difficulties have been brought to light by judicial deci-
sion and pronouncements. The right to freedom of speech has
been held by some Courts as so comprehensive as not to render a
person culpable even if he advocates murder and other crimes of
violence. In other countries with written Constitution, freedom of
speech and of the Press is not regarded as debarring the State from
punishing or preventing the abuse of freedom.”
The Proviso to Art. 19 was amended so as to impose reasonable
restrictions on the freedoms enumerated under that Article. The
Clause (2) states that the State can impose reasonable restric-
tions on the exercise of the freedom of speech and expression in
the interests of the security of the State, friendly relations with
contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence,
foreign States, public order, decency or morality or in relation to
contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence.
To Article 15, sub-clause (4) was inserted stating that the State
can make special provision for the advancement of any socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Two new Articles, 31-A and 31-B were inserted. Article 31-.A
provides that no law providing for the acquisition by the State
of any estate or of any rights therein or for the extinguishment or
modification of any such rights shall be deemed to be void on the
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
149
ground that it is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any
of the rights conferred by any provisions of this Part (III).
To preserve the Zamindary Abolition Acts by various States in
India, Article 31-B provides that none of the Acts and Regula-
tions specified in the Ninth Schedule nor any of the provisions
thereof shall be deemed to be void, or even to have become void, on
the ground that such Act, Regulation or provision is inconsistent with,
or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by, any pro-
visions of Part III, and notwithstanding any judgment, decree or
order of any court or tribunal to the contrary, each of the said Acts
and Regulations shall continue in force.
3. Assam (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1951 (XLVII of
1951).
4. Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952 : — ^By the Second
Amendment, Article 81 (b) was amended.
Art. 81 relates to the composition of the House of the
People. Sub-Clause (b) states that there shall be not less than one
member for every 750,000 of the population and not more than
one member for every 500,000 of the population. But on account
of increase in the number of population in the census of 1951, some
adjustment in the ratio of representation was necessary. Ac-
cordingly, the words — ^“not less than one member for every 750,000
of the population and” — ^^vere omitted. The result is that the upper
limit of representation is abolished and there shall be not more than
one member for every 600,000 of the population.
5. Andhra State Act, 1953 — (30 of 1953). This Act created a
New State out of Madras State.
6. Lushai Hills District (Change of Name) Act 1954 (18 of
1954).
- 7. Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1951 (32 of
1954). This Act amalgamated these two Part “C” States.
8. Chandemagore (merger) Act, 1954 (36 of 1954). By this
Act French Chandemaeore was merged with West Bengal.
9. Constitution (Third Amendment Act) 1954 — By the third
amendment, powers to control certain essential goods were transferred
to the Concurrent List. The amendment makes an amplification
of entry 33 of List III in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitu-
tion. Besides placing foodstuffs, including edible oil-seeds ond oils ;
cattle fodder, including oil cakes and other concentrates ; raw cotton
and cotton seed and raw jute, the amendment Act includes in this
entry also imported goods of the same kind as the products of cen-
tralised industries to enable the Centre to exercise full control over
the development of such industris.
Parliament’s power under Article 369 of the Constitution to legis-
late in respect of certain essential commodities lapsed on January 9,
1955. The amendment sought to_ place on a permanent footing
Centre’s power to control the specified essential commodities.
10. The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir)
Order, 1954 — (C.O. 48, dated 14th May, 1954). •
11. Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955. — ^The statement
of objects and reasons to the amendment Bill states that the proposed
150
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
legislation is intended to meet objections raised by courts on questions
relating to the acquistion of private property. Recent decisions of
the Supreme Court have given a very wide meaning to Clauses 1 and
2 of Article 31. Despite the difference in the wording of the two
clauses, they are regarded as dealing with the same subject. The
deprivation of property referred to in Clause 1 is to be construed in
the widest sense as concluding any curtailment of a right to property.
Even where it is caused by a purely ragulatory provision of law
and is not accompanied by an acquisition or taking possession of
that or any other property right by the State, the law, in
order to be valid according to these decisions, has_ to provide
for compensation under clause 2 of the Article 31. It is considered
necessary, therefore, to re-state more precisely the_ State’s power
of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property
and distinguish it from cases where the operation of regulatory or
prohibitory laws of the State results in deprivation of property.
This has been effected by amending Articles 31 and 31-A by
Fourth Amendment.
The amended Article 31 provides for compensation for com-
pulsory acquisition of property by the State. The Article 31-A
empowers the State to take over under State management, for a
temporary period, a commercial or industrial undertaking or other
property in the public interest or in order to secure the better
management of the undertaking or property. Laws providing for
such temporary transference to State management is now permissible
under the Constitution without payment of compensation as this does
not amount to State acquisition of property.
Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955: — The fifth amend-
ment came into force on 24th December, 1955. By this amendment
the Proviso to Article 3 of the Constitution has been changed as
follows : “Provided that no bill for the purpose shall be introduced
in either House of Parliament except on the recommendation of the
President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects
the area, boundaries or name of any of the States specified in Part A
or Part B of the First Schedule, the Bill has been referred by the
President to the Legislature of that State for expressing its mews
thereon within such period as may be specified in the reference or
within such further period as the President may allow and the period
so specified or allowed has expired.”
Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956 — ^The sixth amend-
ment came into force on and from 11th September, 1956. The sixth
amendment amends the Seventh Schedule by providing a new entry
92 A (after entry 92) in the Union List). The entry 92 A read as
follows : “Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than news-
papers, where such sale or purchase takes place in the course of inter-
state trade or commerce.”
It also amends entry 54 of the State List as follows : “54.
Taxes on the sale or purchase of good other than newspapers, sub-
aect to the provisions of entry 92A of List I.”
Tt also amends Article 286 of the Constitution. The Explanation
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
151
in clause (1) has been omitted. For clause (2) and (3) the follow-
ing clauses have been substituted :
“(2) Parliament may by law formulate principles for determin-
ing when a sale or purchase of goods takes place in any of the
ways mentioned in clause (1).
(3) any law of a State, in so far as it imposes, or authorises
the imposition of a tax on the sale or purchase of goods declared by
Parliament by law to be of special importance in inter-State trade
or commerce, be subject to such restrictions and conditions in regard
to the system of levy, rates and other incidents of the tax as Parlia-
ment may by law specify.”
By virtue of this amendment, the Central Government shall levy
and collect taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than news-
papers, where such sale or purchase takes place in the course of inter-
state trade or commerce. Parliament may by law formulate prin-
ciples for determining when a sale or purchase of goods takes place
in the course of inter-State trade or commerce. The proceeds of such
taxes shall be distributed among the States in whose territory the
tax will be levied and collected.
Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956 — This Act came into
force from 1st November 1956. The States of India, as they exist
today have been formed largely as a result of historical accidents and
circumstances, and there has, therefore been a demand for the
reorganisation of the component units of the Indian Union oh a more
rational basis, after taking into account not only the growing impor-
tance of the regional languages, but also financial, economic and
administrative considerations. The States Reorganisation Commission
was accordingly constituted in December 1953, to investigate the
conditions of this problem, the historical background, the existing
situation, and all other relevant factors. On the recommendations
of the Commission, the Government brought a Bill, in 1956.
The main features of the reorganisation are the abolition of the
existing constitutional distinction between Part A, Part B and Part
C States, the establishment of two categories for the component
units of the Union, to be called States and Union Territories,, and
the abolition of the institution of the Rajpramukh consequent on the
disappearance of the Part B States. This Amendment provides the
constitution of 14 States, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Jammu and
Kashmir. There will be six Union territories, namely, Delhi,
Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Laccadive, Amindive and
Minicoy Islands.
The Amendment also makes provision for the setting up
of five Zonal Councils which will be advisory bodies, compe-
tent to discuss matters of common interest, particularly in the field
of economic and social planning. The Northern Zone shall comprise
Punjab, Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir and the Union terri-
tories of Delhi and Himachal Pradesh. The Central Zone shall
comprise the States of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
The Eastern Zone shall comprise the States of Bihar, West Bengal.
152
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Orissa and Assam, and tte Union Territories of Manipur and
Tripura. The Western Zone shall comprise the States of Bombay;
and the Southern Zone shall comprise the States of Andhra Pradesh,
hladras and Kerala.
The Seventh Amendment makes necessary changes in the Con-
stitution to give effect to the States Reorganisation Act. The
formation of Zonal Councils, however, is not incorporated into the
Constitution. The notable change made by the Seventh Amendment
is the increase in the number of members of the House of the
People from 500 to 520. Of this number, 500 will be elected from
the States and 20 from the Union territories. The ratio of members
to the number of population is abolished in the case of representation
to the House of the People.
As regards the composition of the State Legislative Assemblies, a
new Article 170 has been substituted which provides that the Legis-
lative Assembly of each State shall consist of not more than
five hundred, and not less than sixty members chosen by direct elec-
tion from territorial constituencies in the State. The ratio of popu-
lation to members to be elected is also abolished.
The total number of members of a State Legislative Council
shall hot exceed one-third of the total number of members of the
Legislative Assembly of that State.
High Coxirt Judges are permitted to practise, after retirement,
before the Supreme Court and the other High Courts (except the
one in which he held the judicial post).
Same person may be appointed as Governor for two or more
States.
Union Territories is to be administered by the President through
an administrator vith such designation as he may specify.
It shall be the endeavour of every State and of local authority
to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at
the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic
minority groups. There shall be special officer for linguistic minori-
ties to be appointed by the President.
The number of seats in the House of the People to be allotted
to each of the State and the number of seats to be assigned to the
Legislative Assembly of each Part A State shall be as shown in the
following Table :
States.
Number of Scats in
Number of Scats in
the House of the
the Legislative
People.
Assembhr.
Andhra Pradesh
.. 43
301
Assam
.. 12
108
Bihar
.. 55
330
Bombay
.. G6
396
Kerala'
.. 18
12G
JIadhya Pradesh
.. 3G
288
Madras
.. 41
205
Mysore
.. 26
208
Orissa
.. 20
140
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
153
Punjab
.. 22
154
Rajasthan
.. 22
176
Uttar Pradesh
.. 86
430
West Bengal
.. 34
238
Jammu and Kashmir
.. 6
Delhi
.. 5
Himachal Pradesh
.. 4
Manipur
.. 2
Tripura
.. 2
Constitution (Eighth Amendment) Act, 1956 : — In May 1966, the
eighth amendment to the Constitution was passed giving to the Centre
powers to regulate tax on goods of special importance in inter-State
trade. Article 286 of the Constitution has also been amended remov-
ing restriction on the States to impose sales tax on essential
commodities.
Local Bodies in India
In India there are 12 Municipal Corporations, 1,453 Municipal
Committees and Boards, 383 Small Town Committees, 82 Notified
Area Committees, 309 Local Boards, and 1,23,670 Gram Panchayats.
More than half the total number of villages in the country have been
covered by Panchayats.
Foreign Investment in India
Total foreign business investment in India at the end of De-
cember 1953, in terms of book value, was Rs. 4,210 million, of whicH
more than 80 percent was direct investment. The bulk of the
investment (nearly Es. 3,500 million) came from the U.K. Pri-
vate capital from U.S.A. predominently in the direct investment
category, totalled Rs. 310 million. The net inflow of foreign
private capital between 1948 and 1953 was of the order of Rs. 1,300
million, of which roughly 40 per cent represented reinvested pro-
fits of branches and undistributed profits of subsidiaries of foreign
companies.
INDIAN CITIZENSHIP
At present citizenship law is determined by the Indian Citizen-
ship Act 51 of 1955. The Act provides five methods for the acqnisi-
tion of Indian citizenship. These are : by birth, by descent, by regis-
tration, by naturalisation and by incoi'poration of territory. The Act
also provides for the termination of citizenship.
By Birth : Every person bom in India on or after the 26th
January, 1950, shall be a citizen of India by birth. Children bom in
India to foreign diplomats and enemy aliens, however, shall not ac-
quire Indian citizenship by bith.
By De.scent : A person bom outside India on or after the 26th
January, 1950, shall be a citizen of India by descent if his father is
a citizen of India at the time of his birth. But if the father of such
a person was a citizen of India by descent only, that person shall not
be a citizen of India by descent, unless his father is registered
at an Indian consulate within one year of its occurrence, or, his
.father is at the time of his birth, in service under a Government of
India.
By Registration : Citizenship can be acuired by registration on
application to the Government of India by any person who is not al-
ready such citizen by virture of the Constitution or by virtue of any
other provisions of this Act. He must belong to any of the following
categories : — (a) persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident
in India and have been so resident for six months immediately
before making an application for registration ; (b) persons of Indian
origin who are ordinarily resident in any country or place out-
side undevjded India ; (c) women who are, or have been, married to
citizens of India ; (d) minor children of persons who are citizens
of India ; and (c) persons of full age and capacity who are citizens
of a Commonwealth country.
Commonwealth countries include United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, Union of South Africa, Pakistan, Ceylon and
the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Republic of Ireland
is also placed on the same footing. For the purpose of registration,
a person shall be deemed to be Indian origin if he, or either of his
parents, or any of his grand-parents, was bom in undivided India,
A person of full age must take an oath of allegiance before he is;
registered as a citizen of India.
_ By Naturalisation — A person of full age and capacity not being
citizen of a Commonwealth country, may be naturalised as an Indian
citizen provided he makes an application in the prescribed manner to
that effect. The qualifications for naturalisation of a person who is
not a citizen of a country in the Commonwealth are : —
(a) that he is not a subject or citizen of any country where
citizens of India are prevented by law or practice of that country
from becoming subjects or citizens of that country by naturalisation;
, _ (b) that if he is a citizen of any country, he has renounced the
citizenship of that country in accordance with the law therein in
INDIAN CITIZENSHIP
155
force in that behalf and has notified such renunciation to the Central
Government ;
(c) that he has either resided in India or been in the service of
a Government in India or partly the one and partly the other,
throughout the period of twelve months immediately preceding the
date of the application ;
(d) the during the seven years immediately preceding the said
period of twelve months, he has either resided in India or been in the
service of a Government in India or partly the one and partly the
other, for periods amounting in the aggregate to not less than four
years;
(e) that he is of good character ;
(f) that he has an adequate knowledge of a language specified
in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution; and
(g) that in the event of a certificate of naturalisation being
granted to him, he intends to reside in India or to enter into or con-
tinue in, service under a Government in India or under an inter-
national organisation of which India is a member or under a society,
company or body of persons established in India.
Provided that, if in the opinion of the Central Government, the
applicant is a person who has rendered distinguished service to the
cause of science, philosophy, art, literature, world peace or human
progress generally, it may waive all or any of the conditions speci-
fied above.
By Incorporation of Territory — ^If any territory becomes a part
of India, the Central Government may specify the person who
shall be citizens of India by reason of their connection with that
territory ; and those persons shall be citizens of India as fi’om the
date to be specified in the order.
TERMINATION OF CITIZENSHIP— Indian citizenship can be
terminated by renunciation or termination or deprivation. Any
citizen of India of full age and capacity can terminate his Indian
citizenship by making a declaration to that effect, except during a
time of war. Any citizen of India who has been naturalised in a
foreign country shall cease to be an Indian citizen. The Government
of India can also deprive a naturalised citizen of his citizenship on
ground of disloyalty to the State of India or continued absence from
the country for a period of seven years.
OUR NATIONAL EMBLEMS &
AWARDS
NATIONAL FLAG
The first flag in India was hoisted on Ang’ast 7, 1906. ip
the Parsee Bagan Square, Calcutta. The flag was composed of hori-
zontal stripes of red, yellow and green.
The second flag was hoisted by Madame Cama and her band of
eidled revolutionaries in Paris in 1907. It was siniilar to the first
flag with slight modifications.
The third flag was hoisted during Home Rule Movement in 1917
by Dr. Annie Besant and Tilak. This flag had five red and four
green horizontal stripes and in the left hand top comer (the pole
end) was the Union Jack occupying one-fourth of the space and
seven stars in the centre. There was also a crescent and a star in
one comer.
The Tricolour was first hom at A.I.C.C. meeting at Bezwada in
1921 when a flag was shown b 3 ^ an Andhra youth and improved by
Mahatma Gandhi with the addition of a white stripe and charka.
Though not oflicially accepted by the Congress, it was hoisted on all
Congress occasions. In 1931, when A.I.C.C. met at Karachi, a reso-
lution was passed stressing the need for a national flag. In the
same year a resolution was passed adopting a tricolour flag as our
National Emblem. It had three colours : saffron for courage and
sacrifice, white for truth and peace, green for faith and chivalry. It
also carried a charka in blue on white band. The size was three
lengths by two breadths. On July 22, 1947 with the attainment of
independence, the Constituent Assembly adopted it as free India's
national flag. The colours and their significance remain the same.
The Dharma Chakra of Emperor Asoka was adopted instead of
Charka.
The National Flag of India consists of a horizontal tricolour in
the saffron {Kesari) at the top, white in the middle and dark green
at the bottom, all stripes being equal in breadth. The ratio of the
width of the Flag to its length is two to three. The emblem of the
flag |s an exact reproduction of the wheel on the capital of the Asoka
pillar at Saranath, superimposed on the central band and is as broad
as the white strip. The colour of the emblem is dark blue and the
wheel has 24 spikes.
Use of National Flag —
(1) It should not be dipped to any person or anything The
regimental colour, the State Flag, the organisational or institutional
flag will render this honour when necessary.
.KT or emblem should be placed above the
National Flag or to its right.
OUR NATIONAL EMBLEMS & AWARDS
157
(3) All flags are placed to the left of the National Flag if they
hang in a line, and if they are raised, then the National Flag is raised
highest.
(4) When other flags are flown along with the National Flag
on the same halyard, the latter should be at the peak.
(5) The Flag should not be carried flat or horh.ontally, but
always aloft and free.
(6) When carried in a procession, it must be borne high on the
right shoulder of the standard-bearer and carried in front of the
procession.
(7) When the Flag is displayed from a stalf, projecting hori-
zontally or at an angle from a window sill or a balcony or the front
of a building, the saffron end should be at the top.
(8) Normally the National Flag should be flown on important
Government buildings at the Centre and in the States. Frontier
areas may, however, fly the National Flag at some special points.
(9) The use of the Flag will, however, be unrestricted on certain
special occasions such as the Independence Day, Mahatma Gandhi’s
birthday and during the National week.
NATIONAL EMBLEM
The National Emblem is replica of the capital of the Asokan
pillar at Saranath and is formed of three lions mounted on an abecus
with Dharma Chakra carved in relief in the centre, a bull on the
right and a horse on the left, and the outlines of the Dharma Chakra
on the extreme right and left. The words Satyameva Jay ate mean-
ing ‘truth alone triumphs’ are inscribed in Devanagri script below
the emblem. The lion capital was adopted as National Emblem on
January 26, 1950.
The fact, that the original lion capital, designed between 242 —
232 B.C. was erected by Emperor Asoka to hallow the spot where the
Buddha first initiated his disciples in the eight fold path of salvation,
invests the Emblem with historical and spiritual significance. Carved
out of a single block of sandstone, the original capital was sur-
mounted by a wheel (Chakra).
NA.TIONAL SONGS
The Constituent Assembly of India on the 24th January, 1950
adopted Rabindranath Tagore’s song Jana-gana-mana as the national
anthem of India. It was concurrently decided that Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee’s Bande Mataram shall have equal status.
AWARDS & DISTINCTIONS & TITLES
Bharat Ratna — The award is made for exceptional work for the
advancement of art, literature and science and in recognition of
public service of the highest order. The decoration takes the form
of a pcepal leaf. It is of toned bronze. On the obverse side is
embossed a replica of the Sun below which the words Bharat Ratna
are embossed in Hindi. On the reverse are the State Emblem and the
158
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
motto, also in Hindi. The Emblem, the Sun and the rim are of
platinum.
Padma Viblmsan — The award is made for exceptional and dis-
tinguished service in any field, including service rendered by Govern-
ment servants.
Padma Bhiisan — The Award is made for distinguished service
of a high order in any field, including service rendered by Govern-
ment servants.
Padma Shri — The Award is made for distinguished service in
any field, including service rendered by Government servants.
President’s Police <£ Fire Service Medal, Police Medal.
Krishi Pandits — The title ‘Krishi Pandit’ is given annually by
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research to farmers who have
made notable contribution to the cause of Indian agriculture.
Gopal Ratiia — This title has been instituted in 1956 by the Gov-
ernment of India and will be awarded to the owners of the highest
milk-yielding cows and buffaloes of certain breeds in all India milk-
yield competition. Owners of each breed of cattle besides title of
Gopal Ratna will get cash prizes of Rs. 2,000 each.
DANCES OP INDIA
There are four main schools of dancing in India — Bliarata
Natyam, Kathakali, Kathak and Manipuri. Bharata Natyam per-
haps represents the purest and the oldest form of Indian tradition.
This is always executed by one single dancer usually. The music
consists of a singer or singers and a group of drummers. The sung
music functions like a commentary on the dance.
Kathakali of Malabar is the most dramatic form of Indian
dancing. It literally means ‘story play* and employs many dancers,
usually drawing its themes from the epics.
Kathak school, which is peculiar to North India, shows Muslim
influences. Its elegance and sophistry are derived from the Mughal
Court, but its complicated rhythms are of indigenous origin. The
Kathak dance is rich in two aspects of dancing — nritt, pure dance
abhiiiaya, which employs facial expression and symbolic gestures to
interpret the theme and also covers bhavas (emotions) and
rasas (sentiments).
Manipuri school is essentially lyrical and on the whole lighten
Dances of Manipur are things of disciplined joy and power. They
have rhythmical sublety, slow suspense, speed, lyricism, drama.
Most popular of all Manipuri dances is Rasa-Lila. It depicts scenes
from the life of Sri Krishna in a series of songs and dances.
RANK & PRECEDENCE OF
PERSONS
1. President.
2. Vice-Pre.sident.
3. Prime Minister.
4. Governors, Rajpramukhs,
and Sadar-i-Riyasat, Jammu &
Kashmir, within their respective
charges.
5. Ex-Presidents and ex-Gov-
emors General.
6. Lieutenant Governors with-
in their respective charges.
7. Chief Justice. Speaker of
the Lok Sabha.
8. Cabinet Ministers of the
Union.
9. Holders of Bharat Ratna
Decorations.
10. Ambassadors Extraordi-
nary & Plenipotentiary accredited
to India.
High Commissioners of Comm-
onwealth Governments in India.
11. Rulers of Indian States
with a salute of 17 guns and
above within their States.
12. Governors, Rajpramukhs
and Sadar-i-Riyasat, Jammu &
Kashmir, outside their respective
charges.
13. Lieutenant Governors out-
side their respective charges.
14. Rulers of Indian States
with a salute 17 guns and above
outside their States.
15. Chief Ministers of the
Union (other than the Cabinet
Ministers).
Members of the Planning
Commission.
17. Rulers of Indian States
with a salute of 15 guns or 13
guns.
18. Envoys Extraordinary
and Ministers Plenipotentiary
accredited to India.
19. Chief Commissioners of
Part ‘C’ States having Council
of Ministers within their respec-
tive charges.
20. Chief Ministers of Part
‘C’ States within their respective
States.
21. Judges of the Supreme
Court.
22. Class I Ambassadors of
India and visiting Class I Amba-
ssadors of India.
Foreign Ambassadors visting
India.
Visiting High Commissioners
of India and High Commissioners
of other Commonwealth countries
visiting India.
23. Charges d’ Affaires and
acting High Commissioners a
pied and ad interim.
24. Chiefs of Staff and Com-
manders-in-Chief holding the
rank of full General or equiva-
lent rank.
25. Chief Justices of High
Courts.
Chairmen of Legislative Coun-
cils in Part ‘A' and Part ‘B’
States.
Speakers of Legislative As-
semblies in Part ‘A’ and Part
‘B’ States.
26. Ministers of Part ‘A’ and
Part ‘B’ States.
Deputy Ministers of the Union,
Attorney-General.
Comptroller and Auditor
General.
160
HINDUSTAN YAER-BOOK
Deputy Chairman of the Eajya
Sahha.
Deputy Speaker of the Lok
Sahha.
27. Chief of Staff and Com-
manders-in-Chief holding the
rank of Lieutenant-General or
equivalent rank.
28. Rulers of Indian States
■with a salute of 11 guns or 9
guns.
29. Chairman, Union Public
Service Commission.
Chief Election Commissioner.
30. Puisne Judges of High
Courts.
31. Deputy Ministers of Part
‘A’ States.
Deputy Chairman and Deputy
Speakers of State Legislatures.
32. Members of Parliament.
33. Officers of the rank of full
General or equivalent rank.
Secretary to the President.
Secretaries to the Government
of India and Principal Private
Secretary to the Prime Minister.
Class n and Class III Ambas-
sadors of India.
Commissioner for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Officiating Chiefs of Staff and
Commanders-in-Chief holding the
rank of Major-General or equi-
valent rank.
Chief Commissioners of Part
‘C States ha-ving Council of Mi-
nisters outside their respective
charges.
Visiting Ministers Pleninoten-
tiary of India and Foreigrn Minis-
ters Plenipotentiary -visiting
India.
Chairman of the Railway
Board.
Financial Commissioner for
Railways.
Solicitor-General.
Political Officer in Sikkim.
34. Chief Ministers of Part
‘C’ States outside their respec-
tive States.
35. Speakers of Part ‘C’
States.
36. Ministers of Part ‘C’
States.
37. Members of the Railway
Board.
Slinisters of Foreign and Com-
monwealth missions other than
Ministers Plenipotentiary.
Officers of the rank of Lieute-
nant-General or equivalent rank.
38. Chief Commissioners of
the Andaman and Nicobar Is-
lands, Kutch, Tripura and Mani-
pur, -within their respective
charges.
Additional Secretaries to the
Government of India.
Chairman, Tariff Commission.
Chairman, Central Water and
Power Commission.
Vice-Chairman of the Indian
Council of -4.gricultural Research.
Financial .4.d-viser, Ministry of
Finance (Defence).
Chairman Central Board of
Revenue.
*P.S.Os. of the Armed Forces
of the rank of Major-General or
equivalent rank.
39. Chairman of the Public
Service Commission of a State.
Chief Secretaries to Govern-
ments of Part ‘A’ States.
Financial Commissioners.
Members of the Union Public
Service Commission.
* Should a P.S.O. hold the rank of Lieutenant-General, his senio-
ri^ in the Table of Precedence -will continue to remain the same as
laid down for Officers of the rank of Lieutenant-General or equivalent
rank in Article 37 of the Table.
RANK & PRECEDENCE OP PERSONS
161
Rear Admiral Commanding,
Indian Naval Squadron.
Members of a Board of
Revenue.
40. Director-General, Health
Services.
Director-General, Posts and
Telegraphs.
Director, Intelligence Bureau.
General Managers of Railways.
Establishment OflScer to the
•Government of India.
Joint Secretaries to the Gov-
■smment of India (including Jt.
Secretary to the Cabinet).
Class IV Ambassadors of India
and visiting Class IV Ambassa-
■dors of India.
Ofiicers of the rank of Major-
•General or equivalent rank.
Surveyor General.
Members of the Tariff Com-
mission.
Inspectors General of Police in
Part ‘A’ States.
Commissioners of Divisions.
Director-General of Civil Avia-
tion. '
Director-General of Supplies
and Disposals.
Director-General of Ordnance
Factories.
Indian Navy Commodores-in-
■Charge, Naval Ports or Areas.
Commanders of Indian Air
Force commands of the rank of
Air Commodore.
*P.S.Os. of Naval and Air
Headquarters of the ranks of
•Commodore and Air Commodore.
Chief Commissioners of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Kutch, Tripura and Manipur,
outside their respective charges.
Director-General, All India
Radio.
Military Secretary to the Pre-
sident (so long as he also holds
the post of Director-General,
•Government Hospitality Organi-
sation).
11
Counsellors of Foreign and
Common-wealth missions in India.
Note 1 . — The order in this
Table of Precedence is meant for
State and Ceremonial occasions
and may not be strictly followed
on more informal occasions.
Note 2. — This Table -will not
affect the precedence enjoyed by
Rulers etc., within Indian States
and Part ‘B’ States by ■virtue of
local usage and custom ; nor -will
it affect the local precedence
inter se of Rulers as in force im-
mediately before 15th August,
1947.
Note 3. — Officers in the Table
of Precedence •will take rank in
order of the number of entries,
those included in one number
shall take precedence inter se ac-
cording to the date of entry into
that number.
Note 4. — VTien Members of
Parliament are invited en bloc
to major State function, the
enclosure reserved for them
should be next to the Governors,
Chief Justice, Speaker of the
Lok Sabha, Ambassadors etc.
Note 5. — ^The Director of the
Intelligenec Bureau will take pre-
cedence over Inspectors-General
of Police irrespective of the date
of his en-try into Article 40.
Note 6. — Major-Generals, irres-
pective of their date of entry into
Article 40, rank above Indian
Navy Commodores-in-Charge and
Indian Air Force Commodores.
Note 7. — Chief Secretaries to
Governments of Part ‘A’ States
■will take precedence over Mem-
bers of a Board of Revenue irres-
pective of the date of their entry
into Article 39.
Note 8. — ^For the purposes of
the Table of Precedence New
Delhi and the Red Fort should be
deemed to be outside the State
of Delhi.
162
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Note 9. — The Chairman of
State Legislative Councils shall
rank above the Speakers of Le-
gislative Assemblies in cases
■where they were elected on the
same date.
Note 10. — ^Rulers ■with a higher
gun salute shall take precedence
over Rulers ■with a lower gun
salute. Rulers ■with the same
salute shall take precedence
inter se according to date of
succession.
Note 11. — ^The Cabinet Secr^
tary ■wull, unless otherwise indi-
cated by the issue of special ins-
tructions, take precedence over
Secretaries to the Government of
India irrespective of his date of
appointment to the post.
Note 12. — Members of State
Legislatures who o^wing to their
presence in Delhi happen to be
invited to State functions, should
be assigned rank just after Mem-
bers of Parliament.
The Prime Minister to whom the question of the position to be
assigned to non-officials was referred, has stated : “It should he
remembered always that non-officials, although not included in the
warrant of precedence, can always be given a high place and some-
times a very high place in accordance ■with their general standing.
It is absurd, for instance, to put a great scientist or a famous artiste
or a writer at the bottom of the scale simply because he is not included
in the warrant. There_ could be not hard and fast rule about this
matter and some discretion has to be exercised on particular occasions.
This should be made clear to State Governments as well as of course
at the Centre, Special officers such as the Chairmen of important
Commissions and the like can be treated as non-officials of note. They
need not be included in the warrant and yet they should be given
appropriately high places whenever necessity arises”.
DO YOU KNOW
_ During^ 1955 the total value of foreign books, magazines and
periodicals imported to India was Rs. 105.9 lakhs. The corresponding
value of exports for the same year is Rs. 62.22 lakhs.
♦ 4; «
At present the consumption of footwear in India is one pair per
annum for every two persons in the urban areas and one pair for'
five persons in rural areas.
* *: t;
During 1955 the number of foreign turists who visited India
was 43,645.
* * * *
There are nearly 9,000 murders taking place every year in India.
TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATIONS
1. RAILWAYS
RAILWAYS IN INDIA — India has an extensive railway network
reaching all major cities. With over 34,000 route mileage the system
is exceeded in mileage only in the United States and Canada. Trans-
portation requirements are however much lower than in a more indus-
trialised country of the same size, because the majority of the popula-
tion lies in largely self-sufiicient villages. Most of the railways are
owned and operated by the Central Government. Those which are
still privately owned are narrow-gauge feeder lines, are subject to
Government regulation, and are usually dependent upon Government
assistance. The Government lines have in recent years been
reorganised into seven major systems.
Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and it is the single
biggest nationalised undertaking in the country. In inter-regional
traffic, 80 per cent of the goods and 70 per cent of the passenger
traffic are carried by rail. The Capital-at-charge is about Rs. 911
ccores. The railways employ about 10 lakhs of people.
BEGINNING OF RAILWAYS IN INDIA— In his famous
minutes of April 1853, strongly advocating the construction of a net-
work of trunk railway lines, Lord Dalhousie, the Governor General
of India wrote, “Great tracts are teeming with produce they cannot
dispose of, others are scantily hearing what they would carry in
abundance, only if it could be conveyed whither it is needed.”
The first idea of rail-roads in India was conceived in the Madras
Presidency as early as 1831-32 when a proposal to lay flat parallel
rails on a side of an improved road between CaUverypattam and
Caroor, a distance of 150 miles was mooted, with a view to enable
animal-driven vehicles to be drawn thereon. The more regular rail-
way projects, however, date from 1844 when the Board of Directors
of the East India Company sanctioned the construction of one line
from Calcutta to the north-west and another from Bombay to the
east and the north. The first line to be opened was a small section
of 22 miles by the G.I.P. P.ailway between Bombay and Kalyan in
April 1853. The E. I. Railway line between Calcutta and Pandooa
was the second to follow in August 1854 and Madras had the line
upto Arkonam opened in July 1856.
Terms for Opening Railways — ^In the early stage (between 1844
and 1868) the construction of railways in India was entrusted to
British Companies under State ^arantee of a minimum return of
4} p.c. to 6 p.c. on the capital invested. Government provided the
land free of cost but retained the right to purchase the lines after 2.5
164
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
or 50 years on certain terms. By 1869, 4,255 miles ■were constructed
under such terms with a capital outlay of about Rs. 89 crores.
This policy, however, entailed heavy loss to the State, amount-
ing by 1869 to about 1.7 crores and after an unsuccessful attempt
to enlist the co-operation of companies without any guarantee of
return. Government adopted the policy of direct ownership, construc-
tion and management by the State. Between 1869 and 1879 about
2,175 miles of lines were so constructed.
The policy of direct State construction, however, _ did not bear
fruit as expected, specially because the exigencies of time necessita-
ted the diversion of capital resources of the State to other directions
and political and strategic considerations had led to the spending of
large sums on unproductive lines. Between 1874 and 1878 the
country was visited by acute and widespread famines, and the
Famine Commission appointed in 1878 strongly urged the early
extension of the railway net-work. Company construction was
thereafter revived and even for State-owned lines management by
companies was favoured.
In dealing with the guaranteed companies, the Government
exercised as far as found desirable their rights to terminate the
contracts as and when opportunities arose in subsequent years, the
method of making use of this right and the manner of continuing
management of the railways after State acquisition having differed
in different cases. The E.I., S.I., G.I.P., B.B. and C.I., M.S.M., and B.N.
Railways were acquired by the State but allowed to be managed by
the original companies after securing more favourable financial con-
ditions for the State, the E.B., O.R. and Sind Punjab and Delhi lines
were purchased and transferred to State management. The Bengal
Central line was purchased and amalgamated with the E.B. Railway
and the Madras and Indian Midland lines were after acquisition
allowed to be managed by companies rmnning adjoining lines.
New Era Begins — With the beginning of the 20th century a new
era began. Traffic had gro^v^ enormously and the railways had
ceased to be a burden on public exchequer. In 1901, Mr. Robertson,
a Special Commissioner appointed to enquire into the working of the
railways, examined the pros and cons of State vs. Company construc-
tion and management and although no marked superiority in favour
of companies was observed, he advocated the discontinuance of dual
system running side by side and advised the leasing out of all lines
to companies, with or without guarantee.' Public opinion in India
had, however, ceased to remain inarticulate and strong feelings
were entertained against management by English Companies, which
often acted against the best interests of the people and stood in
the way of Indianisation and advancement of Indian trade and in-
dustry. The old policy, shaped between 1880 and 1884 was allowed
to be continued till 1920-21.
In 1921 a Railway Enquiry Committee under the Chairmanship
of Sir William Acworth examined critically the question of State vs.
Company management and advocated State-management.
In 1923 the Indian Legislative Assembly adopted a resolution
advocatmg State management only and it was decided to eliminate
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
165
the system of management by Board of Directors in London as and
when opportunities to terminate the contracts with companies were
available. Accordingly the East Indian Railway was taken over
under direct State management in January 1925 and the G. 1. P.
Railway in July next year and since then all company-managed
lines have been taken over. After independence in 1947, the railway
system has been nationalised. It is now entirely managed by the
State and the system of management has also been thoroughly
remodelled.
RAILWAY COMMITTEES — ^Por the improvement of railway
management and also to settle the State vs. Company management
question, Acworth Committee was appointed in 1921 which made vari-
ous recommendations for the improvement of Indian Railways. Its
main recommendations were : (1) Railways to be managed by the
State instead of Company management. (2) Railway Budget should
be separated from the general budget and that the general revenues
should receive annual contributions from railways. (3) Establish-
ment of Rates Tribunal to adjudicate upon disputes between railways
and the public.
The Acworth Committee laid the foundations of State manage-
ment and State Control of Indian Railways. Its recommendations
constituted the broad basis on which the railway system in India
developed in subsequent years.
The Pope Committee was appointed in 19.32 which inter alia
made many recommendations in regard to the intensive use of
locomotives, coaching stock and machinery. Disposal of unecono-
mical wagons, combining resources between railways, ticketless
travel and methods of increasing earnings.
The Wedgwood Committee in 1936 made the following recom-
mendations : (1) reduction in locomotives and carriage under re-
pairs, (2) amalgamation of workshop for construction of rolling
stock, (31 acceleration of trains, (4) withdrawal of unremunerative
services. (5) greater caution in capital expenditure, (6) a campaign
to root out dishonesty and incivility from amongst railway staff,
(71 development of the commercial departments of railways, (81
building of a General Reserve Fund to serve as an equalisation fund
for payment of interest charges and amortisation of capital.
Indian Railway Enquiry Committee — ^The Committee appointed
by the Government of India published its report in 1948. The main
findings and recommendations are (a) the staff strength in the rail-
ways is on the high side while there has been general deterioration
in the efficiency of workers, (6) in place of present central organi-
sation under which the Railway Board is part of the Secretariat of
the Government of India, the Committee recommended the vesting
of control and managenient of Indian Government Railways in a
Statutory Authority, (c) it is desirable to have in the Finance Branch'
of the Railway Board a separate unit primarily conceimed with ex-
ploring means to improve earnings, (d) no capital outlay should be
incurred other than on strictly financial considerations, except when
a capital expenditure is justified on other important considerations,
(c) an Amortisation Fund should be created (as recommended by
166
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
the Wedgwood Committee) in respect of intangible assets of fte
railways amounting to about Rs. 68 crores, the annual contribution
to the fund being one per cent of gross earnings, (/) the existing
method of making ad hoc contribution to the General Revenues has
to continue until the future position of the railways can be assured
with greater definitions.
Railwajf Stores Enquiry Committee — was set-up under the
Chairmanship of A. D. Shroff to examine the Stores arrangements
on the railways with a view to bringing about improvement and
rationalisation in procurement, issue and holding of stores in 1951.
The Committee recommended that Ministry of Railways should te
responsible for the procurement of specialized Railway Stores. This
recommendation has been accepted. The procurement of specialised
railway stores will be transferred to the Railway Board.
ADMINISTRATION OF RAILWAYS— The responsibility for
overall control and administration of the railways vests in the
Railway Board which was set-up in 1905. The Board consists, after
reorganisation in April 1951, of a Chairman who is an ex-officio
Secretary to the Union Railway Ministry, the Financial Commissioner
and three members.
For the close and constant consultation between the public and
railway authorities, the following committees have been established —
(1) Regional Users’ Consultive Committees, (2) Zonal Railwal Users’
Consultive Committees at the headquarters of each railway Zone and
<3) National Railway Users’ Consultive Council at the Centre.
Divisional System — The essence of the divisional system is
■to provide a unified control of operation and other allied railway ac-
■tivnties over a longer area than that of an average district and to
Test the responsibility for co-ordinating the working of different
departments in the area in an administrative officer called the
Divisional Superintendent, located in the Division. Divisional
system of administration has been introduced in the Central, Southern
and Western Railways. The Central Railway is divided with seven
divisions with headquarters at Secunderabad, Bombay, Bhusaval,
Nagpur, Sholapur, Jabalpur and Jhansi. Southern Railway is divided
into eight divisions : — ^Vijayawada, Hubli, Guntakal, Olovakkot,
Madras, Madurai, Mysore and Tiruchirapalli. Western Railway is
devided into eight divitions with headquarters at Bombay, Baroda,
Kotah, Jaipur, Ajmer, Rajkot, Bhavnagar and Ratlam.
Each Division is under a Divisional Superintendent who ■will
function in his sphere more or less as the General Manager does for
■the entire Zonal railway. He ■will, however, be under the control of
the General Manager. Specialised departments, like stores and work-
shops are excluded from the divisional scheme. These will continue
to be controlled by headquarters direct or hitherto.
RAILWAY FINANCE — ^In 1925, the railway finances were
separated from the general finances and it was decided that the raU-
•ways should contribute to the general revenues according to a fixed
formula. It was decided in December 1949 that during the quinquen-
cium beginning ■with 1950-51, the railways should pay a guaranteed
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
167
-dividend of four per cent on the capital-at-charge at the end of each
penultimate year. The revised Financial Convention after 1955 on-
-wards also prescribes the same rate of payment except that on new
lines a moratorium would be granted during construction and for the
^ve years to follow.
CLASSES OF ACCOMMODATION— From 1st April, 1955, there
are now four classes of accommodation, namely — Air-conditioned,
■first, second and third. There is no class named as inter class.
FREIGHT AND FARE — The fare & freight rates were rationa-
lised in 1948. The rates of passenger fare is on the telescopic basis
'from April 1, 1955 (i.e. rates diminishing with increase in distance
•travelled). Scale of passenger fares from 1st April, 1955 arc
given below.
The rationalised freight structure provides for fifteen
“class rates” for goods and an equal number of wagon-load
scales of rates. The rates reduce with the increase in dis-
tance, The telescopic taper of goods rates was further accentuated in
April 1956, thereby making long distance haulage of goods cheaper
.still. The telescopic taper of goods rates was further accentuated
in April 1955, thereby making long-distance haulage of goods cheaper
still. Goods trafiic now moves along the shortest route and at the
-cheapest-rate.
Class
Vistance in miles
Bates per wji
Air-conditioned
1—300
84 pies
301 and above
32 „
First class . .
1—150
18 „
151—300
16. „
301 and above
16 ..
•■Second Class (Mail or
' Express)
1—150 (Mail /Exp.)
11 »
1 — 150 (Ordinary)
n „
Snd class {ordinary)
161 300
lOi „
(Mail/Exp.)
(Ordinary)
301 and above.
9 „
(Mail Exp.)
9^ „
(Ordinary)
„
Third class
1—160 (Mail/Exp.)
65 „
(Ordinary)
55 „
150—300
6 „
(Mail/Exp.)
(Ordinary)
161—300
5 „
(Mail/Exp.)
6 „
(Ordinary)
301 and above
6 „
(Mail/Exp.)
5 „
(Ordinary)
„
Free allowance of Luggage per Ticket — ^Air-conditioned — 60 seers p
Ust class — 40 seers; 2hd class — 30 seers and Srd class — ^25 seers.
168 ^
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
RAILWAY LOCOMOTIA’H AND OTHER PRODUCTIONS— In-
ternal production is now able to meet the railway’s normal annual
requirements of rails, wagons and coaches. The Government-
owned Chittaranjan Locomotive Works and the Government-assisted
Tata Locomotive and Engineering Co. Ltd., which have gone into
production are helping to attain self-sufficiency in locomotives also.
The Chittaranjan Works which started production in 1950, have
turned out 424 engines upto Sept. 1956 and over 98 per cent of the
components are now being produced in the country. The Tata Engi-
neering and Locomotive Company which produce metre gauge loco-
motives, had turned out 170 engines upto August 1956. The produc-
tion target of the company is now being increased from 35 to
75 locomotives a year. The Integral Coach-building Factory at
Perambur (Madras), which has gone into production in October 1955,
is expected to turn out in single-shift working 300 to 350 light-weight
integral type all-steel coaches annually. The Government-owned
Hindustan Aircraft Ltd., at Bangalore are producing all-steel third
class passenger coaches.
TRAINING CENTRES AND RESEARCH— Training facilities
for officers in the Engineering and Traffic Departments
are provided in several railway training and technical
institutes. The more important ones are located at
Jamalpur, Gauhati, Chandausi, Bina and Saharanpur. Training
of higher staff for Indian Railways began on 31st January,
1952 when the Training College for Indian Railway Officers was
opened at Baroda. A Railway Testing and Research Centre with
headquarters at Lucknow and two sub-centres at Chittaranjan and
Lonavla were set-up during 1952-53. The Centre tackles those pro-
blems which are peculiar and specific to the railways.
ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAYS— The total electrified
route milage on the Indian Railways is 240.24 miles as follows ;
Central Railway (Bombay-Kurla-ICalyan, Poona-Ieatpuri, and Kurla-
Mankhurd) 184.85 miles ; Southern Railway (Madras-Tambaraih)^
18.14 miles ; Western Railway (Bombay-Borivili-Virar) 37.25 miles.
A start has been made during 1954-55 in respect of three schemes
of electrification. These are Eastern Railway : Howrah-Burdwan
main line and Tarakeswar branch line (all services) a length of 88
route miles at an estimated cost of Rs. 11.84 crores. Electrification
of Sealdah Division and Howrah-Burdwan Chord, a length of 276.42
route miles at an estimated cost of Rs. 28.77 crores. Southern Rail-
way : third line between Madras (Egmore and Tambaram), a
length of 8.3' miles at an estimated cost of Rs. 3.50 crores and
Western Railway : up and down through line between Andheri and
Borivili. The work on the line between Bandra and Andheri— 4.5
miles— was completed and opened to traffic on April 16, 1963. The
electrification of the through line of the remaining section between
Andheri-Borivili — 7.5 miles — ^was held up on account of delay in the
receipt of materials from abroad).
RAILWAY WORKSHOPS IN INDIA — ^Each Railway has its
own worlmhops to meet its repair requirements. Given below
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
168 ’
are details of the major -workshops on the different Railways and
the -work on which they are mainly engaged :
Northern Railway : — Carriage and Wagon Shops, Jagadhri — ^for
repairs to broad gauge carriage and wagons ; Loco Shops, Charbagh
(Lucknow) — ^for repairs to broad gauge locomotives ; Carriage-
and Wagon Shops, Alambagh (Lucknow) — ^for repairs to broad gauge-
carriages and wagons ; Loco Carriage and Wagon Shops at Jodhpur
and Bikaner — ^for repairs to metre gauge locomotives, carriages and
wagons.
Eastern Railway : — ^Loco Shops, Jamalpur — ^for repairs to-
broad gauge locomotives. These -workshops have a re-rolling mill
section and a permanent way foundry is an additional feature.
Carriage and Wagon Shops, Lillooah — ^for repairs to broad gauge
carriages and wagons ; Loco Shops, Kanchrapara — for repairs to
broad gauge carriages and wagons.
South Eastern Railway : — Loco, Carriage and Wagon Shops,
Kharagpur — for repairs to broad gauge locomotives, carriages and'
wagons.
Southern Railway : — Loco Shops, Perambur — ^for repairs to broad’
gauge locomotives ; Carriage and Wagon Shops, Perambur — ^for
repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons ; Loco, Carriage and
Wagon Shops, Golden Rock — for repairs to broad and metre gauge-
locomotives, carriages and wagons and manufacture of spare parts
for running sheds and carriage and wagon depots ; Loco, Carriage
and Wagon Shops, Hubli and Mysore — for repairs to metre gauge
locomotives, carriages and wagons.
Central Railway : — Locomotive Shops, Parel — ^for repairs to-
broad gauge locomotives ; Carriage and 'Wagon Shops, Matun^ —
for repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons ; Loco, Carriage
and Wagon Shops, Lallaguda — for repairs to broad and metre gauge
locomotives, carriages and wagons ; and Carriage and Wagon Shops,
Jhansi — ^for repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons.
Western Railway : — Loco Shops. Dohad — for repairs to broad
gauge locomotives ; Carriage and Wagon Shops, Mahalakshmi — ^for
repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons ; Loco Shops, Ajmer —
for repairs to metre gauge carriages and wagons.
North Eastern Railway ; — hoco, Carriage and Wagon Shops at.
Gorakhpur, Izatnagar and Dibrugarh for repairs to metre gauge loco-
motives, carriages and wagons.
RAILWAY ZONES
The seven sones of the Indian Railways are now as follows —
Route
zone and dates Former Rys, included Head mileage a&
of forming quarters on March
31, 1955
Southern M. & S.M., SJ. & Mysore
Ap-ril 14, 1951 Railways. Madras 6,115.52
Central GJ.P., Nizam’s State, Dhol-
Nov. 6, 1951 pur and Scindia Railways Bombay 5,635.2&
Western B.B. & CJ., Saurashtra,
170 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Nov. 6, 1951
Cutch, Rajasthan and Jai-
pur Railways and a short
section — ^Marwar-Phu lad
'Northern
April 14, 1952
of the Jodhpur Railways.
Eastern Punjab, Jodhpur,
Bikaner, the three upper
divisions of E. I. Ry. and
a portion of the B.B.C.I.
Bombay
5,613.96
Eastern
Ely.
E. 1 . Ry. (minus the three
Delhi
6,253.26
Aug. 1, 1956
Upper Divisions).
Calcutta
2,321
South-Eastern
Aug. 1, 1955
North-Eastern
B. N. Ry.
0. T. & Patehgarh Dist. of
Calcutta
3,399
April 14, 1952
old B.B.C.I. Ry.
Gorakhpur 4,814.25
Narrow gauge railways owned and operated by private compa-
nies were not included in the reorganisation scheme but under the
Railway Companies (Emergency Provisions) Act,_ 1951, the Central
Government has assumed power to ensure their being operated
efficiently and in public interest.
South-Eastern Railway — ^has the route mileage of 3,399.
The Railway connects the capital cities of three States, viz.,
West Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh and serves at area
•of 185,600 sq. miles in these states as also in Bihar, Andhra and
Vindhya Pradesh. Connecting the ports of Calcutta and Visakha-
patnam with their vast hinterlands, it serves the rich paddy fields
of West Bengal, the extensive timberlands of Orissa and Madhya
Pradesh, as also the coal and steel industries of Bihar and West
Bengal. The area covered by the railway is rich in deposits of essen-
tial raw materials such as iron ore, copper, coal, manganese, lime,
bauxite and dolomite. Many of the major development projects in
eastern India lie on this railway, such as (1) Hirakud project at
Sambalpur, (2) two steel plants at Rourkela and Bhilai, (3) Hindus-
than Shipyards at Visakhapatnam, (4) oil refinery at Visakhapatnam,
(6) two steel works at Tatanagar and Bumpur.
North-Eastern Railway — serves the northern part of West Bengal
and Assam, northern part of Uttar Pradesh, Northern Bihar. This
line has been formed with the former Oudh and Tirhut Railway and
Assam Railway. This line operates in a well-developed agricultural
region and carries large quantities of sugarcane, tobacco, tea and rice.
Eastern Railway — has a route mileage of 2,321. The railway
serves an area of over 80,000 sq. miles and cover the States of
West Bengal, Bihar and parts of Uttar Pradesh which have a
heavy population density. This Railway is composed of the
five Divisions of the old East Indian Railway east of Moghai-
■sarai, namely Dinapore, Dhanbad (transportation division),
Asansole, Howrah and Sealdah. This last named Division
■was attached to E. I. Ry. after the partition of Bengal Assam Rail-
•way in 1947. Working on the divisional system, the Eastern Railway
■will have its headquarters at Calcutta. The Eastern Ifeilway con-
nects the port of Calcutta with its rich vast hinterland. It provides
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
171
transportation facilities, among others, to the rice and jute producing
areas of West Bengal and Bihar, the coal and steel industries in these
two States, and the mica and iron ore mine of Bihar.
It serves important industries like metallurgical ’and steel manm
facture at Bumpur and Kulti ; chemical fertilizers at Sindri ; and
locomotives at Chittaranjan. TTie transport demands of the various
industries like jute, chemicals, engineering, cement, leather and
textiles, situated in and around Calcutta and at other industrial
points are also met by the Eastern Railway.
Western Railway — Serves Bombay, Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh. The line consists of former B. B. C. I. Rail-
way, Saurastra Railway, Rajasthan Railway and Jaipur
Railway. This line serves the great industrial areas of Bombay,
Ahmedabad and Baroda and handles tremendous quantities of cotton.
Central Railway — Serves Bombay, Madhya Pradesh and north-
western part of Madras. The line consists of the former G.I.P.
Railway, Scindhia Railway, Dholpur Railway and Nizam’s State-
Railway.
Southern Railway — On April 14, 1951, the three railway systems,
viz., Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway, South Indian Railway
and Mysore Railway were integrated into a single railway zone — the
Madras, Mysore, Kerala and parts of southern Bombay and Andhra.
Southern Railway. It serves the densely-populated fertile areas of
This railway links the northern and southern portion of India.
Northern Railway — This Railway came into being in 1952 through
the synthesis of the three division of East Indian Railway, a portion
of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway and the whole of the
Eastern Punjab, Jodhpur and Bikaner Railways. This line serves
Punjab, Delhi, northern and eastern Rajasthan and Uttar-Pradesh
opto Banaras,
SOME RAILWAY ORGANISATIONS
Central Standards Office — A separate self-contained organisation
called Central Standard Office, for the conduct of all works connected
with the production of standard design and specifications for all
materials, plant and rolling stock in use on Indian railways was
formed in 1930. Three separate branches of this office deal respec-
tively with mechanical engineering standards, civil engineering
standards and specifications, while a separate research branch, con-
stituted at a later date undertakes civil and mechanical engineering
research.
Indian Railway Conference Association — ^This Association was
first organised in 1871 mainly for the interchange of rolling stock
between broad gauge railways. The present non-official organisa-
tion was inaugurated in 1902 when a formal resolution was passed,
establishing the permanent Conference, independent of Government
with the name of the “Indian Railway Conference.” The Associa-
tion’s main function has been to frame rules for the carriage and in-
terchange of the passenger and goods stock, as well as to regulate
the rates and fares and conditions under which the traffic shall be
172 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
carried. The Conference is a sort of clearing house for all railways.
Standards Advisory Committee of experts lias heen set up
to introduce standardization in railway working and to remove
wide divergencies regarding the stores nomenclature, servicing and
repairs to rolling stock, methods of training staff etc.
Consultative Committees — In order to afford closer consultation
between the public and the railway administrations at different
levels on matters relating to the service provided by the railway, con-
sultative committees have been established, in place of the advisory
committees —
(1) Regional-Users' Consultative Committees at the regional or
divisional levels ;
(2) Zonal Railway Users’ Consultative Committee at the head-
quarters of each railway zone, and
(3) National Railway Users’ Consultative Committee at the
Centre.
The Railway Users’ Consultative Committees in the regions or
divisions will represent the local users in the territories served by
the railways including agrricultural Interests. The National Railway
Users’ Consultative Committee at the Centre will deal with matters of
all-India importance relating to the services and facilities provided
by the railways, while the zonal committees would deal with similar
matters in regard to the respective zones.
Railway Rates Tribunal — This Tribunal has been established in
1949 in place of Railway Rates Advisory Committee. This Tribunal
acts as a judicial tribunal for the settlement of diputes in connec-
tion with rates. The Tribunal is authorised to entertain complaints
that railway administrations are exercising discrimination, quoting
unreasonable rates, attaching unreasonable conditions to the rates or
are unreasonably refusing to quote a fair station-to-station rate. The
•Wbunal will deal only with freight rates and have mandatory juris-
diction. It consists of a President and two members. To assist the
Tribunal, two panels of assessors are constituted, one representing
trade, industry and agriculture and the other, the other railways.
Central Board of Transport — has been formed in 1947 to deal
with the major problems of transport and policies in the country and
it formulates broad policies. The two main objectives of the Board
are (1) maximum co-ordination of all forms of transport and (21 the
co-ordination of transport planning and its execution with the plans
for agricultural and industnal development. The Board’s objective is
to secure the optimum movement of goods according to priority and
simultaneously relief of the strain on railways by harnessing "other
forms of transport. The Board consists of the Ministers for Trans-
port and Communications and Commerce and Industry and other senior
officers of the Ministries of Finance, Defence, Commerce and Industry,
Home Affairs, Railways and Transport.
Service Commissions — ^There are Railway Service Commissions
in Bombay, Calcutta, Lucknow and Madras.
_ Efficiency Bureau — has been set up whose function mainly is to
investigate problems ha%-ing a bearing on the efficiency of the rail-
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
173
'ways in various facets of working and to suggest ways and means of
securing improvements in efficiency.
TOURIST TRAFFIC — The Ministry of Transport in New Delhi
has a Tourist Division which has four sections. One section deals with
administration, another with tourist traffic matters, a third with
tourist literature and other publicity material and fourth with the
■distribution of it. The country has been divided into four main
regions (Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western and Central India)
for organising tourist traffic. The Bombay region comprises States
■of Bombay, Hyderabad, Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat (Southern
half of Saurashtra and Kutch) and Bhopal ; Delhi those of Kashmir,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Bharat
(Gwalior and Shivpuri) and Himachal Pradesh ; Under the Madras
region come the States of Madras, Andhra, Travancore-Cochin,
Mysore and Coorg.
The Government of India has also been mindful to the need for
■expansion of tourism abroad. For this reason they have undertaken
to establish Tourist Information Offices abroad for drawing foreign
tourists to India. There is a tourists bureau in New York and
tourist offices in San Francisco, London, Paris and in West Germany.
In order to deal with tourist problems with all their ramifica-
tions, Regional Advisory Committees have been set up to associate
the local and state governments and various agencies that are in
the business, such as Travel Agents, Carriers and Hoteliers. There
is also a Central Tourist Traffic Advisory Committee.
For the growth and expansion of tourist traffic in India, the
government is trying to solve many problems connected with it —
(1) Simplification of travel formalities i.e. standardisation of police
formes and of customs baggage allowances according to interna-
tional agreements, (2) Accomodation — The Ministry of Transport is
keeping a close liaison with the hotel industry, encouraging hoteliers
to provide better amenities and improve standards. The hotel
industry is organised into four regional associations integrated into
All India Hotel Federation, (3) Communications — ^The means of
Gommunications in India are not up-to-date or adequate. There are
places which suffer from lack of even elementary facilities in this
respect, such as Konark in Orissa. Planning Commission has accepted
. that certain roads leading to tourist centres can have claim on the
national budget if they cannot be justified on any other ground.
(4) Transport — ^The transport in India is not also upto the required
standard. Every effort is being made to improve this_ department
of tourism so that the tourists can reach the places of interest with
ease and comport.
Guide books, pamphlets, posters and folders are .being brought
out and travel films made for distribution and exhibition abroad.
Foreign tourists has been increasing at the rate of about 20 per cent
per annum. About 39,330 tourists came to India in 1954.
India has joined the International Union of Official Travel Orga-
nisations which has now set up a Regional Travel Commission for
Asia and the Far East.
174
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
RAILWAY AMENITIES — Greater attention is being paid to-
wards the amenities of third class passengers, for which provisions are
being made every year. For this purpose, the Financial Convention
of 1949 earmarked a sum of Rs. 3 crore annually for five years
beginning with 1951-52, following are the amenities — (1) opening of
new stations, (2) opening of waiting halls and rooms, (3) new
model carriages and fittings, (4) opening of new booking offices and
out-agencies, (5) improved catering arrangements, (6) better sani-
tation, (7) elimination of overcrowding by the introduction of new
trains, such as Janata expresses consisting exclusively of class III
carriages. A new type of Janata corridor train with dining car
has been introduced from 1955. (8) introduction of 3rd class sleep-
ing accommodation, (9) Electrification of stations, (10) Raising of
platforms, (11) Dining cars and retiring room facilities for third
class passengers on long journeys etc. (13) introduction of new
trains to eliminate overcrowding.
RAILWAY AND THE PLAN — ^The target of expenditure on
railway decelopment under the First Five-Year Plan was Rs. 400
crores and the railways have exceeded this by Rs. 32 crores ; of
the total estimated outlay of Rs. 432 crores, net investment amounts
to Rs. 267 crores, the balance representing current depreciation.
In the Second Plan a total outlay of Rs. 1125 crores is provided for,
of which Rs. 900 crores would be net investment ; it provides for
additional capacity of 15 p.c. for passenger traffic and 35 p.c. for
freight traffic. Of the total outlay, the railways would contribute
Rs. 375 crores, comprising Rs. 225 crores by way of provision for
depreciation and, at the level of passenger and freight rate-, prevail-
ing in 1955-56, Rs. 100 crores from revenue surplus, leaving a gap
of Rs. 50 crores to be covered. To meet this shortfall in resources,
freight rates have been raised.
INDIAN RAILWAYS, 1955
Indian Railway systems have been classified as Government and
Non-Government Railways. After the federal financial integration
and regrouping of railways under the Government management, the
other railways represented a small group accounting as on March 31,
1953 for 756 miles. So for statistical purposes, the Indian Railways
have been slassified as (1) Government Railways and (2) Non Govern-
ment Railways, instead of Class I, II & III from the .nancial year
ins-i CO * •
Govt, Railways Route
1. Central
(a) Central
(b) Elichpur-Yeotmal
(c) Pulgaon-Arvi
2. Eastern
Eastern
3. North-Eastern
(a) North-Eastern
mileage Oioned by
5,288 Indian Govt.
118 Branch Line Co.
22
4,733 Indian Govt.
4,729
Managed by
Indian Govt.
Indian Govt.
tJ
*9
ft
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
175
Route mileage
(b) Chaparmukh Silghat 61
(c) Katakhal Lalabazar 23
4. Northern
(a) Northern
6,995
(b) Rupar Nagal Dam
5. Southern
34
(a) Southern
6,837
(b) Tenali-Repalle
22
(c) Cochin Harbour
Extension
4
(d) Alnavar-Dandeli
(e) West of India
19
Portuguese
61
(f) Peralam-Karaikhal
15
(g) Pondicherry
8
(h) Tinnevelly Tiru-
chendur
38
(i) Nanjangud Town
Chamarajnagar
22
6. Western
6,631
Total Govt. I Railways
Non-Govt. Railways
33,582
1. Ahmadpur Katwa
32
2. Arrah Sasaram Light
66
3. Bankura Damodar
River
60
4. Barasat Basirhat Light 62
6. Bengal Provincial
33
G. Dasgbara Jamalpurganj 8
7. Baktiarpur Bihar Light 33
8. Burdwan Katwa S3
Owned by Worked by
Branch Line Co. „
9t 9f
Indian Govt. „
tf tf
99 99
District Board, „
Guntur
Cochin Harbour
Authority
Govt, of Bom. „
99
West of India
Portuguese
Ry. Co. n
French Govt. »
Pondicherry
Ry. Co. w
Dist. Board,
Tinnevelly
District Boards
Mysore &
Mandya »
Indian Govt. • »»
Branch Line Ahraadpur Zat-
Co. via Ry.
Company sub- Arrh Sasaram-
sidised Light Ry. Co.
Branch Line Bankura Damo-
Co. dar River Ry.
Co,
Company sub- Barasat Basir-
sidised hat Lt. Ry. Co..
Unassisted Co. Bengal Prov.
Ry. Co.
Branch Line Dasghara-Ja-
Co. malganj Ry.
District Board, Baktiarpur-
Patna Bihar Light
Railway.
Branch Line Burdwan Katws-
Co, . . By. Co.
176
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
9.
Dehri Rohtas Light
24
10.
Futwah Islampur
27
IL
Howrah Amta Light
44
A2.
Howrah Sheakhala
Light
20
Company sub- Debri Kobtas
sidised Light Ry. Co.
Branch Line Futwah Islam-
Co. pur Lt. Ry. Co.
Company sub- Howrah Amta
sidised Light Ry. Co.
Company sub- Howrah Shea-
sidised khala Lt. Ry.
Co.
13. Jagadhri Light
14. Kalighat Falta
15. Shahadara (Delhi)
Saharanpur Light
3 Unassisted Co. Jagadhri Light
Ry. Co.
26 Branch Line Kalighat Falta
Co. Ry. Co.
93 Company sub- Saharanpur
sidised Light Rly.
railway reseritb funds
(Crores of Rupees)
Appropriations Witft- Net accre- Closing
drawals tion Balance
Depreciation Reserve Fund
1953-54
33-97
38-02
— 1-05 ,
112-79
1954-55
• •
33-72
45-82
—12-10
100-69
1955-56 (RE)
, ,
48-63
48-57
0-06
100-75
1956-57 (BE)
- •
48-77
45-42
3-35
104-10
Revenue Reserve Fund
1953-54 . . 1-13
1-13
37-18
1954-55
1-18
1-18
38-36
1955-56 (RE)
8-50
—0-02
8-52
46-88
1956-57 (BE)
••
1-54
—
1-54
48-42
Development Fund
1953-54 . . 3-29
9-81
—6-52
20-62
1954-55
9-70
12-78
—3-08
17-54
1955-56 (RE)
2-85
12-32
—9-47
8-07
1956-57 (BE)
23-27
22-17
1-10
9-17
Total
1953-54
38-39
47-83
—9-44
170-59
1954-55
. .
44-60
58-60
—14-00
156-59
1955-56 (RE)
. •
59-98
60-87
—0-89
155-70
1956-57 (BE)
--
73-58
67-59
5-99
161-69
(Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
177
RAILWAY FINANCES
(Crores of Rupees)
I.
Capital-at-charge
1954-55
{Actual)
901-58
1955-66 1955-56
{Budget) {Revised)
961-07 973-66
1956-57
{Budget)
1,087-09
II.
Total Receipts
286-81
292-55
314-18
345-05
m.
Total Expenses
242-74
249-34
268-44
282-39
IV.
Net revenue (II-III)
44-06
43-21
45-74
62-66
V.
Dividend to general
Revenue
34-96
36-07
36-16
39-67
VI.
Surplus (ly-V)
9-10
7-14
9-68
22-99
TII.
Appropriation to
(a) Dev. Fund
9-10
2-44
22-99
(b) Rev. Reserve Fund —
7-14
7-14
—
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
Mileage of Indian Railways
1853
Mileage
20
1913-14
Mileage
. . 34,656
1949-50
Mileage
. 34,002
1863
. . 2,507
1923-24
. . 38,039
1950-51
, 34,079
1873
. . 5,697
1933-34
. . 42,953
1951-52
. 34,119
1883
. . 10,447
1943-44
. . 40,612
1952-53
. 34,275
1893
. . 18,459
1947-48<'
. . 33,985
1953-54
. 34,406
1903
. . 26,956
1948-49
. . 33,861
1954-55
. 34,705
F’rance
Railway
Mileage of Leading Countries
. . 25,600 Argentina . .
. 26,710
Germany
. . 36,256
Mexico
» • •
. 14,981
-Great Britain
. . 19,151
China (approx.)
. 19,000
U.S.S.R.
. . 57,487
Brazil
. .
. 21,251
Italy
. . 11,383
India
. 34,705
Poland
. . 13,375
Burma
. 1,787
Japan
. . 12,556
Pakistan
. 7,082
•Canada
. . 41,158
S. Africa
. 13,413
U.S.A.
.. 224,816
Australia
. 26,623
Route mileage of Railways per 1000
Route miles per 1000
sq. miles
India . . . , 27 Canada
square miles
Route miles
sq.
per 1000
miles
.. 12
U.S.A
.. 74
France
.. 120
U.K.
. •
.. 204
Japan
• •
.. 87
Route mileage according to population
Route mileage per
100,000 population
India . . . . 9
TJ.S.A . . . . 138
■U.K. . . . . 27
Roiite mileage per
100,000 population
Canada . . . . 272
Prance . . . . 60
Japan . . . . 14
* Following the partition of August 15, 1947.
12
178
HINDUSTAN
YEAR-BOOK
Passenger Coaches on the Indian Line
1938-39
15,553
1951-52
13,150
1948-49 .
11,991
1152-53
13,502
1949-60
12,047
1953-54
- 13,802
1950-51
12,815
1954-55
14,667
Total Passenger Miles in India
Millions
1938-39
17,988
1951-52
39,030
1948-49
37,129
1952-53
36,928
1949-50
38,465
1953-54
37,076
1950-51
41,159
1954-55
38,316
Passenger Earnings
on Indian Railways
{Lakhs of Rupees)
1871
202
1931-32
3,135-
1801
379
1941-42*
3,969
1891
686
1951-52t
11,142
1901
1,007
1952-53
10,183
1911
1,849
1953-54
10,135
1921-22
3,429
1954-55
10,074
Traffic on Indian Railways
{Passengers—
-Thousands)
1871
19,283 1911
3,89,863 1951-62t
12,32,073
1881
63,764 1921-22
5,69,684 1952-53
12,12,090
1891
1,22,855 1931-32
5,05,836 1953-54
12,20,400
1901
1,94,749 1941-42*
6,23,072 1954-55
12,59,150
RAILWAY FACTS
The Indian Railways form the largest rail transport undertaking-
in Asia and the fourth longest railway system in the -world.
* « * • • •
Among the railway in Asia, the Indian Railways are the largest,
the Chinese and the Japanese Railways foUo-wing as the second and
third in points of the route mileage.
* 4 ! * ^ *
There are about 6,000 Railway Stations in India.
• • • • ■ • •
Third class passengers contribute 90 p.c.^of the railway receipts..
The Indian Railways carrying daily about 3,600,000 passengers-
(one per cent of India’s population) in 6,000 trains to or from 6,000
stations.
* Burma Rly. separated in 1937;
t Following Partition of 16th August 1947.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
179
India has three gauges of railways — ^Broad Gauge (BS'), Metre
Gauge (3' and 3-i"), Narrow Gauge (2' 6" and 2').
» * * * *
Most Indian railway gauges are five feet six inches wide and
they are the broadest in the world.
• « * *
The famous trains of India are the Deccan Queen of the Central
Railway which links Bombay with Poona. It is the fastest short
distance train maintaining for sometime a start to stop speed of 45
miles per hour. Flying Ranee run by Western Railway between
Bombay and Surat is a corridor train in India. Delhi Madras
Grand T7~ank Express runs 1,361 miles and traverses half the sub-
continent of India. Frontier Mail though shorn of its previous
grandeur, provides the shortest and the quickest service between
Bombay and the North.
» » » • *
Indian railways carry about 1300 million passengers per annum,
nearly equivalent to four times of India’s population.
*
Indian Railways carry 80 per cent of the goods trafBc and 70
per cent of the passenger trafBc.
Railway station with smallest letters is “IB’ railway station in
South-Eastern Railway between Jharsuguda and Brajarajnagar in
Orissa.
* » « •
With capital of 1,000 crores of rupees invested by the State, the
Indian Railways are one of the largest enterprises of the world.
« * * « *
Biggest Indian Railway tunnel is the Torsi Tunnel which is
three quarters of a mile long.
*****
Fully vestibuled third class Janata train was introduced from
October 7, 1955 between Delhi and Howrah. Similar trains have
since been introduced on other main trunk routes, viz., Delhi-Madras,
Madras-Howrah and Madras-Bombay.
*****
Old iron bridge in India is the old iron bridge over river Gumti,
Lucknow.
*****
The longest platform in India (2,415 ft.) is at Sonepur.
*****
There are 349 bookstalls on the Indian railways. The Railway-
wise distribution is : Southern 91 ; Central 66, Northern 61 ;
Western 41 ; North-Eastern 40 ; Eastern 29 and South Eastern 21.
*
«
*
*
180
HINDirSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Important Railway Dates
lg 53 — First Indian Railway was opened on 16tli April, 1853
between Bombay and Kalyan, a distance of 13 miles.
1905 — Railway Board came into existance in March 1905.
1925 — First electric train in India ran between Victoria Terminus
(Bombay) and Kurla.
1937 — First air-conditioned coach to run in public service in India
was attached to an Indian train in 1937 between Bombay and Delhi.
1951 — Formal opening of the Chittaranjan Locomotive Works
on 26th Jan. 1951.
19o2 — Railway Staff College at Baroda was opened in Jan._ 1952.
1953 — Indian Railways Centenary Exhibition was opened in New
Delhi and Calcutta on 2nd Oct., 1956.
1956 — First vestibuled Air-conditioned third class express started
between Delhi and Calcutta on 2nd Oct., 1956.
1956 — First All-Indian all-steel integral broad gauge passenger
coach was launched at Perambur (Madras) on 14th August, 1956.
2. ROADS IN INDIA
UTILITY OF ROADS IN INDIA — The importance of roads and
the facilities of transport in a vast country like India can scarcely be
exaggerated. A system of well-kept and well-constructed roads is
essential for country’s economic and cultural progress. The roa^
have also a vital role to play in the defence of India. The effecti-
veness of defence depends on the ability of our armed forces -to con-
centrate at any threatened point within shortest possible time. So
the effectiveness of our defence to a large extent depends on the effi-
ciency of our road system. India’s deficiency in the matter of roads
has contributed very largely to her agricultural, commercial and in-
dustrial backwardness to-day. The most serious defect is the lack of
proper and adequate road communication between villages and
markets. Another aspect of the inadequacy of our road system is
that it is unbalanced. The trunk roads are, for example relatively
more highly developed than the district and village roads. Most of
the rural roads are fair weather roads. With the arrival of the
monsoon, they are turned into mud and pools of dirty water and are
rendered unusable.
India has lagged behind many other countries in the develop-
ment of roads. The total mileage of roads in India is far short of
the country’s requirements. India has 239,137 miles of roads f.c.,
there are 19-6 miles of roads for every 100 square miles. The com-
parable figures for U.S.A., U.K. and Japan are 100, 200, 400 miles
respectively which give an idea as to how far behind we are in this
respect.
SHORT HISTORY OF ROAD PROCESS — The present road sys-
tem IS a superstructure raised on the old Mughal and other roads. Its
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
181
development began about one hundred years ago under the auspkeg
of the Government of India. But Government's entire energy being
directed towards opening of railways, the roads came to be regarded
as of local importance, a fit subject for devolution. The culmination
of the lack of interest was reached in the Government of India Act
of 1919 which transferred the subject to the provinces. The Central
Government ceased to concern itself with road development except
roads of military importance and certain arterial roads in Indian
States, the provinces in their turn placed greater part of road mileage
in the charge of local bodies taking direct responsibility for the
maintenance and construction of only a strictly limited mileage.
But the circumstances changed after the World War I, Motor
transport began to come in the forefront and it became a common
feature on the principal roads throughout the country. The result
was that the road expansion could not keep pace with the increase
of motor traffic and the existing roads began to deteriorate. A
resolution was carried in the Council of State in 1927 for the improve-
ment of road system with the result that a committee of both the
chambers of the Central Legislature was set up under the chairman-
ship of Dr. M. R. Jayakar to investigate and report. The Jayakar
Committee in 1928 reported that onus of road development was pass-
ing beyond the capacity of provincial governments and local bodies,
that it was becoming a matter of national importance, and to that
extent might be a proper charge on central revenues. The Commit-
tee recommended that the Centre should assist co-ordinated develop-
ment by making annual block g:rants to provinces from out of a
Central Road Fund built up by a petrol tax surcharge of two annas
per gallon. The Committee considered that the balances in the Fund
should not be allowed to lapse at the end of each year, as road pro-
gramme was required to be planned and executed over a number of
years and for this purpose continuance of funds should bo
assured. The Jayakar Committee also recommended the setting
up of (i) a separate Road Development Committee in the Central
Government, (ii) a Transport Advisory Committee consisting of the
representatives from Central Government and the Provinces, (tit) a
Central Organisation of Information and Research. A Central Road
Organisation was set up in 1930 and a Transport Advisory Council in
1935. On the recommendation of the Jayakar Committee, also a
Road Conference first met in 1931 to discuss various technical
matters.
ROAD ADMINISTRATION — Road Development is shared by the
Centre and the States, the former being responsible for the National
Highways and certain selected roads of strategic or other importance
and the States for their own state roads and for village roads. A central
Road Fund was created in 1929 from the proceeds of a surcharge on
petrol tax. Out of this fund, block grants were made to the provin-
ces for road-building. In 1947, the Central Government assumed the
responsibility for the construction and maintenance of the “National
highways”. Under the Indian Constitution, national highways have
become Central subjects,' while other roads, namely State highways
182 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and district and village roads, are the responsibility of the State
Governments.
CENTRAL ROAD FUND — ^The creation of Central !^ad Fund in
1929 on the recommendation of Jayakar Committee constitutes a mile-
stone in the history of road transport in India. This fund was built
up out of an additional tax of two annas (now 2i annas) a gallon on
motor spirit. The Road Fund is administered by the Central Govern-
ment with the advice of a standing committee of the Central Legis-
lature. Part of the fund — one sixth — ^was to be reserved for central
administration, research, intelligence and grants for undertakings of
Special or all*lndia importance. The balance of the fund is for allo-
cation to the provinces and States according to the consumption of
petrol in each administrative unit. Block grants to the provinces
from the fund is intended to augment principal allotments for road
development. The Central Road Fund continues to provide an im-
portant source for financing road development and research activities.
It now provides about Rs. 45 crore annually for the development of
roads other than national highways.
Although the fund is still relatively small compared with the
overall expenditure on road development throughout India, the
achievements of the Fund are remarkable. No fewer than 382 new
bridges and causeways have been built over the country since the
Fund was created and some 1,2B0 miles of modern surfaced roads.
1,600 miles of fair-weather roads and 2,200 miles of road recondition-
ing completed upto 1950. A part of the Fund (now one-fifth) has
been reserved for works of special all-India importance, the
balance being allocated to the States for approved works,
NAGPUR PLAN — In December, 1943, a Conference of Chief En-
gineers was convened by the Government of India at the instance of
the Indian Road Congress. This conference is an important land-
mark in the history of Indian roads so far as the road development
in India is concerned. This conference drew np a ten-year plan of
road development which is known as Nagpur Plan, The Nagpur
Plan called for an increase of road mileage from 265,000 to 400,000
and an improvement of the existing roads. The Plan visualised
the growth of a network of road communications at a cost of Rs. 372
crore_ within ten years. The programme however has had to be
drastically reduced owing to a shortage of money, material and
trained personnel.
The Conference classified roads under the following heads —
National Highways, Provincial or State Highways, Major District
Roads, Minor District Roads and Village Roads, National Highways
is to be the frame-work for the country’s road system. The National
Highways will connect capitals of provinces and States, ports and
highways and constitute the main arteries of communication in
tte country. They will include roads of strategic importance.
The Provincial or State Highways will be the main trunk roads of
a province or state. Districts Roads will connect areas of production
and markets with either a highway or a railway. • They will also
form the main links between headquarters of neighbouring districts.
\
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
183
Minor District Roads and Village Roads -will mostly meet the re-
quirements of rural population, they connect villages and group ol
^ages -with one another and with nearest district road or river ghat.
Nagpur plan recommends the assumption hy the Central Govern-
ment of complete financial liability covering both fresh development
and annual maintenance for roads designated as National Highways.
These are to be administered by an impartial Road Board. With
effect from 1st April, 1947 complete financial liability for the
construction and maintenance of every road which is classified as a
National Highway has been undertaken by the Government of India.
Proposed National Highway routes generally follow the existing
trunk roads which are already largely surfaced. The total mileage
of National Highways is about 13,800. These include Grand Trunk
Road from Calcutta to Amritsar via Banaras, Kanpur, Agra and
Delhi ; Agro-Bombay Road ; Bombay-Bangalore-Madras Road ;
Madras-Calcutta Road ; Calcutta-Nagpur-Bombay Road ; Banaras-
Nagpur-Hyderabad-Kumool-Bangalore-Cape Comorin Road ; Delhi-
Ahmedabad-Bombay Road ; road from Ahmedabad to Kandia Port
with a branch road to Porbandar ; Hindustan-Tibet road from
Ambala to Tibet border via Simla ; road from Delhi to Lucknow,
Gorakhpur and Muzaffarpur with a branch road to the Nepal border ;
Assam Access road ; Assam Trunk Road on the south bank of the
Brahmaputra and the road branching off from the Assam Trunk road
towards the Burma border through the State of Manipur.
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS— The Central Government took
steps to promote the creation of a semi-official body known as Indian
Roads Congress in 1934. The membership of the body is open to qua-
lified engineers dealing with roads. The Roads Congress is designed
to provide a forum for the regular pooling of experience and ideas on
all matters affecting the construction and maintenance of roads, to
recommend standard specifications, and to provide a platform for, the
expression of professional opinion on matters relating to road i en-
gineering, including such questions as those of organisation and
administration.
The most important contribution of Indian Roads Congress to
the 'science of road engineering in India, besides the study of roads
from various aspects, is the "standard specifications and Code of
Practice for Road Bridges in India” which has been accorded general
acceptance throughout India.
When the highway engineers got busy to complete the projects
and were ready with their blueprints to start work, a sudden set-
back came in the shape of the partition of India which dislocated all
transport and various organisations concerned with the procurement
of road materials. The financial stringency of the Government of
India compelled the progress to slow down. As a result, in the
period of three years from 1947, not even one hundredth part of' the
Nagpur target of building and improving roads could be completed.
GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS— At the Centre, the Govern-
ment have built up the Central Roads Organisation under the Con-
184
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
suiting Engineer to the Government of India (Eoads). The Eoafe
Organisation activities are not confined to National Highways, it
tackles a host of other problems concerning road development in
general, grants to State Governments, for development of roads other
than National Highways, road research, road statistics, hulk pro-
curement of machinery and overseas training of road engineers.
, RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES AND TRAINTNG
The Central Designs Office of the Road Organisation deals with items,
such as, type designs for route marking for the _ national high-
ways and for furlong and boundary stones, principles to he fol-
lowed in the erection of advertisement boards on road-sides, form of
recording data on bridges, etc.
Central Road Research Institute has been started at Okhla in
Delhi in July 16, 1952 for the research on road engineering_ in its
various aspects and construction and maintenance of all kinds of
roads. Technical advice is also given to State Governments on vari-
ous problems concerning road works.
Facilities for acquiring advanced practical training in modem
methods of highway and bridge engineering are now being provided
tmder various Schemes, such as under Commonwealth Technical Co-
operation Scheme, Point-Four Aid Programme. The Central Roads
Organisation also imparts training to en^eers from State Govern-
ments in modem methods of road and bridge designs.
Road Mileage in Various Countries in Relation to Area and Population
India
U. S. A. (1940)
U. K. (1939)
France (1939)
Mileage of Mileage of Total mileage
motorable roads unmotorable roads of roads
181,406 57,575
. . 1,000,000 2,009,000
160,120 19,170
238J)81
3,009,000
179,290
405,028
Indian Union’s Road Development Plan
Existing
Nagpur plan
Total Road mileage (1943)
239,081
385,226
Motorable road mileage (1943)
181,406
289,855
Total road mileage per million persons
Motorable road mileage per million
749-89
1,208-18
persons
.Total road mileage per 1,000 sq. miles
668-99
909-14
of area
Motorable road mileage per 1,000 sq.
196-45
316-53
miles of area
149-06
238-17
■' ' {From Govt, of India ^pamphlet “Our Roads”)
transpoet and communications
18&
Extra Municipal Roads in India, 1948
Metalled
Bitu- Con- Water- 0
minus crete bound jv
Un-me- Grand-
macadam (Surfaced)
India (excluding
the former In-
dian States)^
Former Indian
States
9,036
1,675
652
111
54,436
24,634
62,124
25,984
10,711
763
79,070
88,108
3.
ROAD TRANSPORT
The Constitution empowers the Central * “Ho
on the principles of motor vehicles te^^tion.-^ut the power to le^
taxes on motor vehicles vests in the States. Motor veh^ India
playing an important part in the road transport of India
and are slowly replacing bullock-cart. It Hnded
known before World War I, but soon after that war ^ded^
public transport services rapidly sprang “P’ . , for con-
Vehicles Act of 1939 was a big step towards ci eating for c^^^^
dition enabling motor transport to India The
Direct taxation of motor vehicles is a state subject suffers
two main disabilities from which the i«st°%transport in Indm suttere
are heavy taxation and the threat of fstionalisation. inree
agencies levy taxes on motor transport, viz, the ^s^Hased on any
and the Local Bodies. Further the taxes are not based ^n^any
common policy but only on the exigencies of • - jufjes
taxes are import duties on cars etc., and customs and excise
on motor spirit. The present duty of Rs. 0-15-9 per anjr
spirit is the heaviest ad valorem duty ,?vp'^Hid and diamonds,
commodity including the most luxurious c*’®® l-j^it and a motor-
The States levy tivo taxes, a sales tax o" “’^fPHocal taxel are
vehicle tax, both varying from state transport in this
octroi, transit fees and wheel tax-. The motor transport m_r
country has been solely developed by ^nd their spare
estimated that the value of vehicles in circulation and tneir sp
parts is about Rs. 300 crores. of-tP ic divided into two
Under Indian Motor Vehicles Act, e^ch State is dmd^ea^^^
or more regions with a Regional . A,,4.i,(,j.jt;y there is in
region. To co-ordinate the work p„„t, state. The Act
addition a Provincial Transport ' f motor vehicles in
has also provided for compulsory insurance
respect of third partie^ Act 1950, statutory
Under the Road Transport basis by the
transport corporations are being onHators. The State-
State Governments, railways and P ort. State operated)
operated services mainly provide passenger t p
services exist in 21 out of 28 States in Indi . ^
186
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Motor, VeMcles (Amendment) Act to amend the Act of 1939 tos
passed in i95G. The Act provides for the implimentation of the motor
transport reorganisation schemes of the State Governments and
several other measures connected -with the planned development of
motor transport in the country. The Act nill facilitate the devdqp-
ment of motor transport generally in the country to meet the additio-
nal demand on transport created by the large-scale development of in-
/dustries. The Act contains the provitions for the nationalisation of
motor transport service. It also sects to remove the defects of the
old Act. The set provides for the establishment of Inter-State Trans-
port Commission which would be appointed by the Central Government
There is also provision for the payment of compensation to private
■operators whose transport undertakings are nationalised before the
•expiry of their permits.
Nationalisation of Transport — About all the major States of
India have accepted nationalisation of bus services as a basic policy
and many have reached a stage where they have nearly taken over
the entire private bus transport in their area with a view to ensur-
ing autonomy and efficient administration. But in consultation with
the Ministry of Transport, the Planning Commission has advised the
State Governments to defer the nationalisation of goods transport
■imtil the end of Second Plan and to nationalise the passenger trans-
port service according to a phased programme.
Central Board of Transport — -was set up in Nov. 1947 to con-
aider major transport problems and policies. It tries to achieve
the maximum co-ordination between all forms of transport and
to ensure that the development of transport conforms to the
n^cultural and industrial plans of the country. The Board has Mi-
nister of Transport as Chairman.
ROPEWAYS — ^Ropeways are used in India in areas of Klly and
broken country where valleys and streams abound and gradients are
steep and where other forms of communication are primitive or non-
■existent. These conditions obtain in the foothills of the Himalayas
and in some parts of South India. In India the use of ropeways is
confined to "the movement of materials and merchandise. The
following are_ the Ropeways operating in India at present — (1)
Darjeeling-Bifatibari mono-cahle ropeway which is five miles long
with one span of 6,000 ft. (2) Zlono-cabJe ropeway at Kalimpong
which climbs 3,400 ft. in its lengft. Both these ropeways are re-
garded as extensions to railway system. (3) Cherra Chatak Rope-
■ways at Cherrapunji in Assam. (4) Armamalai Ropeway in South
India serves tea and coffee on the 5,000 feet high plateau.
Apart from these several purposes, public or semi-public appli-
■cations, ropeways transport is extensively used in the tea planting
districts. It is also found in coal-mining areas, mainly in Bihar and
Hrngal where it provides a particularly economical method of
•transporting waste to spoil' dumps. It is used in the manufacture
■of cement and the working of quarries, mines, sand, gravel and day
pits. Ropeways are used elsewhere in civil engineering for large
'Constructions, such as masonry dams and bridges. There are
•approximately 100 ropeways operating in India today.
TKANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
187
Total Nnmber of Motor Vehicles, 1953
Motor cycles
Private cars
Taxi cabs_
Buses (Diesel)
Buses (Others)
29,124
156,154
13,261
3,524
, 35,925
Goods Vehicles (Diesel) 1,561
Do (Others, .. 88,514
Other Vehicles (Diesel) 402
(Others) 4,754
Grand Total
333,219
i.
Progress under Five-Year Plan during 1st two years
mtional Highways ejection ^19^1-5^
(a) New Hoads , .
(b) Improvement of existing
640
roads
(c) Bridges
. Selected Roads
750
17
140
1,500
20 *
233
3,000
40
not fixed
•during third year
3. INLAND WATER TRANSPORT
From ancient times, the trade and ^
has been facilitated by the on alone the
History records evidence of a imnortance
rivers and canals of India from the -f \hp rail-
of waterways gradually diminished with the withdrawn
ways with the result that steamer service was gradually witnarawn
and country boat traffic also decreased. ic Tnninlv con-
At present inland water transport in India is maiffiy c^on
fined to the States of Assam, West Bengal, I affordin''
Madras, Andhra and Kerala. The total drafts of
perennial navigation to steamers and county g qoq
2 ft. to 6 ft. is estimated to be about 5,7^50 miles. Of tos total W
miles represent navigable rivers and the pst 1200 miles
waters of the Malabar coast. The ™
of the Ganga river system, 920 miles of riveS in
system, 150 miles of the Hooghly nver, and Baitarani
West Bengal, 190 miles of the htahanadi, , co rniles of the
rivers of Orissa, 288 miles of the Godavan nver and 52 mUes^^^n_
Krishna river. Of this total about 1,600 miles of t country
putra river systems are navigable by steamers ot rainy season,
boats only. Except for about ^o months du g putna
when the Bhagirathi is navigable, steamers fr which means
ply through the Sunderbans and^ast „ between Calcutta
a detour of about 450 miles. ^ The steamer ser^w b^een ^
and Dibrugarh also passes thr^gh ^^JSJfta tjadoraters comprise
The 2,750 miles of fp/”f thi Sone Canal, 287,'
107 miles of the Ganga canals, 204 "y^Orissa canals, 9S
miles of West Bengal canals, 170 miles ot unssa
188
HINDUSTAN THAE-BOOK
miles of the Godavari Delta canals, 420 miles of the Erishna Belts,
canals, 73 miles of the Knmool-Cnddapah Canal, 258 miles of the
Buckingham Canal, 33 miles of the Vedaranniyam Canal and ahont
700 miles of vrest coast canals and backwaters. The West Coast
canals consist of estensive streches of backwaters with ariindal
canals joining them.
Steamer trafdc on the Ganga and Brahmapntra is of the order of
625 million ton-miles a year. Conntry-boat traSc on these rivers is
probably twice as much.
The new multipurpose river valley projects include schemes for
navigation channels. D.V.C. for instance, envisages a channel
from Calcutta to Eaniganj coal fields which is under construction;
Karkrapar Project in Bombay will provide navigable channels from
the sea to Kakrapar Dam and 50 miles further inland ; and the Hira-
kud Project will make the Mahanadi navigable for the last 300 mfies
down the sea.
As things stand, the railways and road services are unable to-
cope with the transport requirements of the country. These tran^
port requirements will assume large proportion, with the rapid
industrial development in the second and secceeding Plans. A
beginning has already been made with the constitution of the-
Ganga Brahmaputra TTofcr Transport- Board in 1952 by the Govern-
ment of India. This Board has been charged rrith the responsibility
of impro-ring the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems for navigatioa
and to e3:tend it as far as possible. This Board has programmed to-
run pDot projects on the Ganga and Brahmaputra to try to improve-
types of boats and the latest methods of towing.
The Board is under the control of the Cent^ Iilinistry of Trans-
port. The functions of the Board are the development of water
transport, the improvement of navigable facilities, the handfing
of admiidstrative problems such as those arising out of registration
and licensing, the fixing of passenger and freight rates and the ad-
ministration of a pilot project for to-wing counriy craft -with shallow
draught tugs. Plans are now afoot for starting'a pilot project -with
ui>-to-date craft for to-wing barges on the shallow stretches of upper
Ganga between Patna and Allahabad.
Slaster Plan for the Development of Inland Water Transport —
The Central Water and Power Commission of the Government _ of
India is understood to have dia-wn up a master plan for developing
inland waterways in the conntry in order to pro-ride adeqna^
and cheap transport in a developing economy. The plan en-ri-
sages the Uniting of Calcutta Port on the east with Cochin on the-
west via Cuttack and Madras by a network of canals connecting
some of the minor rivers of Orissa, Andhra and Madras, a continnons
-waterway from Western India to northern and north-east India via-
Central India and a continnons -waterway from the west coast to-
the east coast through the hinterlands of Bombay, Madhya Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh.
Administration of Inland Waterways — In our Constitution,
*national -waterways’ have been included in the Union List, while in-
land na-rigation with respect -to mechamcally-propelled vessris ap-
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
189
years in the Concurrent List. The Central Water and Power
'Commission is the departmental body specifically responsible
:for surveys, planning and development of water transport. In-
land Steam Vessels Act of 1947 as amended in 1951 provides com-
pulsory registration of all inland steam vessels. State Governments
have been asked to consider the feasibility of registration of dumb
■craft including country boats.
Government has set-up a Ganga Brahmaputra Water Transport
Board which will co-ordinate and stimulate the navigational activities
•of the States of U.P., Bihar, West Bengal and Assam situated on
this river system.
IMPORTANT WATERWAY PROJECTS
(i) Revival of navigation of the Ganga river upto Allahabad
-and the Ghagra river upto Bahramghat and development of naviga-
tion in the Yamuna River in Uttar Pradesh.
(ii) Development of navigation on the Gandak river and
•development of Son river after the construction of the Riband Dam
(Bihar).
(iii) The construction of a navigation canal from Durgapur to
Hooghly under Damodar Valley Project, to connect the coal fields
•of West Bengal and Bihar with the Port of Calcutta and resuscita-
tion of the Bhagirathi route affording direct and shorter connection
with Calcutta Port by the construction of barrage on the Ganga
■which is still under consideration of Government of India.
(iv) The Mahanadi Valley Project provides for navigation on
the Mahanadi river in Orissa upto 200 miles from the Sea and con-
necting the hinterland with Paradip, 10 miles up the Mahanadi from
its infall into the sea where it is proposed to construct a port and
model studies in this connection are now in progress in Hydraulic
Research Station, Poona.
(v) The various tributaries of the Brahmaputra offer great
:scope for development of navigation in Assam.
(vi) Possibilities of navigation on the Narmada river in Madhya
Pradesh have to be examined when dealing with the Narmada Valley
'Project.
(vii) The proposed works on the Godavari, the Krishna,^ the
iPranhita and the Wain Ganga will also provide navigation facilities.
4. CIVIL AVIATION IN INDIA
HISTORY OF CIVIL AVIATION— Human flight began in India
'by balloon, when Mr. Joseph Lynn took off fro™ i-nn ’ r t
•Gardens Bombay in 1877 and rose to a height of 7,500 feet.
Ey 1911, however, army officers were making demonstration fights in
-■a “power driven” aeroplane ; and in the same year the world s first
‘“air mail” was flown from Allahabad to Naini Junction — a distance
•of six miles, by a French pilot M. Picqet. Lord Lloyd, then Goi^rnor
•of Bombay, organised the first regular airmail service in 1920, but it
wvas not until 1926 that the pace of development accelerated.
190
HINDUSTAN TEAB-BOOH
The Tilans of Imperial Ainvaj^ for a service between Englana
and India during that year Indian civil aviation a powenri
stimolns. A Department of Civil Aviation was established to regs-
late international and internal services in 1927 ; aerodromes w^
constructed, and flying clubs started encouraging public interest la
t>iig new form of transnort. "With the first scheduled flights betweea
Dondon and Karachi, in 1929 India joined other countries on the new
air maps of the world.
In the following fifteen years, from 1930 to the end of norli
War n in 1945, Infian Civil aviation expanded, until the fmtheri
comers of the sub-continent were linked by air. Foremost in this
growth were Tata Airlines Ltd. and Indian National Airways, follow-
ed by many other private companies almost all of which benefited ia
experience,* equipment and finance by their military service during
the war years. The war also brought about tremendous advances
in other aspects of air transport : hundreds of new aerodromes were
built. Sight aud communications techniques were improved, and the
advantages of flying as a safe, efficient and comfortable form of
transport were firmly established. _
pSum 1945, passenger and freight trame steadily increased over
the air routes of the eleven companies then licensed to operate.
But costs also rose steeply, and while several lines eventually dosed
down, the Government found it necessary to provide very conside-
rable indirect subsidies to the remainder, A committee of enquiry
was appointed in 1950 presided over by the late Idr. ^jadhyaksha to
examine the working of the air lines and make recommendatiDn
regarding putting the Indian civil aviation on a stable basis. The
Committee recommended (1) number of operating units in the
country was much greater than that required for the volume of busi-
ness, (2) cost of most of the companies were excessive. (3) subject to
reorganisation and reduction of costs, operation of air lines by urivate
enterprise^ might be allowed to continue.
The financial position of the companies, however continued to
deteriorate. The companies were not in a position to raise
funds in open market and suggested most of the finance should come
from the Government in the form of loans on a nominal rate
of interest without any early prospects of repayment. Taking all
these into consideration, the Government came to 'the conclusion that
all the units of operation should be owned by the State. The
result was the passing of the Air Corporation Act, 1953 wMch came
into force on the 2Sth May, 1953. It provided for the setting up of
two Corporations one for the operation of long distance and another
for domestic services and services to neighbouring countries. The
two Coiporations took over the existing cmpanies as going con-
cerns with their assets and liabilities in accordance with the provi-
sions of the Act.
The main Provisions of the Air Corporation Act — (l)An Air
Transport Council to be established to tender advice on matters of
public importance. (2) An Advisory Cnmrr.ittcc for each corporation
to be established for the purpose of maintaining liaision with the pub-
lic. (3) There will be Labour Relations Committee for each corpora-
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
191
tion consisting of representatives of the corporation and of employees.
This committee will give advise to the Corporation relating to labour.
(4) Finally each Corporation was to act so far as may be on bnsi-
"'^'^Thl^SJ^co-operations, viz., Indian “^^^unT wif
India International came into formal existence on the 15th June, 195d.
On the 1st August, 1953 Air-India International took over tne
business of the Air-India International Ltd., while
lines Corporation took over as a going concero, the
and business of eight units, namely, I
Aviation Ltd., Kalinga Airlines, Bharat Airways
Air Services of India Ltd., Deccan Airways Ltd., and Indian National
^^The Corporation had appointed Resident
tioned at the appropriate Line offices. The ^ re^on one
had also been divided into two Regions, and in each s^h region o e
Representative had senior charge of all other Lines, | ^ tjgjj
now been replaced by a fully integrated De”
in its entirety is controlled by a strong centre— each Head of a
partment being in charge of the relevant section at the ^ones.
The Indian Airlines Corporation consists of » ^
members appointed by the Government. The ^ IjusJ,
tutory body thoroughly independent to manage its day-to-day busi
ness. The Government, however, has the nrogram-
to it from time to time. It_ further receive them annual program
mes of operations and financial estimates,
poration are audited by the Compteoller » Parliament
are then placed by Government before bo^ Houses of
together with appropriate audit reports, ^^en hv^the
is required by the Corporations, .it has to be P^ovnied
Central Government or by authorised borrowing, imder issue of b ,
debentures, debenture stock or other security. ^ ^ ^ ^
PROGRESS OF CIVIL AVIATION— Progress of ciidl avi^on
in India can be summed up as follows Air Seizes -
introduced on various routes interlinking .eveiy wg and tow of
note and connecting India with many foreign coun ri s. g
mail services connecting the principal cities of India p-tahlish
introduced. Steady progress has been maintained in the establish
ment of Indian air services to dista^ lands. Our air h^s .^P ^
to Aden, Bangkok, Cairo, Djakarta, Dusseldorf,
dahar, London, Nairobi, Paris, Rome, S'agapor^Hongkon^Tokio and
Australia as well as to our neighbourmg countaes
Nepal and Pakistan. Air traffic control ser^ces, navigataonal aids
and to ground and point to point communication haw been provided
at various aerodromes. A network of radio beacons, radio
radio direct-finding stations are now available to all ’^^10
tant aerodromes, the instrument landing ^ystein is also avafiable ta
help aircraft in safe approach and landing pnng had weather
Aeronautical radio facilities have been brought ® jP nero-
the number of such facilities lytodate is BSO.
dromes are controlled and operated by the Civil Aviati p
192
HINDUSTAN yEAE-BOOK
x)i the Governmeiit of India. A Civil Aviation Training Centre has
been established at Allahabad where pilots, aircraft maintenance
engineers, aerodrome officers, control operators, radio officers and
•technicians are trained.
ORGANISATION OF CIVIL AVIATION — ^The civil aviation in
India is placed in the charge of a Director-General assisted by Deputy
Directors General and the functions of the Department are distributed
«mong several directorates, each responsible for several branches
•of ci-^ aviation activity. The Civil Aviation Department is at
present attached to the Ministry of Communications which controls
-the Posts and Telegraphs Department which utilise air transport
Tor the carriage of mails. Indian Air Force is in the Ministry of
Defence but Civil Aviation is not entirely independent of military
aviation. In order to co-ordinate policy with respect to civil and
milita^ aviation and to maintain the necessary liaison, a Standing
■Committee has been constituted comprising officers of the Ministries
•of Defence and Communication who meet as necessary for the sup-
plement of important questions of policy.
The Director General of Civil Aviation is the administrative
^authority for controlling all civil aviation acti'vities in India.
AVIATION TRAINING AND FLYING CLUBS— To meet the
meeds of the country for trained technical personnel the Government
-of India is running the Civil Aviation Training Centre at Allahabad
•which provides courses in flying, aircraft maintenance engi-
meering, air traffic control, aeronautical telecommunications and sir
-navigation. This Training Centre at Allahabad comprises the follow-
ing four wings — (1) Plying Schools (2) Aerodrome officers’ Training
School (3) Engineering School (4) Communication School. In addi-
tion a Repair and Overhaul Organisation is also attached to the
Centre for carrying out repairs and overhaul of the Central aircraft.
Twelve subsidized flying clubs, with headquarters at Delhi, Bangalore,
Bhubaneshwar, Bombay, Jullundur, Luchnow, Madras, Nagrpur, Patna,
Barrackpore, Jaipur and Indore have been subsidized by the Govern-
ment of India. These Clubs trains ‘A’ and ‘B’ licence pilots. Two
gliding clubs, the Indian Gliding Association, Poona and
the Delhi Gliding Club, New Delhi, are also subsidized by the Govern-
ment.
_ AERODROMES IN INDIA — ^The total number of aerodromes
maintained by the Civil Aviation Department at the end of 1955 was
81 — of these three are international air ports — Bombay (Santa Cruz),
•Calcutta (Dnm Diim) and Delhi (Palam). The following aerodromes
have been declared customs aerodromes — Agartala, Ahmedabad,
Patna, Bombay (Santa Cruz), Calcutta (Dum Dum), Delhi (Palam),
Delhi (Safdarganj), Madras (St. Thomas Mount), Tirucbirapalli,
•Jodhpur, Bhuj and Amritsar,
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL— As a member of the International
• Civil Aviation Organisation, India has to meet the standards laid down
by that organisation in respect of aerodrome equipment and air
-teffic control facilities. So _ Air Traffic Control Organisation has
I been established for the maintenance of air traffic control services
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
193
for international aircraft landing and passing through the country as
well as internal air services. The Air TrafiBc Control Organisation
is responsible for the safety and control of aircraft in the air and
on the ^ound. For this purpose the country has been divided into
four regions with area control centres at Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras.
THE FLEET — ^Indian Airlines and Air Indian International have
a large fleet of aircraft consisting Dakotas (twin engined), Skymas-
ters (four-engined). Vikings (twin engined), Super-Constellations,
two Comets, four-engined Viscounts and Herons etc. The number
of aircraft holding currents certificates of registration at the end of
Dec. 1955 was 547, of which 210 held current certificates of air-
worthiness. During 1955, 18 new aircraft were registered.
NIGHT MAIL— Mention must be made of Indian Airlines’ opera-
tion of the unique Night Airmail system. Every night four lAC
aircraft fly between Bombay and Nagpur, Madras and Nagpur, Cal-
cutta and Nagpur, and Delhi and Nagpur. Letters, packets and par-
cels are re-distributed at Nagpur, then flown back to the four main
cities. For no extra charge, the Indian people thus have the fastest
possible long distance postal service to all points in the country. And
to make full use of these aircraft, passengers can “fly with the
mails”, as it were, at specially reduced rates.
INTERNAL AIRLINE ROUTES — Frequent air services are
available — (1) Along the two coasts : From Colombo through Madras-
Visakhapatnam-Bhubaneswar to Calcutta in the east ; and from
Trivandrum through Cochin-Mangalore-Bombay to Jamnagar, Bhuj
etc., on the west. (2) Through the interior : Linking Madras and
Bombay with Bangalore, Hyderabad and Poona ; Bombay and Cal-
cutta with Banaras, Lucknow and Nag^pur. (3) In the far north
from Delhi to Srinagar. (4) In the east between Calcutta and
Imphal and other points in Assam.
Other Indian Airlines routes bring country’s nearest neighbours
within a few hours’ flight, as between Delhi and Karachi via Jaipur
and Jodhpur, Delhi and Lahore, Calcutta and Dacca-Chittagong ;
Patna and Katmandu in Nepal. Yet another “neighbour” service
links Kandahar and Kabul in Afganistan with Eiarachi and Delhi or
Bombay.
EXTERNAL AIRLINE ROUTES — ^In the field of international
air transport Air India International has made vast progress. There
are four weekly services between India and the United Kingdom, twice-
weekly services between Bombay and Nairobi and a service between
Bombay and Singapore via Madras. Regular external services are
being maintained to Cairo, Rome, Paris, Geneva, London, Aden,
Nairobi, Bangkok, Singapore, Ceylon, Burma, Nepal, Pakistan,
Afganistan and Australia.
Progress of Civil Aviation
{For Schedxilcd Services)
miles flown passengers freight mails
(in 000) (in 000) (in 000) (in 000)
1947 9,362 265 , 5,648 1,405
1948 ' ' 12,049 341 11,948 1,583
13
194 HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
1949
15,098
357
22,500
5,032
1950
• 18,896
453
80,007
8,356
1951
19,498
449
87,665
7,182
1952
19,562
434
86,038
8,377
1953
19,202
404
84,820
8,846
1954
19,798
‘•i' 432
86,400
10,674
1955
20,740
452
92,209
11,112
BOARD OF DIRECTORS, INDIAN AIRLINES CORPORATION
Saiikar Prasad, I.C.S., Chairman,
J. R. D. Tata.
M. L. Khaitan.
Michael John.
M. J. Maneckji.
Air Marshal, S. Mukherji.
B. N. Jha, I.C.S.
L. C. Jain I.C.S.
M. V. RangacharL
y. N. Vanna — Secretary.
BOARD OF MEMBERS, AIR INDIA INTERNATIONAL
J. R. D. Tata, Chairman,
Sankar Prasad.
K. C. Mahindra.
Michael John.
B. N. Jha.
M. V. RangacharL
L. C. Jain.
Air Marshal, S. Mukherji.
B. K. Patel, Gen, Manager.
Air India International
2nd half year of 1955 . . 29,149 passengers
1st half year of 1955 , . 21,975 Do
Indian Airlines Corporation
2nd half year of 1955 . . 193,635 passengers
1st half of 1955 . . 231,353 passengers
INDIAN AIRLINES CORPORATION
<A) Madras.
(1) Madras— Trivandrum — Madras, (2) Madras — Hyderabad
—Nagpur — ^Delhi, (3) Madras — Nagpur — Delhi {Night
airmail service).
<(B) Bombay
(1) Bombay — ^Poona — ^Hyderabad — ^Bangalore, (2) Bombay —
Nagpur — Calcutta {Night airmail service), (3) Bombay —
Karachi — Bombay, (4) Bombay — Ahmedabad — Bhuj —
Karachi, (5) Bombay — ^Bhavnagar — Rajkot — Jamnagar —
Bhuj, (6) Bombay — Keshod — Porbandar— Jamnagar, (7)
Bombay — ^Belgaum — ^Mangalore — Cochin. (8) Bombay —
Calcutta — ^Bombay, (9) Bombay — Colombo — Bombay, (10)
Bombay — ^Delhi — Bombay.
<C) Calcutta.
(1) Calcutta — Gauhati — Tezpur — Jorhat — ^Mohanbari, (2) Cal-
cutta — Gauhati — Jorhat — Lilabari — Jorhat — ^Mohanbari
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
195
Passighat, (3) Calcutta — ^Agartala — Gauhati — Silchar, (4)
Calcutta — Agartala — Khowai — ^Kamalpur — Kailashahar—
Silchar — ^Imphal, (5) Calcutta — Bangalore — Calcutta, (6)
Calcutta — Dacca — Calcutta, (7) Calcutta — Chittagang —
Calcutta, (8) Calcutta — Rangoon — Calcutta, (9) Calcutta
— Gauhati — Calcutta, (10) Calcutta — Agartala — Calcutta,
(11) Calcutta — Bagdo^a — Calcutta, (12) Calcutta — Gau-
hati — Mohanhari.
(D) Agartala — Gauhati — ^Agartala.
(E) Kathmandu — ^Patna; Kathmandu — Simra — ^Kathmandu; Ka-
thmandu — Biratnagar — ^Kanthmandu; Kathmandu — Pohh-
ra — ^Bhairawa — ^Pokhra — Kathmandu.
(P) Delhi.
(1) Delhi — Calcutta — ^Delhi, (2) Delhi — ^Lucknow — Gorakhpur
— Banaras — ^Patna — Calcutta, (3) Delhi — Srinagar — Delhi,
(4) Delhi — Lahore — Delhi, (5) Delhi — ^Karachi — Delhi,
(6) Delhi — Amritsar — ^Kabul, (7) Delhi — Agra — Gwalior
— Bhopal — ^Indore — Aurangabad — Bombay, (8) Delhi —
Bikaner — Jodhpur — Ahmedabad — Rajkot, (9) Delhi — ^La-'
hore — Delhi, (10) Delhi — ^Agra — Gwalior — Bhopal — Indore
— ^Aurangabad — Bombay, (11) Delhi — ^Bikaner — Jodhpur
— Ahmedabad — ^Rajkot.
(G) Srinagar — ^Pathankot — Srinagar.
Non-Scheduled Airline Operators
Air Assam, Calcutta. El A1 Israel Airlines Ltd. Bombay.
Air Survey Co. of India, Calcutta. Indamar Co., Bombay, Calcutta.
Associated Airworks, Dum Dum. Jamair, Calcutta.
Darbhanga Aviation, Calcutta. Kalinga Airlines, Calcutta.
Flying Clubs
Aero Club of India, New Delhi.
“Bengal Flying Club Ltd., Bar-
rackpore.
“Bihar Flying Club Ltd., Patna.
^Bombay Fljnng Club, Juhu.
Bombay.
“Delhi Flying Club, Civil Aero-
drome, New Delhi.
“Hind Provincial Flying Club,
Kanpur,
Hind Provincial Flying Club,
Allahabad.
Hind Provincial Fl^^ng Club,
Lucknow.
Hyderabad State Aero Club, Hy-
derabad (Dn.).
M. P. Flying Club, Indore.
Madras Flying Club, Madras.
Northern India Flying Club, Jul-
lundur Cantt.
Orissa Flying Club Ltd., Bhuba-
neswar. ,
Rajasthan Flying Club, Jaipur.
Gliding Clubs
Delhi Gliding Club, Safdarganj, Government Gliding Centre,
New Delhi. Poona.
196
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
foreign services
1 . Air Ceylon Ltd,, Madras. 7. Pan American "World Air-
2. Air France, Calcutta. ways, Bombay, Calcutta, New
3. B. O. A. C., Bombay, Cal- Delhi.
cutta. New Delhi. 8. Qantas Empire Airways Ltd.^
4. Cathay Pacific Airways, Cal- Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
cutta. New Delhi.
5. K-L.M. /Royal Dutch Air- 9. Scandinavian Airlines Sys-
lines, Bombay, Calcutta, Mad- tem, Bombay,^ Calcutta, Mad-
ras, New Delhi. ras. New pelhi.
6. Pakistan International Air- 10. Thai Airways, Calcutta.
lines Corporation, Bombay, 11. Union Aeromaritime De
Calcutta, New Delhi, Transport, Calcutta.
12. Union of Burma Airways,
Calcutta.
SOME IMPORTANT DATES
1911 — ^First Official Air Mail on 18th February, 1911 flown from U.P-
Esihibition grounds, AUahabad to Naini Junction by M-
Picquet, a French aviator.
1911 — First passenger in an aeroplane in India was Sir Sefton-
Branker.
1912 — Jules Tyck and Baron de Carters gave India her first public-
flying demonstration at Calcutta (Christmas Eve).
1918 — First flight from Egypt to India hy Capt. Ross Smith-
1919 — First Eng.-Inffia flight by Sqdm.-Leader McLaren & Lt. Haley-
1920 — First Air-mail service was organised by Govt, of India &■
operated by R.A,F. between EArachi and Bombay.
1927 — Imperial Airways sent first air liner to India, January, 8.
1927 — Civil Aviation Department formed in India.
1928 — First Flying Club in India.
1929 — ^First regular air-mail introduced between England and India
on March 30, 1929.
1930 — ^First India-trained pilot -with ‘B’ License was Bhagat Lai.
1932 — First Indian air-line came into cxistance on Oct. 15, 1932 when-
Tata Air-lines began to operate between Karachi-Bombay-
Madras.
1949 — First class internal mafis by air -without a surcharge was in-
troduced on April, 1949.
1953 — -Indian Airlines nationalised on 1st August.
5. .INDIAN POSTS .AND TELEGRAPHS
EARLY HISTORY — ^The first British postal svstem was intro-
duced in 176G hy Lord Clive but this was used mainly for official pur-
poses, During the administration of Warren Hastings, the posts were
made available to tbe public for the first time and a regular organisa-
tion was set up in 1774 by Lord Dalhousie who created an Imperial
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
197
System of post offices. He reduced the rates for carriages of letters
and introduced postage stamps. Act 17 of 1837 is the earliest enact-
ment establishing a public service in India. The Act 17 of 1854 is a
landmark in the history of postal system in India, for the entire de-
partment was placed under Director General and uniform rates were
fixed for all India. The first issue of postal stamps was made in
India in Sind in 1825. They were of three kinds — (a) design
embossed on white paper without colour (6) blue-embossed on white
paper (c) design embossed on Vermillion wafers. The basis of
authority of the existing postal system in India was Act 6 of 1898.
The honour of laying the first experimental telegraph line from
Calcutta to Diamond Harbour in 1839 goes to Dr, William B.
O’ Shanghnessy, professor of chemist^, Calcutta Medical College.
It was then the longest telegraph line in the world — ^21 miles with a
7,000 feet river crossing.
But it was not 12 years later in October 1851, to he precise, that
the first official telegraph line was opened for traffic between Cal-
cutta and Diamond Harbour. 'The construction of long distance
overhead telegraph line began in Nov. 1853 between Calcutta and
Agra. The first telegraph message was sent over the circuit on
March 24, 1864. Later on, this line was extended to Bombay on one
side and to Peshawar on the other. Telegraph circuits were gradu-
ally extended to all parts of India till they reached 14,900 miles of
wire in March 1867. To-day the total mileage of overhead wires is
over 8,00,000.
THE POSTAL SYSTEM— The Posts & Telegraphs Department
is under the Ministry of Communications, whose control is vested with
the Director-General of Posts and Telegraphs who is assisted by a
Posts and Telegraphs Board under the chairmanship of the Director-
General. The other members of the Board are the Chief Engineer,
the senior Deputy Director-General and the Joint Secretary, Ministry
of Finance (Communications Division). The Chief Engineer is the
technical-adviser to the Director-General on telecommunication
matters, while the Senior Deputy Director-General undertakes a
similar function in regard to postal and R. M. S. matters. The De-
partment is responsible for postal, telegraph, telephone and wireless
communications. In addition, it undertakes the management of
P.O. Savings Bank, National Savings Certificates, Postal Life Insu-
rance and collection of Broadcast Receiver Licence fees.
The Posts and Telegraphs organisation functions as a commer-
cial-cum-utility department, but unlike Railways, its finances have not
been separated from the general revenues of the Central Government.
The worlring expenses as well as the interest on the capital invested
in the service are deducted from the gross receipts. Out of the
surplus, an outright contribution is made to the general revenues
and the rest is maintained to the credit of the Department. The
Department, however, reserves a rebate on such accumulated
surpluses.
Territorial Units — ^The country has been divided into 13 terri-.
torial units, including 12 posts and telegraph circles and a postaL
198
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
•circle for Delhi. In addition, there are four telephone districts in
the vcities- of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Delhi. Besides, there-
are four administrative units on a functional basis dealing with
telecommunication developments, posts and telegraph workshops in.
-Calcutta, Jabalpur and Bombay, telegraph and telephone stores and
postal life insurance respectively.
P. & T. Circles Jurisdiction
I
1. Postmaster-General, West
Bengal
2. Postmaster-General, Bihar
3. Postmaster-General, U. P.
4. Postmaster-General, Punjab
5. Postmaster-General, Bom-
bay
6. Postmaster-General, Madras
7. Postmaster-General, Central
Circle
8. Director of Posts & Tele-
graphs, Eajasthan . .
9. Director of Post & Tele-
graphs, Andhra
10. Director of Posts and Tele-
graphs, Assam
XI. Director of Posts and Tele-
graphs, Orissa
12. Director of Postal Services,
Delhi
, 13. Director of Postal Services,
Hyderabad
• 14. General Manager, Calcutta
Telephone District . .
16. . General Manager, Bombay
■ • . Telephone District
il6. .Dist. Manager, Delhi Tele-
i phone District
.17. District Manager, Madras
..... ' Telephone District
West Bengal, Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, Sikkim.
Bihar.
Uttar Pradesh.
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
PEPSU, Bilaspur, Jammu &
Kashmir, Delhi (Telegraphs
only).
Bombay, Saurashtra and Kutch,
Madras, Mysore, Travancore-
Cochin, Coorg, Hyderabad
(which is a sub-circle under a
Director).
M. ?■., Vindhya Pradesh.
Rajasthan, Madhya Bharat
Bhopal and Ajmer.
Andhra.
Assam, Manipur and Tripura^
Orissa.
Delhi (postal only).
Hyderabad (Sub-Circle).
Calcutta City.
Bombay City.-
Delhi & New Delhi.
Madras City.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
Additional Chief Engineer P. & In-charge . of telecommunications
- T.i Jabalpur .. development (design ■& Re-
• search)
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
199
General Manager, Workshop . . In-charge of P. and T. workshops
Calcutta, Jabalpur & Bombay
Chief Controller of Telegraph In-charge of telegraph & tele-
Stores . . . . phone stores
PROGRESS OF POSTAL SYSTEM — ^The postal system was
inaugurated in India in October 1854. Next to Railways, the Posts
and Telegraphs Department is the largest civil undertaking in India.
The programme of providing every village with a population of 2,000
and above with a post office has been successfully completed in 1953.
From April 1, 1963, a new policy for setting up post offices in rural
areas has been evolved ; it combines the criteria of population in
groups of villages and distances from existing post offices.
Introduction of All-Up Air Mail Scheme in 1949 constituted a
landmark in the history of mail communications in this country.
. All letters, post cards, money. orders and insured letters are carriM
by air, wherever air transport is available and is advantageous with-
out any surcharge. The introduction of night air services connect-
ing the principal cities of India facilitated the introduction of AII-Up
Mail Service resulting in the abolition of the surcharge on mails for
air conveyance. Over 27 p.c. of the entire inland mail receives air
transmission.
Urban Mobile Post Office was first started as an experimental
measure in Nagpur. Later, the scheme was extended to Madras,
Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Kanpur, The mobile post office visits
important centres of the city at specified hours after ordinary post
office have closed for the day.
The following are the notable progresses —
(1) In 1953-54 total number of post offices (permanent and
temporary) in existance was 46,907.
(2) There is today one post office for every single village with
a minimum population of 2,000.
(3) Every village with a minimum population of 600 receives
a visit from the postman at least once a week.
(4) Number of post offices in urban area was 6,179,
RESEARCH AND POSTAL EDUCATION— The P. & T, Train-
ing Centre has been opened at Saharanpur on April 1951 to give in-
tensive practical training to the operative staff and to instil in them
the qualities of discipline, courtsey, punctuality, regularity, cleanli-
ness and a spirit of service to the public. The Telecommunication
Research Centre has been set up in 1956 functioning very shortly.
TELEGRAPH SERVICE — ^The telegraph service in India cele-
brated its centenary in November 1953. The policy of opening tele-
graph offices in every town with a population of over 5,000 and every
sub-divisional headquarters is being implemented. Voice Frequenejf
Telegraph (V.F.T.) systems have been introduced in many places.
Indian telegraph is the oldest government-owned public utility
in the world and it is the second largest employer in India (225,000
workers). At present there are 8,590 telegraph offices all over India
handling annually about 3 crores telegrams inland , and foreign.
Indian telegraph has 400,200 miles of wire and 26,000 miles of cable
-conductor -and 2745)000 miles of channel crossing.
200
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The Hindi Telegraph Service — A twenty-four hour Hindi tele-
graph service has been introduced between the five principal centres
of telegraph service — Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, New Delhi and
Agra under which telegrams in any Indian lan^ages written in Deva-
nagri script are accepted, is now available in 917 telegraph ofiices
throughout the country.
Printogram Service — ^has been introduced from 1st March, 1956
which is designed to provide a direct teleprinter service between the
subscriber and the telegraph office eliminating the intermediary
messenger service. The telegrams meant for delivery to the subs-
cribers are transmitted to them from the instrument room of G.T.O.
and will be received by them on their teleprinters. This system is
now operating in Bombay. •
A new class of telegrams known as flash message has been in-
troduced on April 1947 for the press. These telegrams receive^ a
higher priority. Another class of telegram, known as Human Life
telegram which receives priority in transmission in case of accidents,
serious illness or death of a person.
De Lux telegram has been re-introduced to foreign countries.
TELEPHONES — Only five-years after the invention of telephone
by Bell in 1876, India had a 60-line telephone exchange in Calcutta in
1881. Though India was almost one of the first countries in the
world to have a telephone exchange, Calcutta was the first place
to have it, Calcutta has the largest number of telephones in any
single city in India. India has to day only *7 telephones per thousand
population as against 310 in U.S.A. Even after our second
Five-Year Plan, we will probably have only 1'25 telephones
per thousand of population. Licenses were granted to a private
company known as Oriental Telephone Co., for the establishment of
exchanges at Calcutta, Bombay, Karachi, Madras and Rangoon. All
these lines, however, was taken up by the Government in 1942. The
first automatic telephone was installed in India at Simla with -700
lines in 1913. At the time of partition in 1947 there were only 278
telephone exchanges and 114,922 telephones. The total number of
telephones including non-exchange telephones and telephones on
licensed system in 1955 rose to 265,000 as against 234,177 in 1954.
To facilitate telephone expansion “oivn your telephone scheme” was
introduced in 1949, Under this scheme, a sum of Rs. 2,500 in Bom-
bay and Calcutta and Rs. 2,000 in other places is realised in advance
from the subscriber for a telephone connection for 20 years. The
maintenance charge is Rs, 2 per month. 0^on your Exchange was
introduced in 1960, Under this scheme, the Department undertakes
to open a 60-line exchange if institutions, firms or individuals advance
a loan of Rs. 50,000 at 2J per cent, interest per annum. This loan is
repayable after 20 years. The number of trunk calls was 151 lakhs
in 1954-66 against 44 lakhs in 1948-49.’
In most places message-rate system of charges has been intro-
duced. Under this . system, a subscriber, besides paying a fixed
monthly rental for the -telephone, also pays for every call that he
makes.
Telephone Industries — ^The Indian Telephone Industries Ltd.,
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
201
Bangalore owned jointly by the Government of India, Government of
Mysore and the Automatic Telephone and Electric Company Ltd.,
of England manufacture telephones, automatic telephone lines and
various types of carrier equipments
Wireless — In addition to telegraph and telephone facilities, India
has a wireless communication system, which serves several useful
purposes. Wireless stations maintain contact between fixed points
as a standby to telegraph system in case of the breakdown of the
latter. Stations at coastal places maintain contact with ships at
sea and also aircraft flying over the sea. Such stations are established
at Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and also at some minor ports. Mete-
riological stations exchange weather data with ships and also with
other countries. Monitoring stations have been established at Jabal-
pur, Calcutta, Delhi and Bombay.
OVERSEAS COMMUNICATIONS SERVICE— Since independence
there have been phenomenal increase in the external radio communica-
tion services between India and foreign countries. The first foreign
electrical communication between India and other countries was estab-
lished by an undersea cable connecting Bombay with London. In 1927
first radio telegraph link was opened between Bombay and London.
Radio telecommunication with other countries of the world was routed
to the international network via London. The private Company in
India (Overseas Communication Service) was nationalised in January
1947. Its development was included in first five-year plan, which
has increased the direct channels of radio communications by
300 per cent.
The Overseas Communications Service is a separate department
headed by a Director-General, Overseas Communications Service
under the Ministry of Communications. Hitherto the chief centre
had been at Bombay. The new radio centres for communications
have been opened at Delhi, Calcutta and Madras.
Its functions are provision, operation and development of all
facilities for communications between India and outside world.
Following classes of services are carried out by the Overseas
Communications Service —
(1) Radio-photo service.
(2) Wireless Telegraph service.
(3) Radio-telephone service.
(4) Press newscast service.
(5) Submarine Cable Telegraph service.
(6) Wireless monitoring service at Bangalore, Bombay, Cal-
cutta, Delhi and Jabalpur.
(7) Inland photo-telegrain service inaugurated for the first
time between Bombay and Delhi on Januairy 26, 1955.
India now has direct radio telephone service with the following
countries — ^Aden, Bahrein, Burma, China, East Africa, Egypt, Hong-
Kong, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Malaya, Poland, Saigon, Switzerland,
United Kingdom and U. S. S. R.
Radio telephone services via London are available between India
and 35 foreign countries and also via Berne (Switzerland) to Yogoslo-
via. This service is also available at sea by some ships.
202
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
The orerseas Communication service also operates radio telegraph
service to 13 Countries. Direct radio photo services operate between
India and the U. S. A, XJ. S. S. R., U. K., and China.
Some Postal Statistics — ^The Indian postal system covers 1,60,000
miles of road. Of these, 24 per cent are covered by rail, 17
per cent by motor and five per cent by miscellaneous means, such as
steamers, mail-carts, bullock-carts, horses, mules and camels. The
rest constituting 54 per cent of the total is covered by runners and
small boats.
The number of persons employed in the posts and telegraphs
Department was^ 263,000 in 1955. During 1955-56, the Department
hantUed 2,879 million postal articles _{as against 2,728 million in the
pre'sdous_ year), bopked nearly 33 million telegrams (as against 31
million in the previous year) and put through about 19 million trunk
calls (as against 15 millions in the previous year). The total number
of post offices in India upto 1956 has gone upto 51,539, of which 'the
number opened since Independence is 29,423. The number of total
telegraph offices in India is 4,880. The total number of telephone
exchange in India is 759 on December 1955. The total number of
telephones in India is 265,000.
TOTAL POSTAL REVENUE
{In thousands)
Rs.
1921 .. 5,82,76 1951
1931 ,. 7,36,84 1953-64
1941 . . 9,85,26
Office
Rural Post offices
Urban Post offices
Letter Boxes
POSTAL EXPANSION
1948 1953
19,181 37,434
4,160 5,769
97,408
Rs.
21,03,63
26,64,00
1954
39,728
6,179
1,03,906
POSTAL LANDMARKS
1825 — 1st. Indian postage stamp
issued at Karachi for Sind only.
1830 — First overland post be-
tween England and India estab-
lished when steamer ‘Hugh
Lindsay' made the first voyage
from Bombay to Suez.
1840 — P. & O. obtained charter
for conveyance of mails between
London to Suez en route to India.
1851 — ^First Govt. Telegraph
line opened between Calcutta and
Diamond Harbour.
1854 — 1st. postage stamp on all
India basis issued on 1st October.
1865 — First ' ■ telegraph line
opened between England and
India, 27 Jan. 1865.
1870 — G. P. 0, Calcutta was
opened and occupies the site of
the old fort.
1871 — ^V.P. system was
established.
1877 — ^V. P. System started.
1880 — ^51.0. system introduced-
1885 — Postal Savings Bank
sta^d.
1888 — ^M. O. system started.
1911 — First official Air Mail
flight on 18th February, when
6,500 letters were flown from
.Allahabad to Naini , .Junction.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
20S:
1929 — ^U. K.-India Air Mail
Service started, 4th April, 1929.
1931 — New Delhi inauguration
commemoration stamp issued.
1935 — Silver Jubilee of King
George VI Stamp first issued
showing various modes of trans-
port of mails.
1942 — ^Airgraph Service start-
ed, February, 2, 1942.
1943 — Photo Telegram Service
introduced 3rd June, 1943.
NEW POSTAGE STAMPS
1947 — ^India issues three Jai
Hind stamps commemorating
Indian Independence, depicting
the Asoka capital, National Flag
and an aircraft.
1948 — Commemoration stamp
for the first flight of India’s first
external air service from ' Bom-
bay to London.
1948 — A set of Gandhi memo-
rial stamps in four values on the
1st anniversary of India’s Inde-
pendence (15th August, 1948).
, 1949 — Set of stamps for 75th
anniversary of Universal Postal
Union.
1949 — ^New stamps represent-
ing the illustrations of Ajanta,
Trimurti, Konark Horse, Sanchi
Stupa, Kandaraya Mahadeva
Temple and Bhubaneswar Tem-
ple, Buddha Gaya Temple, Tomb
of Adil Shah of Bijapur, Amrit-
sar Golden Temple, Tower ot
Chittorgraph, Red Fort of Delhi,
Taj Mahal of Agra, Qutab Minar
of Delhi etc. on Independence
Day.
1960 — ^Independence _ stomp
commemorating the coming into
operation India’s new constitu-
tion (26th Jan.).
1961 — One stomp representing
a pair of Stegoden Ganesa, an
extinct species of modem Indian
1946 — Two Pice Post Card re-
introduced from 1st July.
1947 — Govt, of India purchased
Overseas Telecommunications
Service, Jan. 1, 1947.
1949 — ^Telegraph Transmission'
in Hindi in Devnagri script in-
troduced in June 1949.
1954 — Indian Postage Stamp-
Centenary celebration on 1st.
Oct. and International Postal-
cum-Philatelic Exhibition.
SINCE INDEPENDENCE
elephant for the centenary of
Geological Survey of India.
1951 — tissue of two stomps de-
picting a torch against the south-
ern coast line of Asia on the oc-
casion of first Asian games im
New Delhi, March 4, 1951.
1952 — ^A new series of stamps-
bearing the portraits of sainto-
and poets of India.
1953 — Two Everest conquest-
commemoration stamps (2ndi
Oct.).
1953 — One stomp issued to-
commemorate Indian _ Railway
centenary on 16th April.
1953 — ^Two stomps on the cente-
nary of Indian Telegraphs on 1st-
Nov. 1953.
1954 — Set of four stamps com-
memorating centenary of the 1st.
issue of Indian stomp.
1954 — 2-anna stamp commemo-
rating U.N. Day (24th Oct.).
1954 — 2-anna stamp on the-
occasion of 4th World Forestry-
Congress at Dehra Dun (Dec.).
1955— Five-Year Plan series of
postage stamps on 26th Jan.
1956 — ^Two, Buddha Jayantii
stomps, of two annas and four-
teen annas issued on 24th May.
Tilak centenary stamp issued!
23rd July.
INDIAN SHIPPING
POSITION OF INDIAN MERCANTILE MARINE— India has
.-about 3,500 miles of coastline extending international trade with the
East and the West, a vast population to ‘feed’ and good prospects of
industrialisation. She fully realizes the need of a powerful merchant
mavy able to compete in speed, carrying capacity and efficiency^ of
service with the best mercantile marines of other nations. India’s
•shipping industry is insignificant when compared to those of great
maritime powers. Indian shipping now (511,077 g.r.t.) — hardly 0.52
p.c. of world tonnage, is about adequate to carry the entire coastal,
about 40 p.c. of the adjacent and about 5 p.c. — a distressingly small
proportion — of the over-seas trade. Her coastal vessels carry about
2 million passengers a year, while about 200,000 overseas passengem
-travel by Indian ships. The Shipping Policy Committee of 1947 laid
■down the following objectives for Indian shipping with a view to
secure a tonnage of two millions in the near future, thereby securing
for Indian shipping — (1) 100 per cent of the coastal trade of India,'
(2) 75 per cent of Indian’s trade with Burma, Ceylon and other
neighbouring countries, (3) 50 per cent of India’s overseas trade and
(4) 30 per cent of the orient’s trade formerly carried by Japanese,
•German and Italian vessels. Plan envisaged a rise in India’s shipping
tonnage from 390,707 GRT to 600,000 GET by 1956.
The Government of India, by their resolution dated July 12, 1947
fully endorsed the above view of the Committee. They agreed that
-the definition of Indian Shipping should be shipping owned, controlled
and managed by Indian nationals. They also laid down that follow-
ing conditions should qualify any shipping company for treatment as
■"Indian shipping companies”. — (a) The steamers should be registered
at a port or ports India, (b) At least 76 p.c. of the shares of the
-companies should be held by Indians in their own rights, (c) All the
-directors should be Indians, (d) Managing agents, if any, should
he Indians.
Further, steps were taken to reserve the costal trade of India
■for Indian ships only and a system of statutory licensing was intro-
duced under the Control of Shipping Act, 194?, to give effect to the
policy on coastal reservation. Some of the principal steps taken by
•the Government to encourage the development of Indian shipping
•are detailed below : —
(1) Reservation of coastal shipping.
(21 Grant of loans.
(3) Sale of ships built at the Hindustan Shipyard at the United
‘Kingdom parity price. '
(4) Allotment of Government' owned and/or controlled cargo.
(5) Inclusion of clauses in trade agpreements to ensure a pro-
’portion of cargo to Indian ships.
(6) Establishment of shipping, services with the U.S.S.R. and
S^oland.
(7) Sponsoring admission to international Conferences.
(8) Establishment of State shipping Corporations.
INDIAN SHIPPING
205 -
(9) Establishment of a Directorate.
(10) Establishment of a Directorate.
(11) Administration of labour.
(12) Training of _ personnel.
In conformity with the Industrial Policy Resolution, which in-
cludes sea transport among the industries wherein the State will
increasingly establish new undertakings, the first move was in I960-
when the Eastern Shijiping Corporation was sponsored by the
Government with a majority share. On August 15, 1956 the Corpora-
tion became fully state-owned and operated. It owns six vessels
totalling 42,293, GRT and has regular services to Australia, East
Africa, Malaya and Japan. Another State shipping corporation the
TFestcm Shipping Corporation (Private) has been set up in 1956.
It will operate services between India and the ports of Persian Gulf,
the_Red Sea, Poland and the Soviet Union. A demand for adequate
Indian tanker tonnage to move mineral oil and its refined products
along' the coast and to bring crude oil from abroad has developed.
The Government of India have decided that India should have a
nucleus fleet of three tankers, of which one should be purchased In
private sector and the other two in public sector. One in the private
sector has been purchased by an Indian shipping company with the
aid of government loan. For the public sector, two medium-sized
tankers of 6,000 tons GRT each are to be acquired through Eastern
Shipping Corporation.
SHIPPING CONTROL DEPARTMENT— The Shipping concerns
several ministries : Transport, Production, Commerce and Industry,
Defence, Works, Housing and Pow-er. So, Directorate General of
Shipping has been set up in Bombay in 1949, It is the central body of
the Government of India controlling the whole problem of shipping in
the country. Semi-Government shipping corporations, maritime con-
ventions, seamen’s welfare, nautical surveys, licences for deep sea
navigation and light houses are among the several maritime sub-
jects ■which are dealt -u-ith by the organisation. The three principal
ofiicers of the Mercantile Marine Department at Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras ■will function under the jurisdiction of the Director-
General. The function of the Director-General includes the imple-
mentation of the Government’s policies 'with regard to the develop-
ment of India’s merchant na'vy and the co-ordination of the activities
of various ports.
CONSULTHTS COMMITTEE OF SHIPPING INTEREST—
With a view to ensure better understanding and co-operation between
the Government of India, the country’s export trade and the foreign
shipping interests operating in India, the above additional committee
has been founded is 1955 'with 7 members, being 4 from overseas
shipping conferences, 2 from Indian National Steamshipowners’
National Association and one from the export trade sphere.
CONSULTn’E COMMITTEE OF SHIPOWNERS— with a view
to bringing about better liaison between the Government and the
Indian shipping industry, an advisory body called Consultive Commi-
ttee of Shipowners has Ijeen constituted.
206
HINDUSTAN 'XEAR-BOOK
CATEGORIES OF INDIA’S MARITEHE TRADE— India’s mari-
-time trade today may be summarised in the following categories. —
Pure coastal trade, originating and or terminating at ports on
the coast of the Union of India and the non-coastal trade i.e., the
balance of the maritime trade with other countries of the world
-which would be styled as overseas trade. This latter may further
Tie divided into : (1) Indian Ocean Trade ; (2) Atlantic Ocean trade;
(3) Atlantic or Pacific Ocean Trade. The first of these may be fur-
ther divided into Western i.e., comprising South and East Africa,
Red Sea and Persian Gulf, and Eastern including Burma, Ceylon,
Malaya, China, Japan and Australia.
COUNTRY CRAFT — ^The importance of country craft in the eco-
nomics of India’s water transport cannot be ignored. The sailing
vessel, though small in size, carries the bulk of the cargo between
neighbouring ports at a relatively cheap cost and plays a vital part
in serving as a feeder to industry. The Sailing Vessels Committee
appointed in 1948-49 to enquire in the conditions of the industry has
submitted recommendations for the rehabilitation of this industry.
COASTAL AND NEAR TRADES — Our coastal trade has been
reserved to national ships since August 1950. The aggregate quan-
tity of cargo in dead-weight tons earned on the coast came upto
24.49 lakhs in 1951, 26.08 lakhs in 1952, 28.84 lakhs in 1953 and 28.49
fiakhs in 1954. While all coastal cargo is now carried by Indian
rships, the Government also negotiated with foreign shipping interests
.-and ensured for Indian Shipping a fair share of the Near Trades,
i.e. -the trades with Burma, Ceylon and Pakistan. The position in
this respect is now as follows — (1_) The Coastal Trade : governed
by the Indian Coastal Conference with 14 member liners, aU Indians,
(2) The ludia-Burma Trade : governed by the India-Burma Confer-
ence with five member liners, 3 being Indian and 2 being British.
Trade is shared half and half between Indian and the British lines.
The trade with Ceylon and Pakistan is governed by two conferences :
India-Ceylon Conference and India-Pakistan-Burma-Ceylon Confer-
• ence, this latter being more concerned with inter Burma-Ceylon-
Pakistan trade. These Conferences also have each a membership of
5 liners, of which 2 are British 3 are Indian.
MERCHANT SHIPPING — ^Among the steps taken towards
building up the country’s merchant shipping the most important is
the reservation of coastal trade for Indian vessels. In the coastal
"trade, the share of Indian shipping which was about 53 per cent in
1948 witnessed the phenomenal spurt in the succeeding years and
reached 100 per cent by 1955. Side by side with the direct investment
• of government capital, a significant step taken by government is
the formulation of the policy of State aid by way of loans to units of
private sectors.
No picture of the country’s merchant fleet is complete without
-the inclusion of about 1,800 sailing vessels operated from Indian
Torts. With a total cargo-carrying capacity of 150,000 tons, they
:play an important role in the sea communication of India.
OVERSEAS SHIPPING— It is estimated that Indian Liner Com-
INDIAN SHIPPING
207
panies 'between tbemselves do not carry more than 5 per cent of the
■overseas trade. The total tonnage employed by Indian Companies
in the foreign trade is presumably about 265000 gross registered
tons. The four Indian Companies are now operating in foreign
-trades and their total gross tonnages are — (1) Scindias — 197,288
■GRT, (2) India Steamship 73,293 GRT, (3) Bharat Lines 64,489 GRT.
(4) Great Eastern Shipping 38,167 GRT. (5) Western Shipping
■Corporation Private Ltd., has be^n operation from October 1, 1956
.and it functions along the India — ^Persian Gulf, India — Red sea,
India — Poland and India — Russia routes. A part of these tonnages
however is employed exclusively on the coast, the overseas tonnage
employed being 265,000 GRT. Though the Government has
■endorsed the policy of Indian shipping carrying at least
50 per cent of India’s trade in international waters, there are
number of hurdles which Indian shipping will have to cross for
•carrying 60 per cent of Indian overseas trade. The hurdles are —
(1) a large number of Liner Conferences dominate these trades.
Entry into such Conferences is not an easy matter. Indian Lines
“have not yet been admitted to membership of a number of Conferences
in the way-trades on the main route between India and 'U.K. and India
.and the Continent such as Colombo-U.K., U.K.-Colombo, Colombo-Con-
-tinent, U.K.-Aden and U.K.-Port Said Conferences. (2) Indian Shipping
Companies will have to expand their tonnage on different lines where
•they do not go at present. (3) Passenger services should be opened
■with modem amenities. The Government of India has been
helping Indian shipping companies to become full members of the
Shipping Conferences controlling the India-U.K.-Continent, India-
North America, India- Australia and India-Malaya trades. In
•order to facilitate the entry of Indian shipping into all impor-
■tant overseas trades and to assist in solving the difficulty experienced
by Indian shipping companies by raising the necessary capital, the
Government announced their scheme for the setting up of Shipping
•Corporation on a state-cum-private ownership basis. The Eastern
Shipping Corporation was registered in March 1950 with an initial
■capital of Rs. 20 million, 61 per cent of its shares are owned
by the Government. This corporation now operates six ships in all
•with 42,202 gross tons. This corporation is plying on the India-Aus-
•tralia, India-East Africa and India-Malaya services. Bharat Lines
has been regularly running India-Persian Gulf route. 'While the India
Steamship and Scindias have concentrated on the U.K.-Continent
trade. Necessary assistance was also given to Indian shipping com-
panies for acquisition of additional tonnage by furnishing information
regarding availabilities and arranging liberal release of foreign ex-
•change. Government is also using its good offices to ensure that
Indian companies operating in the overseas trades get their fair share
of cargoes.
Indian Shipping Tonnage — ^The tonnage of Indian shipp-
ing (Company-^wise) employed in the overseas liner service trades
in 1955 is as follows — (1) Seindia Steam Navigation Co Ltd., Bom-
bay — 12 Ships and 83,160 tons, (2) India Steamship Co. Ltd., Calcutta
— 10 Ships and 72,248 tons, (3) Eastern Shipping Corporation Ltd.,
208
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
Bombay — 6 Ships and 42,293 tons, (4) Bharat Line Ltd., Bombay —
3 Ships and 9,861 tons. (5) Western Shipping Corporation, Total —
31 Ships and 2,08,562 tons. Great Eastern Shipping does not operate
in foreign liner service, though they do foreign tramp shipping and
their tonnage is not included in this.
INDIA AND THE CONFERENCE LINES — ^When after Indian
independence, India entered into overseas trade, few people knew the
struggle which Indian companies had to encounter in order to get their
legitimate share in India’s trade. A layman would perhaps feel that
a shipping company is at liberty to ply its ships ^wherever it
chooses. But in practice, it is not so. There are Shipping Con-
ferences for different trades to which Indian shipping companies
must be full members before they can participate in the foreign
trade. These Conferences are exclusive foreign bodies which would
not allow an outsider to come in and have the due share in the trade.
But after prolonged struggle the Indian companies have been ad-
mitted into Conferences whereby they are enabled to opera.te on the
trade freely with due regard to rules, regiilations, restrictions, etc.
These Conference Lines cover trade between (1) India and U.K.,
(2) India and U.S.A. and North Atlantic Ports, (3) India and Austra-
lia, (4) India and the Continent. The oldest and the most established
of these Conferences is the India-tl.K. Conference.
Besides these four principal overseas conferences, there are
shipping conferences for trades between India and Far East and
Japan, India and South America, India and Persian Gulf and India
and African Coasts. An institution which is not a full-fledged con-
ference is called Rate Agreement. Rate Agreement exists for the
trade between Calcutta and Port Said, Eastern Mediterranean and
North African Ports whereby parties to the Agreement agree to
quote same rates and follow imiform shipping practices.
Indian Coastal Conference — came into existence in the begin-
ning of 1951 which now consists of 14 Indian companies full members.
New Conferences — In 1951, the following four Conferences have
also come into emstence with a view to covering the trades with
Burma, Ceylon and Pakistan — (a) Pakistan-India-Burma-Ceylon
Conference, (6) India-Burma Conference, (c) Burma-India Confer-
ence, (d) Burma-Ceylon Conference.
TRAINING FACILITIES — To train up Indian boys as executive
officers and marine engineers for the Indian merchant navy of India,
the_ second line of defence in the navy, facilities are provided by the
training ship Dufferin in the Bombay Harbour and at the Directorate
of Marine Engineering Training respectively. Post-sea training is given
at the Nautical and Engineering College, Bombay and also at the
Marine Engineering College at Calcutta. Two training ships, Bhadra
at Calcutta and Mekhala at Visakhapatnam train about 1,000 ratings
annually. Bhadra takes candidates for training from Bengal and
adjoining areas while Mekhala trains recruits from other areas like
Madras, Bombay and Visakhapatnam. At Navlakshi in Saurashtra,
a third training establishment for ratings has been set up
to train . 600 boys annually. There has been recently established
INDIAN SHIPPING
209
a Dockyard Apprentice School inside the Dockyard at Bombay
for Marine Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Naval Architecture
Training, etc. For the training of Indian boys to marine jobs. West
Bengal Government have opened in 1949 a training school under Cal-
cutta Port Commissioners. From the middle of 1950, Government
of India have taken over Lady Fraser and Andrews from Calcutta
Port Commissioners, to convert them as training vessels.
The Radar Trainning Centre, the first of its kind in India, was
opened under the auspices of the Nautical and Engineering College
in October 1953.
CREW EMPLOYMENT — ^To regularise employment of Indian
crews on board vessels at Indian ports, the Government have set up
in 1955 Steamers Employment Boards, one in Calcutta and one in
Bombay. The principal objectives of these two Boards are — (1) to
ensure or square deal between the Indian crew and their employers,
(2) to see that more and more the trained Indian crews are
absorbed into services by shipping companies and (3) to regularise
procedure of employment of crew and to create a long line of really
efficient, medically fit, first class Indian crews.
SHIP BUILDING — The idea of reviving ship building and estab-
lishing a modem ship building yard in India was first mooted
out by the Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd., in 1919.
During the World War H Scindias pioneered the project for estab-
lishing a ship building yard in India. In June 1941 the foundation
of the shipyard was laid at Visakhapatnam. The keel of the first
ocean-going vessel of 8,000 ton d.w. was laid in June 1946 and
it was launched in March 1948. In accordance with the policy of
establishing nation-building industries and projects in the public
sector and because of the un-economic nature of ship-building in-
dustry for private enterprise to develop that the Government of India
took over in March 1952 the shipyard at Visakhapatnam. The ship-
yard is now owned and operated by a Government-sponsored com-
pany, the Hindustan Shipyard Private Limited in which about 75 p.c.
of the capital is held by the Government of India and the reminder
by the Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd. The shipyard
occupies a total area of about 72 acres. It is equipped with four
large-sized shipways, on which ships of 250 ft. in length and
16,000 tons d.w. can be built. As an adjunct to the shipyard, a pro-
ject for the construction of a dry dock has also been sanctioned by
the Government at an estimated cost of Rs. 2.16 crores. This is ex-
pected to be completed in 1959.
So far (1956), the shipyard has built 15 ships, 12 of which are
steamhips of 8,000 d.w. tons each, the remaining three being diesel
ships of 7,000 tons d.w. of modern design. The Indian shipping
companies have now some 36 vessels under construction in Indian and
Foreign yards, the tonnage of which aggregate some 200,000 GRT.
Tanker Fleet — A beginning has been made in the formation of a
nucleus of a tanker fleet on the Indian Register by the purchase of a
second hand tanker Bianca (8,208 gross tons) by the Great Eastern
Shipping Co. Ltd., Bombay. It is also proposed to acquire 2 or 3
more tankers by the Government during the Second Plan period.
14
210
HINDUSTAN TEAB-BOOK
TONNAGE OF VESSELS ENTERED & CLEARED
{Monthly averages — In thousands of tons)
Foreign Trade Coasting Trade
Tonnage
Tonnage
Tonnage
Tonnage
entered
cleared
entered
cleared
Ind &
Ind &
Ind &
Ind &
Foreign
Foreign
Foreign
Foreign
1950
.. 670
607
638
652
1951
.. 777
647
796
764
1952
. . 775
743
837
825
1953
.. 750
885
898
871
1954
.. 754
800
898
880
1955
.. 806
703
831
9S2
(Monthly Abstract
of Statistics,
Sept. 1956).
INDIAN CARGOES
(Monthly averages — 000 of tons)
Foreign Trade
Coasting Trade
Tonnage Tonnage
Tonnage
Tonnage
entered cleared
entered
cleared
1949
.. 21
30
150
150
1950
.. 38
50
245
247
1951
54
66
362
371
1952
.. 56
76
397
418
1953
. . 50
87
440
452
1954
. . 55
79
438
439
1956
.. 66
76
417
444
(Monthly Abstract of Statistics, Sept. 1956).
Number and Tonnage of Indian-owned vessels in the overseas and
coastal trades on 30th June, 1956
Overseas
No. of Vessels
GJt.T.
India-U.K. / Continent
.. 27
187,916
India /Persian Gulf
.. 3
9,861
Bombay /East Africa
.. 1
8,521
India/Japan/Far East
.. 2
10,759
India/ Australia
.. 2
14,433
India / Malaya/ Singapore
.. 1
8,580
Tramp Trade
.. 2
14,463
SS
254,463
Coastal
38
254,463
Cargo
.. 59
207,722
Cargo -cum-passenger
.. 4
10,587
Passenger
.. 6
4,754
Tanker
.. 1
8,208
Short Coastal Range
.. 18
7,196
Total
238,467
.. 126
492,930
(Indian Shipping,
July, 1956).
BANKS IN INDIA
INDIAN BANKING SYSTEM — India’s banking system is one
of the most highly developed aspects of Indian economy. Banking
is operated along both indigenous and western lines. Scheduled
banks which represent the western type of banking, tend to be
concentrated in the five States of Bombay, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh, Madras and Delhi where major commercial and industrial
centres are located. Branch banking and unit banking have deve-
loped side by side. Unit banks are typically small and together
control only a small part of India’s total banking business.
Indian banking system has now emerged from a period of con-
solidation to a period of expansion. The Imperial Bank of India
has now been nationalised as the State Bank of India in order to
fill the vacuum in the supply of institutional credit to agriculture and
rural industries. New institutions have been planned to supplement
the existing agencies of credit, such as, the setting up of the Indus-
trial Credit and Investment Corporation of India with the assistance
of the World Bank and with the participation of private capital from
U.K. and the U.S.A. ; under the auspices of the Government of India
a National Industrial Development Corporation has also been esta-
blished to finance new industries, there are also now regional indus-
trial finance corporations in 12 States.
With the Reserve Bank at the apex, the Indian banking system
comprises State Bank of India, Indian Scheduled Banks, Exchange
Banks, non-scheduled banks. Reserve Bank’s control has been
steadily strengthened in the last five years over these institutions
with a view to establishing sound banking practices.
The modem banking system in India began with the British
Agency houses established at Bombay and Calcutta in the 18th
century. Second step was the establishment of three presidency
banks at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in the 19th century. These
presidency banks were amalgamated into the Imperial Bank of India
in 1921 by a special Act which has now been converted into the State
Bank of India. The next stage was the starting of the Reserve
Bank of India in April, 1935.
There was no comprehensive legislation regarding joint-stock
banks in India until the passage of the Banking Companies Act which
came into force on the 16th March, 1949, and now extends to the
whole of India. It does not however apply to co-operative banks.
The Banking Companies Act of 1949 centralises all supervision
as well as control over the banks in the hands of the Reserve Bank
of India. The main duties imposed upon the Reserve Bank in this
respect may be classified as follows : (a) Supervision and inspection
of banks, (b) the licensing of banks and control over opening of
branches, (c) the examination and sanction of schemes of arrange-
ment and amalgamations, (d) the liquidation of banking companies,
(e) the receipt and scrutiny of prescribed returns and_ (/) advising
banks generally and helping them in times of emergencies.
212
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Under the Indian Banking Companies Act of 1949, the business
which a hanking company may transact has been defined and the
minimum paid-up capital and reserves, varying with the geographical
coverage of a banking company, have been prescribed. The minimum
paid-up capital and reserves required of a banking company having
only one office, situated outside the city of Bombay or Calcutta, have
been fixed at Rs. 50,000. A banking company is required to use as
part of its name the word ‘bank,’ ‘banker’ or ‘banking’ and a non-
hanking company is prohibited from using any of these words in its
name.
CLASSES OF BANKS IN INDIA— The banks in India are
generally classified under the following heads — (1) Reserve Bank of
India, (2) Indian banks comprising, (a) State Bank of India and other
Indian Scheduled banks, (b) Indian nqn-scheduled banks i.e. Indian
joint stock banks (including State-owned and State-controlled
banlcs) other than those included in the Second Schedule to the
Reserve Bank of India Act and (c) Indian co-operative banks regis-
tered under the laws of the States where they are situated and
(3) Forei^ banks comprising scheduled and non-scheduled banks
whose registered ofiices are located outside the Indian Union.
Scheduled Banks — ^Banks which carry on the business of
banking in any state to which the Reserve Bank of India Act
extends and which (a) have paid up capital and reserves of an
aggregate, real or exchangeable, value of not less than Rs. 5 lakhs
and (b) are companies as defined in the Indian Companies Act, or cor-
porations or companies incorporated by or under any law in force in
any place outside India, and (c) satisfy the Reserve Bank that their
affairs are not being conducted in a manner detrimental to the interest
of their depositors, are eligible for inclusion in the Second Schedule
to the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 and when so included are
known as Scheduled Bmiks, The Scheduled Banks are frurther classi-
fied into _ (a) Indian scheduled banks (class A 1) i.e. banks having
their registered offices in the Indian union and (b) foreign scheduled
banks Le. banks having their registered offices outside the Indian
Union.
Non-Scheduled Banks — The non-scheduled banks have been
classified into four classes : A 2 Banks or banks which have paid-
up capital and reserves of Rs. 5 lakhs and above each, but which
have not been included in the Second Schedule to the Reserve Bank
of India Act ; B Banks or banks having paid up capital and reserves
between Rs. 1 lakh and Rs. 5 lakhs each ; C banks or banks each
having paid-up capital and reserves between Rs. 50,000 and Rs. 1
lakh ; and D Banks or banks each having paid-up capital and reserves
of less than 50,000.
Co-operative Banks — comprise State and Central Co-operative
Banks and _ registered non-agricultural (urban) Co-operative
Credit Societies with limited liability, each having minimum paid-up
capital and reserves of Rs. 1 lakh. They are sub-divided into two
passes, namely, ‘A -banks or banks With capital and re'^ervc of
Rs. 6 lakhs and above each and ‘B’ bank or banks with capital and
reserves ranging between Rs. 1 lakh and Rs. 5 lakhs each.
BANKS IN INDIA
213
FINANCE, INVESTMENT, CREDIT CORPORATIONS— Besides
the above class of banks, Industrial Finance Corporation, State
Finance Corporation and Industrial Credit and Investment Corpora-
tion and Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation have come
into existence for the development of industries through banks. The
details of these class of banks are gpven below —
(1) Indtistrial Finance Corporation — ^In March 1948 the Govern-
ment provided for an Industrial Finance Corporation for the
purpose of aiding private enterprise through long and medium
term credit to qualified establishments. The I.F.C. as established
under Industrial Finance Act is a body corporate which can sue and
be sued and is to operate on business principles. Its total authorised
capital is Rs. 100,000,000 divided into 20,000 shares, although only
10,000 were issued in the first instance. Shares are guaranteed by
the Central Government as to principal and as to a minimum divi-
dend currently set at 2i p.c. In no event may dividends exceed
5 p.c. The I.F.C. funds for aiding private enterprises comes from
its share capital and reserves. It may also obtain further funds
by issuing bonds and debentures upto five times the paid value of its
share capital and reserves and by accepting deposits from the public
for period of not less than five years upto a total of Rs. 100,000,000,
To obtain foreign currency, the I.F.C. may borrow from the Inter-
national Bank of Reconstruction and Development. I.F.C. may only
assist public limited companies or co-operatives which are incorpora-
ted and registered in India and which are engaged in the manufac-
ture or processing of goods, in mining, or in the generation and dis-
tribution of power.
(2) State Finance Corporations — ^In 1951 the State Financial
Corporation Act authorised State Governments to establish finan-
cial corporations which are to be operated as the Central
Government operates the Industrial Finance Corporation. Although
the Central Government will have no direct control, both the Reserve
Bank and the Industrial Finance Corporation will provide part of the
capital and appoint some of the directors of the State Corporations.
Unlike the Industrial Finance Corporation, the State Corporations
permit the public to subscribe upto 25 p.c. of the total shares.
The purpose of the State Corporation is to supplement the acti-
vities of the Industrial Finance Corporation by providing to small
establishments services similar to those extended by the latter to
large enterprises. The total number of State Finance Corporations
so far established is thirteen.
(3) Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation — The object
of the Corporation is to assist industrial enterprise within the
private sector. The Corporation was registered as a private limited
company on Jan. 5, 1955. The authorised capital is Rs. 25 crores
consisting of five crores in ordinary shares of Rs. 100 each and
Rs. 20 crores in unclassified shares of Rs. 100 each. Of the Rs. -5
crores, Rs. 2 crores are to be taken by Indian Banks, insurance com-
panies and directors and their friends and associates. The Ameri-
can investors are taking up Rs. 50 lakhs, U.K. subscribes are expec-
ted to take Rs. one crore and Rs. one and half crores are offered for
214
HINDUSTA2J TEAE-BOOK
public subscription in India. The Government of India is to advance
to the Corporation Es. 7* crores, free of interest repayable ^in 15
equal annual instalments World Bank is to lend 10 million dollars
in foreign currencies.
(1) RESERVE BAlvK OF INDL4
The Reserve Bank of India vras established on Aprfl 1. 1935 in
accordance vrith the provisions of the Reserve Bank of India_ Act,
1934. The central banking functions including the right of issue,
formerly exercised by the Imperial Bank of India, were transferred
to the Reserve Bank. The Reserve Bank was owDed_ by private
sharebolders with the exception of a small fraction of the shares
held by the Central Government. On September 3, 194S, the Reserve
Bank was nationalised by the Reserve Bank (Transfer to Public
ownership) Act, the shares of private shareholders bring purchased
by the Central Government. The Central Board of Directors under
this Act is composed of 11 directors, one a Government official, four
representing the local boards, and six representing other interests.
Four lessor boards were established to represent regional and local
interest. All of the members of both the local and central boards
are appointed by the Central Government.
P^unctions of the Reserve Bank — The role of the Reserve Bank
in the Indian economy may be divided into following functions —
(11 issue of currency, (2) banker’s bank, (S) fiscal agent of the
Central and State Governments, (4) iniscellaneons_ matters.
Issue of Currency — The Eeserve Bank’s special Issne Depart-
ment carries out its function as the sole bank of issne in India. The
Issne Department is required to maintain at least 40 per cent of
its assets in gold and sterling although exceptions can be made for
a limited period provided tax is paid on the deficiency. The remain-
der of its assets are rupee coin and rupee securities.
A Bankcr^s Bank — The Preserve Bank assists and co-ordinates the
activities of the various local banks throughout the country. It also
supervises and regulates their practices and policies. Its authority
in these respects was greatly expanded in the Banking .Act of 1949.
Dnder the Banlang Act of 1949,* (1) the Eeserve Bank is accorded
broad powers to regulate incorporated haulm operating in In^
including non-scbeduled banks but excluding co-operative banks, in-
digenous banks, money lenders etc. (2) The primary responsfoility
for the enforcement of Banking (Companies .Act is that of the Reserve
Bank. The Act establishes the general framework within which
banks must operate. The Reserve Bank is given the general autho-
rity to make rules to carry out the purposes of the .Act. In addition
to the controls over banks and banking operations, the Reserve Bank
exercises control over bank lending policies and supply conditions
of credit.
Fiscal Agent of Government — The functions of the Bank as a
fiscal agent of the Central and State Governments include manage-
ment of their receipts, expenditures and public debts. The Bank is
also authorised to make 90-day advances to these Governments and
BANKS IN INDIA
215
to advise and • assist them in floating of new loans and in their
financial matters.
Miscellaneous functions — ^The Reserve Bank of India has a
number of other functions including the administration of exchange
control, _ participation in the ownership and management of the
Industrial Finance Corporation, special responsibilities with regard
to rural credit, the supply of various forms of currency, the exten-
sion of remittance facilities, the management of clearing houses
and the publication of banking statistics.
Reserve Bank Developments — The Reserve Bank of India
(Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act was enacted on
13ec. 30, 1953. The Act seeks to enlarge the scope of financial occo-
modation by the Reserve Bank for productive purposes and also to
enable the Reserve Bank to reintroduce high denominational notes.
Accordingly the Reserve Bank of India commenced issuing new
notes of the denomination of Rs. 1,000, Rs. 6,000 and Rs. 10,000 from
April 1, 1964.
Keeping in view the requirements of monetery and credit poli-
cies in the context of the Second Five-Year Plan, the Reserve Bank
Act has been amended vesting the Bank with power to vary
reserve requirements of scheduled banks. The amendment has set
up a system of flexible reserve ratios, giving the Bank the power to
vary the cash reserves which scheduled banks have to maintain with
the Reserve Bank between 5 and 20 per cent in th case of demand
liabilities and between 2 and 8 per cent in the case of time liabilities
as against the present ratios which remain fixed at 5 per cent and 2
per cent respectively, under Section 42 of the Reserve Bank' of
India Act.
The currency reserve provision (Sections 33 and 37) have also
been amended. It provides for a minimum holding of Rs. 400 crores
in foreign securities and of Rs. 115 crores in gold in the Issue
Department of the Bank; the existing requirement is that not less
than 40 per cent of the assets of the Issue Department must
consist of gold coin, gold bullion or foreign securities provided that
the amount of gold coin and gold bullion is not at any time
less than 40 crores in value, gold being valued for this purpose
at the rate of Rs. 21-3-10 per tola. The amendment also pro'vides
for revaluing the gold holdings of the Bank at the rate agreed to by
the International Monetary Fund, namely, Rs. 62-8 per tola (i.e.,
equivalent of Rs. 35 an announce).
Bill Market Scheme — was introduced in January 1952, under
which advances were introduced to Scheduled Banks on the security
of usance promissory notes of their constituents. This ensured the
grant of credit against bonafide transactions and at the same time
imparted flexibility to the monetory policy of the Bank. The Bill
Market Scheme was originally available to scheduled banks with
deposits of Ife. 100 million ; it was later extended to banks with
deposits of over Rs. 50 million in June 1963 and in July 1954 ; it was
extended to all scheduled banks in possession of a_ licence from the
Reserve Bank, irrespective of their total deposits. Though the
scheme is based on ad hoc bills it has obviated the need to purchase
216
HINDUSTAN 1ZAR-B00K
securities, "wHle providing at the same time a substitute instrument
for credit expansion. The minimum limit of advances under the
Bill Market Scheme is novr a million rupees ; the minimum for an
individual bill is Rs. 50,000.
Agricultural Credit Department — The Reserve Bank of India
from its very inception, has had an Agricultural Credit Department.
It is the statutory obligation of the Bank to render all possible help
to agricultural credit. The Reserve Bank provides accommoda-
tion to the co-operative movement through the apes co-ope-
rative banks at a concessional rate of li per cent for financing
seasonal agricultural operations. The benefit of these advances
■were derived by two States — Madras and Bombay— ^'which have an
organised co-operative movement. But the most important step
taken by the l^serve Bank "was the appointment of an expert com-
mittee in August 1951 to organise a Rural Credit Survey.
In pursuance of the recommendations of the All India Rural
Credit Survey Committee, two funds, viz^ the National Agricultural
Credit (long term operations) Fund -with an initial smn of Rs. 10
crores and the National Agricultural Credit (stabilization) Fund to
which the Bank’s annual contribution shall not be less than Rs. 1
crore were started. While the long-term Operation Fund would make
loans and advances to State Govemmente for subscribing to the
share capital of Co-operative Credit Institutions and to the central
land mortgage banks, the Stabilization Fund would make medium
term bonus and advances to State Co-operative Banks to enable them
to convert short-term credit into medium term credit wherever
necessary.
LIABILmES AND ASSETS OF RESERVE BANK OF INDIA
(i) Issue Department
(in Lakhs of Rupees)
Notes held Notes in Total liabi- Gold coin
SOth
J^ine.
in Banking circulation
Dept.
litics (total
nates issued)
or Assets
ajid bulli-
on held in
India
Foreign
Securities
1950
36,61
1,168,53
1,205,14
40,02
638,15
1951
34,84
1,257,48
1,292,32
40.02
678.15
1952
34,40
1,129,48
1,163,88
40.02
583.15
1953
38,47
1,136,32
1,174,78
40,02
603.15
19,54
41,08
1,172.03
1.213.12
40.02
653.15
1955
31,78
1,309,76
1.341.55
40.02
652,05
Total Gold coin
& bullion &
Rupee
coin
SOth June
foreign
securities
1950
678,17
55,30
1951
718,17
57,52
1952
623,17
76,08
Govt, of India
Ritpce SCC7I-
rities
471,67
516.63
454.63
P.C. of gold
coin & bul-
lion &
foreign
securities
to total
liabilities
56-27
55-57
53-54
BANKS IN INDIA
217
1953
643,17
91,76
439,86
64-76
1954
693,17
98,73
421,22
57-14
1955
692,06
105,84
543,65
51.59
(ii) Banking Department
(In Lakhs of Rupees
K
’ic-
tz
©5 K
_ C.
£w: C
«-
-= at;
c5 S
o
.2 =
ec
c
jS
sc
c
c e
a.O'-;s
e
ic c
o
1950
10,00
271,89
3,81
12,14
297,83
36,74
1951
10,00
310,00
2,37
9,82
332,19
34,98
1952
10,00
241,54
3,31
8,01
262,87
34,56
1953
10,00
247,02
1,96
14,68
273,66
38,69
1954
10,00
241.45
2.18
20,97
274,60
41.33
1955
10,10
146,18
6,95
23,40
186,53
31,91
Jz
-4 »
S
o
St
a, ^ z
v*
nd 1.^
<^2 § o
e c
“2 £
5^ 9
222
e § C
c 2 V
o:
sec
e a
c ^
1
*5,2
to ^
S to
Other
assets
1950
1,76
189,25
93
10,01
57,05
1951
2,09
178,35
7,50
18,71
88,12
1952
10,19
98,24
1,68
28,28
86,94
1953
14,60
111,70
3,40
20,88
79,80
1954
5,83
92,65
47
37,47
91,31
1955
11,72
60,91
76
28.24
46,39
VWJWA. •vr \J,i,
(Statistical Tables relating to banks in India, 1955)
2,10
2,44
3,08
4.59
5,56
6.59
(2) INDIAN BANKS
(a) State Bank of India
The State Bank of India vras the ontcoine of the recommendation
of the Committee of Direction of the All India Rural Credit Survey
appointed by the Reserve Bank of India in August 1951. The Com-
mittee recommended the setting up of a State Bank as one strong in-
tegrated state-partnered commercial banking institution •with an
effective machinery of branches spread over the whole country for
stimulating banking development by providing vastly extended remitt-
ance facilities for co-operative and other banks and follo'wing a policy
which would be in effective consonance with national policies adopted
by Government ■without departing from the canons of sound business.
The Committee was of the view that the State Bank of India should
be formed by taking over the Imperial Bank of India and other State-
associated banks. Accordingly the State Bank of India Act was
passed in 1955.
218
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
The State Bank of India came into being on July _1, 1955,
when the entire undertaking of the Imperial Bank of India including
all its assets and liabilities was transferred to it. The State
Bank has an authorised capital of Es. 20 crores and an issued capital
of Rs. 5,62,50,000, which stands allotted to it in lieu of the shares of
the Imperial Bank of India. The Reserve Bank of India holds at
least 55 per cent of the issued share capital and may transfer the
balance of 45 per cent of the State Bank shares to private share-
holders, preference being given to the existing shareholders of the
Imperial Bank of India. The erstwhile shareholders have been paid
compensation at the rate of Rs. 1,765-10-0 for every fully paid up
share and Rs. 431-12-4 for every partly paid share.
The management of the Bank vests in Central Board consist-
ing of (1) a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman appointed by the
Central Government in consultation with the Reserve Bank. (2) not
more than two Managing Directors, if any, to be appointed by the
Central Board with the approval of the Central Government, (3) six
directors elected by the shareholders, other than the Reserve
Bank, whose names are entered in the various branch registers,
(4) eight directors nominated by the Central Government in
consultation with the Reserve Bank to represent territorial and econo-
mic interests, (6) one director nominated by the Central Govern-
ment and (6) one director nominated bjr the Reserve Bank.
The State Bank continues to provide credit to industiY, trade
and commerce as the Imperial Bank used to do. In addition, it is
e:^ected to assist banking development on more vigorous lines. It
will open about 400 branches within a period of five years. It will
provide considerably larger remittance facilities and attempt to mobi-
lise available rural savings. Later, with an expanded organisation
and with development in warehousing and marketing, the State Bank
is ej^ected to be a powerful agency for enlarging the supply of rural
credit. The Reserve Bank will continue to provide assistance for the
extension of rural credit through the apex co-operative banks, as at
present
The State Bank shall, if so required by the Reserve Bank, act as
agent of the Reserve Bank at all places in India where it has a branch
and where there is no branch of the Banking Department of the
Reserve Bank. With the sanction of the Central Government, the
State Bank may also enter into negotiations for acquiring the business,
including the assets and liabilities, of any banking institution.
1950
1951
1952
Liabilities and Assets of the State Bank of India
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
Paid-up
Capital Reserves
Total
Deposits
Cash
in hand
Cash in
Banics
Invest-
ments
(Govt.
Securi-
. 5,63
6,33
231,37
7,17
21,01
ties)
107,15
. 5,63
6,35
230,91
6,71
22,86
68,93
. 5,63
6,35
205,85
3,65
21,90
80,64
BANKS IN INDIA
1953
1954
1955
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
5,63
5,63
5,63
6,35
6,35
6,35
206,97
231,13
225,77
3.69
3.70
3,42
15.95
32,67
25.96
Other invest-
ments
. . 14,40
. , 16,23
. . 16,61
. . 13,19
. . 13,77
.. 12,02
Loans
& Ad-
nances
94,44
133,66
107,12
92,03
96,15
90,55
Bills discounted
& purchased Net profit
7,51 1.25
8.81 1.30
6,05 1.33
14,28 1.27
6,17 1.37
16,80 4,36
219
80.95
94.95
104,96
No. of
offices
382
393
410
424
455
484
(Statistical Tables Relating Banks m India, 195 ).
Joint-stock Banks or Other Indian Scheduled Banks
Other Indian scheduled hanks are Indian* Scheduled
India and 15 major exchange banks, ^ese otner x
Banks are re^stered under are sub-divided into
Known also as the Joint-Stock Banks, tney Reserves
four classes, namely (a) t^ose clpitel and Rese^es
of Rs. 5 lakhs and over ^nd other divisions
between one lakh and less than Ks. 5 laans anu
with less capital and reseiwes. . nrvmTncrcial banks. These
Indian Scheduled Banks are f^dlities^ They receive
Banks provide India s internal ci ^
deposits or mortgages, p„„RanKe securities, grain or
counts, advance loans against stock exchan^ .jT^ey
cloth, buy and sell shares and transact other b ng^ render
keep the valuables of their austonwrs in saf^
other services to their customers. The a^cuiru j ^jj^j^ers and
banks is small and is generally confined to Dig
planters.
LIABILITIES & ASSETS OF OTHER INDIAN SCHED
banks
(In lakhs of Rupees)
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
■»-. ej
S-’e
£
Q OQ
o
<5 S
:i’i
03
t?
«
.. 74
.. 75
.. 75
.. 72
.. 71
.. 71
30,23
28,82
28,08
27,12
27,03
27,22
20.33
20,98
20,30
20.37
20.34
20.38
522,70
617,34
509.52
633.04
686,08
561,55
39,67
37,30
33,42
33,73
32,88
35,49
e
eo
B
O
51,48
48,44
50.00
46,68
54,23
63,31
222 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1952
20,67
3,69
42,01
1,68
52
1,330
1953
20,49
4,15
41,90
1,64
62
1,262
1954
21,69
4,99
40,79
1,65
62
1,199
1955
25,47
5,65
41,42
2,11
53
1,169
TOTAL ASSETS AND LLABILITIES OF SCHEDULED AND
NON-SCHEDULED BANKS
No. of
Banks
Paid-up
Capital
s>
5
CO
o
Ci
Total
deposits
Cash in
hand
Cash
in Bank
1950
605
46,11
30,56
1,001,90
56,53
93,40
1951
566
43,84 -
31,31
988,08
54,53
96,88
1952
531
43,20
31,26
954,65
45,81
90,03
1953
521
41,82
31,40
969,39
45,81
78,90
1954
498
41,46
31,50
1,062,53
44,97
105,16
1955
474
41,30
31,49
1,154,72
48,66
97,69
t ^
t-. s
§
Is ?(i
'3|
2§
=511
t
*??■
53 — *
S ”
o ?
?>
O.g
<3,2
^ s &
1950
388,95
51,00
486,17
66,91
8,11
4,310
1951
321,94
53,41
590,93
75,46
9,58
4,115
1952
339,78
52,99
516,01
62,45
7,81
3,976
1953
348,69
51,81
488,40
84,03
7,47
3,943
1954
368,32
56,71
539,62
89,24
7,79
3,964
1955
407,68
59,31
587,18
133,40
8,81
4,027
EARNINGS & EXPENSES OP INDIAN NON-SCHEDULED
BANKS
1951
No. of
Banks
(In Lakhs
Earnings
of Rupees)
Expenses
Disposal of
net profits
& accumu-
lated sur-
pluses
Allocation
of sums
available
59
1,93-0
1,70-2
15-3
15-3
1952
61
2,10-6
1,87-8
14-2
14-2
1953
56
1,96-3
1,63-3
31-2
31-2
1954
67
2,12-8
1,76-1
35-4
35-4
1955
59
2,37-1
2,00-0
26-3
26.3
(.Statistical Tables Relating Banks in India, 1955).
BANKS IN INDIA
223
EARNINGS & EXPENSES OF INDIAN SCHEDULED BANKS
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
Disposal of
net profits
& accumw- Allocation
1951
No. of
Banks
Earnings
Total
Expenses
lated sur-
pluses
of sums
available
72
32,28-0
24,77-1
10,41-2
10,41-2
1952
73
34,38-2
26,94-6
8,16-1
8,16-1
1953
68
34,33-7
27,82-0
7,44-2
7,44-2
1954
70
37,18-7
30,15-1
7,94-1
7,94.1
1955
69
41,45-4
34,08-8
8,30-8
8,30.8
(Statistical Tables relating Banks in India 1955).
(C) CO-OPERATIVE BANKS
The Co-operative Banking organization owes its origin to the
Co-operative Credit Societies Act of 1904. This Act was further
amended by the Act of 1912. Under Co-operative Societies Act, all
classes of registered societies whether in themselves prima)^ units
or federation of constituent societies are spoken as ‘Societies.’ In
actual practice, however, the primary units are in some provinces
known as banks and in others as societies. Co-operative Banks com-
prised State and Central co-operative banks, and registered non-a^-
cultural (urban) Co-operative Credit Societies, with limited liability,
each having minimum paid-up capital and reserves of Rs. 1 lakL
They are sub-divided into two classes, namely ‘A’ bank or banks
with capital and reserves of Rs. 5 lakhs and above each, and ‘B’
banks or banks with capital and reserves ranging between Rs. one
lakh and P-s. 6 lakhs each.
The Co-operative Banking system consists of the Provincial
Bank at apex, the affiliated Central Banks, and lastly the primary
societies affiliated to the Central Banks. According to the rules
framed under the Act, these banks cannot generally lend to non-
members.
The functions of Co-operative Banks are as follows ; —
(1) Attracting deposits from money-lenders and professional
classes. (2) Lending money to the primary co-operative societies.
(3) Taking away the excess fund of a Co-operative Society and uti-
lising it for making up the deficiency of others. (4) Supervising
and guiding the actions of affiliated Societies.
LIABILITIES AND ASSETS OF ALL CO-OPERATIVE BANKS
93
O
03
-
5*
Q 03
s w
t ^
^3,
p
o
03
■H S.
03
5 e
o
«
o o
E-iC)
o.§
oJ
417
9^0
9,29
100,99
3,81
7,78
460
10,55
10,29
105,80
3,62
8,00
1950- 51
1951- 62
224
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1952-53
i'll
12,27 12,01
115,37 3,39
8,52 36,17
1953-54
542
14,69 12,67
129,39 3,73
8,84 38,70
1954-55
572
16,96 13,77
144,95 4,10
14,89 42,11
Loans & Advances
Net profit
No. of ofiices
1950-51
. . 73,65
1,12
823
1951-52
. . 82,24
1,26
869
1952-53
. . 87,49
1,29
920
1953-54
. . 98,71
1,37
1,014
1954-55
.. 107,74
1,55
1,113
FOREIGN SCHEDULED (Exchange) BANKS
The main business of the Exchange Banks is financing the
foreign trade of India. The Exchange Banks are all incorporated
outside India. They purchase bills in foreign currency, grant loans
against shipping and other documents. They also play some little
part in the financing of inland trade mainly for the movement^ of
goods for export or of goods imported. But now they are extending
their operations in the interior of the country and are receiving
deposits also on saving and fixed accounts and are engaged in financ-
ing the internal trade of India. Because the Banking Companies Act
of 1949 requires banks to maintain 75 per cent of the liabilities
in the form of assets inside of India, the exchange banks’ internal
financial operations are likely to increase.
The Exchange Banks furnish the immediate link with the out-
side world of trade and commerce. Primarily the exchange banks
specialise in the finance of foreign trade and their beginning dates
back to the Oriental Banking Corporation in 1842.
The Exchange Banks are — National Bank of India, Lloyds Bank,
Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, Grindlays Bank,
Hongkong and Shanghai Bankiitg Corporation, Mercantile Bank of
India, Eastern Bank, National City Batik of Netp York, Bank of
Tokyo, British Sank of Middle East. Netherlands Trading Society,
American Express Co., Comptoir National D’Escompte de Paris,
Bank of China.
Foreign Scheduled Banks
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
No. of
Banks
16
16
15
16
16
17
All de-
posits
174,16
169.84
176,50
165.84
178,49
195,13
Invcst-
Cash
in hand
& banks
menfs
(Govts.
Securi-
ties &
Loans
& Ad-
vances
Bills dis-
counted
& pur-
chased
Net
profit
others)
19,13
50,61
112,73
23,01
2,09
24,84
46,30
148,69
25,83
. 3,14
16,83
44, SB
131,00
19,31
1,87
14,59
47,00
110,71
20,44
1,39
16/)5
48,23
124,94
25,75
1,25
17,80
49,67
141,79
31,88
1,68
{Siaiistical Tables Relating Banks in India, 1955).
BANKS IN INDIA
225 .
INDIGENOUS BANKS
A large part of India’s credit is absorbed by agriculture, small-
scale manufacturing and retail trade. Pew such borrowers are able
to obtain credit from either scheduled or non-scheduled banks and
must turn to less strict sources of credit such as indigenous bankers,
money lenders, loan offices, mutual aid societies or co-operatives.
The indigenous bankers are those who carry on banking business
according to traditional Indian methods. They are known as Shroffs.
Saimkers, Nidhis, Chettiyars. The Indian Central Banking Enquiry
Committee defines an indigenous banker or bank as an individual or
private firm receiving deposits and dealing in hundis or lending
money. Those who do not receive deposits were to be known as
money lenders. Their business is generally a family concern. They
supply their own capital. Some of them also accept deposits from
the public. Their main function is to grant loans against the secu-
rity of gold or ornaments. Government Securities etc. They grant
loans to village money-lenders, banias and small artisans. They
finance movement of agricultural crops from one part of the country
to another by drawing hundis or internal bills of exchange. They
also discount hundies. Indigenous bankers are generally divided into
three categories — (1) Those who confine their business in banking
proper, (2) those who are principally traders or merchants but employ
surplus funds in banking business and (3) those who are both bankers
and traders and cannot be easily classified as principally bankers
or principally traders. The indigenous bankers are found to render
valuable services in connection with financing of internal trade and
middle sized and small industries and inland remittance works.
LAND MORTGAGE BANKS
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India in 1928 and Banking
Enquiry Committee in 1930 recommended that Land Mortgage Banks
based on co-operative principles are desirable in many parts of India.
The principal objects of these banks should be the redemption of the
land and houses of the agriculturists and liquidation of old debts.
Other objects are improvements of land and of methods of cultiva-
tion and the building of houses of agriculturists and purchase of land
in special cases.
Land Mortgage Banks have been started under the auspices of
the co-operative movement in the Punjab, Madras, Bombay, Bengal
and Assam, but the beginning is very small.
I5IPORTANT BANKING DEVELOPMENTS
Banking Companies Act — ^The Act was passed on Feb. 17,
1949 and applied to all banking companies except co-operative banks.
Banking has been defined as “the accepting for the purpose of lend-
ing or investment, of deposits of money from the public, repayable
on demand or otherwise, and withdrawable by cheque, ^aft, order or
otherwise.”
Under the Banking Companies Act, 1949, the business which a
15
228
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
and National Agricultural Credit (Stabilisation) Fund. The Eeserve
Bank constituted the first of these, the National Agricultural Credit
(Long term Operations) Fund, on February 8, 1956, with an initial
sum of Es. 10 crores. An annual contribution of not less than Es. 5
crores for the five years commencing from June 30, 1956 is to be made
towards this Fund. The Fund will make loans and advances to State
Governments for subscribing to the share capital of co-operative
credit institutions and to central land mortgage banks. The first loan
out of the Fund for Es. 8 lakhs were sanctioned to the Government
of Madras for contribution to share capital of large-sized credit
societies.
The Stabilisation Fund would make medium term loans and
advances to State Co-operative Banks to enable them to convert short
term credit into medium-term credit whenever necessary.
TEAINING IN BANKING — (1) Bankers’ Training College was
opened at Bombay on the 14th September, 1954 by the Eeserve Bank
of India for imparting training in practical banking to supervisory
staff of commercial banks. Students will be trained in all aspects of
banking and a dummy bank would be opened in the institution to
give more practical work to them.
(2) Co-operative Training Centre has been opened in Poona for
training workers of the co-operative banks in India.
(3) Baroda University has opened training course in banking
at Baroda. The course is meant for graduates in banking who
wish to take banking as a profession.
INDIAN JOINT-STOCK BANKS, 1955
Number of Banks
I. Indian Banks
1952
1953
1954
1955
(i) Scheduled (Al)
' (ii) Non-Scheduled —
76
73
72
72
A2
70
67
65
64
B
194
196
191
190
C
114
114
116
105
; D
60
54
37
25
,
.
. Total of (i) & (n)
(iii) Co-operative
514
504
481
456
■A
90
104
124
140
B
360
373
418
432
■■
.1
..
Total of (iii)
450
477
542
572
. ' Total ({), (ii) & (Hi)
II. Foreign Banks —
964
981
1,023
1,028
(i) Scheduled
15
16
16
17
(ii) Non-Scheduled
2
1
1
1
-1
■ —
- —
__
. • . Total I & II
981
998
1,040
1,046
.; (Statistical Tables relating Banks
in India,
1955).
BANKS IN INDIA
'229
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK TRANSACTION’S
No. of
depositors
(000)
Deposits
including
interest
(in lakhs)
of Re.)
With-
drawals
(in lakhs
of Rs.)
Balances
(in lakhs
of Rs.)
Average
balance
per
depositor
Rs.
1951
. . 4,090
110,19
93,80
185,06
452-5
1962
. . 4,446
121,33
108,65
199,81
449-4
1953
. . 4,830
124,49
106,74
217,68
450-7
1954
. . 6,070
141,18
126,91
231,96
457-5
1955
. . 6,384 147,17 122,63 256,49 476-4
(Statistical Tables relating Banks in India 1955).
NUMBER OP CHEQUES & AMOUNTS CLEARED, 1954
No, of Amount in No. of Amount in
cheques lakhs cheques lakhs
Calcutta
80,35,485
3,066,31
Delhi
22,61,751
233,03
Bombay
1,33,44,912
2,995,63
Bangalore
9,16,400
102,94
Madras
Kanpur
41,45,873
8,95,789
412,21
146,11
Others
68,62,953
364,63,163
872,88
7,819,01
STATE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL INDIAN JOINT-STOCK
Andhra
BANKS,
No. of
Banks
6
1955
Paid-up
Capital
(Rs. 000)
48,07
Reserves
(Rs. 000)
15,86
' No. of
offices
182
Assam
4
12,36
3,26
29
Bihar
7
69,21
21,64
144
Bombay
.. 42
8,94,05
10,03,94
641
M, P.
4
47,76
4,20
161
Madras
.. 139
4,16,61
77,27
766
Orissa
2
27
4,25
17
Tunjab
.. 12
68,25
88,69
206
U. P.
.. 21
1,78,88
45,23
414
W. Bengal
.. 27
11,12,96
8,77,69
188
Hyderabad
6
81,10
66,90
98
M. B.
3
19,29
29,56
63
3Iysor6
.. 16
86,62
1,02,52
128
BEPSU
1
16.00
64,94
77
"Rajasthan
8
1,82,66
90,46
- IVl
Saurashtra
3
1,03,65
48,86
‘ 105
Travancore-Cochin
.. 137
3,30,05
1,11,66
656
Ajmer
1
41
13
11
Bhopal
•
1
12,60
30
6
'230
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Coorg
■ * • •
• • • •
6
Cutch
• • • •
, ,
6
Delhi
Pradesh
.. 12
3,99,29
2,71,82
94
Himachal
• • • •
7
Manipur
, ,
1
14,08
98
1
Tripura
1
16,85
34
3
Vihdhya Pradesh
1
20,00
13,53
10
Jammu &
Kashmir
1
7,86
4,85
.22
Pondicherry
..
••
••
4
455
41,29,68
31,49,14
3,959
■
{Statistical Tables Relating to Banks in India, 1955). ;
MONEY RATES IN INDIA
{per cent per annum)
Call
Loan rate (b)
{S.
B. of India)
; .
Bank
rate
Treasuri
Bill rate
{Average]
5 lakhs
or over
Below
5 lakhs
1
ts
4i
Advances
rate {d)
s.b: of
India
1952-53
.. Zl
2-22
35 32
4
1953-54
.. 3J
2-46
Zh 32
,4i •
4^-
1954-55
.. 3i
2-53
Si 32
4i
4
1955-56
.. 3J
2-52
3i 32
6or4i
4
(a) The standard rate at ■which the Keserve Bank of India is pre-
.pared to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial
paper eligible for purchase under the Reserve Bank of India Act.
; (b) Basic advances rate of State Bank for demand loans taken
.to, scheduled banks against government securities.
■j ; (c) The rate at which the State Bank discounts first class three
.months commercial bills.
’ ^ ' (d) The general advances rate at which the State Banlr grants
■advances to the public against gdvenrment securities.
{Report of Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
PUBLIC FINANCE
Indian’s Public Finance — ^Under the Constitution of India, the
power to raise funds has been divided between the Centre and the
States. So there is more than one budget and one public treasury in
the country. In fact there is a number of consolidated funds of India.
In accordance with Article 266 of the Constitution, the Central and
State Governments are required to set up the "Consolidated Fnnd of
India" and the "Consolidated F^inda of the States respectively.” All
revenues received by the Government of India and the Government
of a State are to be credited in their respective consolidated funds.
No money is to be, appropriated from the Consolidated Fund of India
or of a State except in accordance with an Appropriation Act, passed
by Parliament or the legislature of the State concerned. Provision
has also been made for the establishment of a Contingency Fund of
India and a Contingeeny Fund for each State to meet unforeseen
expenditure pending proper authorisation by the appropriate
legislature.
The Constitution provides for the appointment of a Comptroller
and Auditor-General of India by the President to keep wateh on tho
finances and accounts of the Union and the States. It is his respon-
sibility to see that the expenses voted by Parliament or the legisla-
ture of a State and laid down in the Appropriation Act are not ex-
ceeded and varied.
Towards tho be^nning of the financial year in April, the esti-
mates of receipts and expenditure are presented to Parliament by the
Central Government and before the lepslaturcs by the State Govern-
ment, and no expenditure can bo incurred without a specific grant
being made for that puipose. Certain routine items of expenditure
which cannot await legislative sanction are however, non-votable.
These items are chargeable to the Consolidated Fund of India or
those of the State Governments concerned.
Allocation of revenue — ^The main source of the Central revenues
are customs duties, excises, the Corporation and income taxes, estate
and succession duty on non-agricidtural assets and property and the
earnings of the mints. Besides the railway and posts and telegraphs
contribute to the general revenue of the Centre. As much as 90 per
cent of the total central revenue is derived from the customs and
Union excise duties and the Corporation and income taxes.
The main heads of revenue in the State budgets are the taxes
other than tho union taxes, earnings from forests, fisheries and State
enterprises and subventions and ^ants-in-aid from the Union. More
than half of the income tax levied by the Central Government ac-
crues to tho States. Taxes on aprricultural income constitute an ex-
clusively state subject. Other State sources include excise duties
on liquors, opium and other narcotics, sales tax, taxes on consump-
tion or sale of electricity, taxes on goods and passengers carried by
road or on inland, waterways, taxes on certain vehicles including
232
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
tram cars, taxes on animals and boats, tolls, taxes on proiessions,
trades, callings and employment, capitation taxes, stamp duties and
taxes on luxuries and amusements.
Devolution of taxes and grants-in-aid. — ^A major change in res-
pect of devolution of taxes and grants-in-aid to State Governments
took place in 1952-53 as a result of the acceptance of the Finance
Commission’s recommendation by the Government of India.
(1) An increase in the States’ share of the net proceeds of in-
come tax from 50 p.c. to 55 p.c. of which four-fifths wBl be allocated
on the basis of population and the balance on the basis of collection
(2) allocation of 40 p.c. of the net proceeds of Union excise duties
to States on a population basis (3) an increase in grants-in-aid to
Assam, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal in lieu of a share in the
export duty on jute and jute products (4) additional grants-in-aid to
certain States which are in need of assistance and special grants to
certain less-developed States for expansion of primary education
facilities.
Taxation — A. Taxation Enquiry Commission was constituted in
April 1953 to examine inter alia, the incidence of the tax system in
India, its suitability with reference to the country’s development
programme and the resources required for it, and the objective of
reducing inequalities of income and wealth ; the effects of taxation
of income on capital formation and maintenance and development of
productive enterprise ; and the use of taxation as a fiscal instru-
ment in dealing with inflationary and deflationary situations. The
Report contains far-reaching recommendations for widening and
deepening the tax structure with a view to raising finance for deve-
lopmental purposes without jeopardising investment and employment
in the private sector. This objective is to be achieved through in-
creases in the rates of income and commodity taxation as well as
an extension of their coverage both as the Centre and in the States,
and through adjustments in the scheme of taxation, including reduc-
tion in its level at points, with a view to stimulating capital forma-
tion and development of productive enterprise.
Finance Commission — Art. 280 lays down that President,
shall within two years from the commencement of the Constitu-
tion and_ there-after at the expiration of every fifth year or at such
earlier time as the President considers necessary, constitute a
Finance Commission. It shall be the duty of the Commission to
make recommendations as to (a) the distribution between the Union
and the States of the net proceeds of taxes which are to be
or may be divided' between them and "the allocation between the
States of the respective shares of such proceeds (6) the principles
which should govern the grants-in-aid of the revenues of the States;
out _ of the Consolidated Fund of India and (c) the continuance or
modification of the. terms of any agreement entered into by the Gov-
ernment of India v^th the govt.-'of any Part' B 'States (d) any .other
matter referred to the Commission by the President in the interest of
sound finance.
A Finance Commission has been appointed under Article 280 (1)
of the Constitution for a period of fifteen months commencing from
PUBLIC FINANCE
233
June 1, 1956. This is the second Finance Commission, the first having
submitted its report on December 31, 1962. The Commission will
make recommendations regarding the distribution of divisible Central
taxes, the principle which should govern the grants-in-aid from the
Centre to the States and the continuance or modification of the terms
of agreements entered into by the Central Government and Part B.
States. The Commission will also go into the following matters (1)
the sums which may be prescribed as ^ants-in-aid to Assam, Behar,
Orissa and West Bengal in lieu of assignment of a share of the net
proceeds of export duty on jute and jute products, (2) assistance by
way of grants-in-aid under Article 275 to such states as are in need
of assistance for 2nd Plan (3) the method of distribution of the Estate
Duty among States, (4) the terms which can be apporpriately fixed
for different kinds of Central loans to the States.
UNION GOVERNMENT BUDGET
REVENUE ACCOUNT
1955- 56 (Revised Estimates) — ^The revised estimates for 1956-56
place revenue Rs. 20 crores higher and expenditure Rs 10 crores
lower than the budget estimates ; the deficit of Rs. 17.4 crores in the
budget estimates thus turns into a surplus of Rs. 12.3 crores.
1956- 57 (Budget Estimates) — ^The budget estimates for 1956-67
place expenditure substantially higher at Rs. 636 crores than the
levised estimate of Rs. 482 crores for 1955-56. Since revenue at
existing tax levels would be lower by Rs. 10 crores, at Rs. 484 crores,
the deficit for 1956-67 is placed at Rs. 62 crores. The fall in
revenue is mainly under customs duties. The bulk of the increase
in expenditure is accounted for by developmental services (Rs. 30
crores) and defence services (Rs. 19 crores). To cover the revenue
deficit, tax proposals involving changes in both direct and in-
direct taxes were made, estimated to yield to the Centre an addi-
tional revenue of Rs. 84.16 crores. Subsequently certain minor con-
cessions mainly in respect of Corporation taxes and tax on registered
firms and their partners were given, the revenue effect of which is
not expected to be more than Rs. 60 lakhs. The revenue deficit is
now placed at Rs. 18 crores.
CAPITAL ACCOUNT
The Capital Account shows small surpluses of Rs. 6.6 crores and
3Rs, 18 crores in 1955-56 and 1956-57 as compared to a deficit of
Rs. 62 crores in 1954-65. These are, however, only formal and if
snot receipts under Treasury bills are excluded, the deficits on capital
account amount to Rs. 189 crores, Rs. 234 crores and Rs. 338
crores respectively for 1954-65, 1955-66 (R. E.) and 1956-67 (B. E.).
The deficits arc largely due to the stepping up of capital outlay,
which (excluding State Trading Schemes) has increased from Rs. 104
crores m 1954-56 to Rs. 181 crores in 1956-66 (R. E.) and Rs. 307
■crores in 1966-57.
In 1956-56 the Central Government issued a market loan for
Rs. 100 crores. The total subscriptions amounted to Rs. 104 crores.
Allowing for repayments, net market borrowing during the year
amounted to Rs. 33 crores.
234
HINDUSTAN YEAE-HOOK
Capital receipts for 1956-57 are estimated at Es. 704 crores in-
cluding of internal loan, small savings, and foreign assistance on the
disbursements side, substantial increases are estimated for 1956-57 as
compared to 1954-55 and 1955-56 in loans to States and in capital
outlay. The most significant increases are in respect of industrial
development and railways.
REVENUE & EXPENDITURE OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
(REVENUE ACCOUNT)
(Crores of Rupees)
Revenue
(1) Taxes on Income . . 103.64 118.54 126.65
(-f 7.94) o
(2) Taxes on Commodities &
Services (ie. Customs, Im-
ports & Exports etc.) . . 293.31 305.27 295.73
(+ 24.90)®
(3) Taxes on Property & Capital
Transactions (i.e. Estate
Duty, Stamp, Registration,
Land Revenue)
2.31
2.30
2.31
(4) Total Tax Revenue (l-{-2-l-3)
399.26
426.11
424.69
(5) Administrative Receipts
12.96
16.56
(-b 32.84) ®
13.46
(6) Net Contributions of Public
Undertakings
26.92
27.75
24.85
(7) Other Revenue
10.72
24.16
(-{- 0.95) ®
21.42 ■
(8) Total Revenue (4-l-5-|-6-l-7)
449.86
494.58
484.42 ,
Total Expenditure
416.35
482.27
(33.79 ®
536.25
Surplus (-f) or Deficit (— ) ..
-f 33.51
-f- 12.31
—18.04 b
(Report on
Currency & Finance
1955-56).
CAPITAL BUDGET OP THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
(Crores of Rupees)
. 1954-55 . 1955-56 1956-59
.(Accounts) (Revised) (Budgsi)
TOTAL RECEIIPTS .. ■ 409.64 556.21 704.26
Surplus + or deficit ( — ) .. — 52.20 -f5.52 -1-18.63
TOTAL DISBURSEMENTS .. 461.84, 550.69 685.63
(a) Effect of Budget proposals and' subsequent concessions.
(b) Taking into account the effect of budget proposals and sub-
sequent concessions.
PUBLIC FINANCE
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PUBLIC DEBT
Central Goremment Debts
GENERAL — The rising trend in the interest-bearing obligations
•of the Government of India since 1948-49 continued in 1955-56 with
a further increase of Rs. 273 crores to Rs. 3,312 crores. The net in-
crease during Five-Year period 1951-56 amounted to Rs. 750 crores.
Of the outstanding total as at the end of March 1956, internal obliga-
tions amounted to Rs. 3,171 crores and external debt Rs. 141 crores.
The total interest-bearing obligations are estimated to show a rise of
Rs. 586 crores to Rs. 3,898 crores at the close of March 1957, mainly
due to an expansion of Rs. 356 crores under floating debt.
Interest-yielding assets of the Government of India stood at
Rs. 2,468 crores at the end of 1955-56 or Rs. 202 crores higher than
at the end of 1954-55 and constituted three-fourths of the .total
interest-bearing obligations. Interest-yielding assets are estimated
to show a further sharp rise of Rs. 528 crores to Rs. 2,996 crores by
the close of 1956-57.
Composition of Debt — ^At the close of 1955-56, the total rupee
•debt of the Government of India amounted to Rs. 3,062 cgores as
against Rs. 2,844 crores at the end of 1954-55. Of this, debt on account
•of rupee loans amounted to Rs. 1,509 crores in 1955-56. During
1955-56, outstanding Treasury bills showed a rise of Rs. 123 crores
to Rs. 695 crores as against an increase of Rs. 137 crores in the pre-
vious year, the increase over the five years ended March 1956 amount-
ing to Rs. 237 crores.
Repatriation of Sterling Debt — ^During 1955-66 debt of the face
■value of £0.03 million was repatriated at a cost of Rs. 0.03 crores.
'The total sterling debt repatriated upto the close of 1966-66 amount-
•ed £329.1 million and the rupee counter parts created totalled
Rs. 274.2 orores.
SmaU Savings — ^During 1956-56 net receipts from small savings
xecorded a 13 per cent rise; gross receipts and repayments totalled
Rs. 197 crores and Rs. 135 crores as against Rs. 177 crores and,
Rs. 122 crores respectively in 1954-55.
Government Balances and ways and means Advances — ^During
1965-56, cash balances of the Central Government with the Reserve
Bank of India and at Government Treasuries showed a net decline of
Rs. 38.1 crores to a debt balance of Rs. 4.6 crores; the net decline
•during the five-year period 1951-66 amounted to Rs. 166 crores. ■
PUBLIC DEBT
237
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ANNUAL TREASURY BILLS
(Annual & Monthly)
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
Year
Amount
sold
Average
yield p.c.
per annum
Amount
sold in
favour
of the
Reserve
Bank
13,94,35
Amount
outstanding
at the end
of the
period
1950-51
3,58,02
1951-52
• * • •
2-22
13,35,50
3,14,34
1952-53
. . 42,00
2-45
12,36,50
3,15,29
1953-54
. . 56,51
2-53
13,09,06
3,34,95
1954-55
. . 23,50
2-68
15,23,81
4,71,87
1955-56
. . 55,50
2.52
19,94,11
3,95,25
INTEREST-BEARING OBLIGATIONS AND INTEREST-
YIELDING ASSETS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
(Lakhs of Rupees)
1 INTEREST-BEARING
OBLIGATIONS
1962-53
1953-54
1954-55
1955-56
1956-57
(Budget)
In India
2,499,73
2,553,85
2,899,98
3,170,82
13,721,14
In England
30,23
28,97
27,26
28,20
22,26
Dollar Loans
113,74
111,80
111,91
117,57
144,94
U.S.S.R. Loan
—
—
—
—
9,20
TOTAL INTEREST-
BEARING OBLIGA-
TIONS
2,643,70
2,694,62
3,039,15
3,311,59
3,897,54
II INTEREST-YIEL-
DING ASSETS
(Total)
1,862,86
2,003,83
2,266,08
2,468,29
2,995,96
( (Report on
Ciirrency & Finance
, 1955-56)
DEBT POSITION OF THE GOVERNJIENT OF INDIA
(Crores of Rs.)
O
•a
1
03
■Sc
hlarkoi
Rupee
Loans
S
CO
E-.CS)
-o £>
H'S
<3 «
1952
1,403.51
332.51
372.57
1953
1,403.58
315.44
412.61
1954
1,364,27
334,95
450,51
1955
1,474.39
471.87
505.70
1956
1,508.67
595.25
668.20
o
•a
•»«4
• e
"b
O
o
H-i-
EjtS
O o
Ek
a.-s—
351.24
2,459,83
—0.9
136.99
361.82
2,493,45
-1-1.4
138.53
355,44
2,505,17
-4-0.5
136.44
391.97
2,843,93
-fl3.5
133.20
390.29
3,062,41
-4-7.7
138.78
238
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT LOANS
(Outstanding as on March 31, 1956)
{Lakhs of Rupees)
3 % Victory Loan 1957 1,14,06,89
31% National Plan
3 % Loan 1958
50,34,63
Bonds 1961
75,29,00
4J% Loan 1958-68
5,85,73
3 % Loan 1986 or
3 % 2hd Victory Loan
1959-61
1,13,65,64
later (Conver-
23% Loan 1960 ‘
45,63,07
sion Loan of
-
4 % Loan 1960-70
63,30,26
1946)
2,48,91,47
21% Loan 1961
57,00,69
3 % Non-terminable
21% Loan 1962
75,86,72
Loan 1896-97
8,93,35
•3 % Loan 1963-65
1,16,17,46
31% National Plan
3 % Loan 1964
30,33,10
Loan 1964
1,58,17,34
3 % Funding Loan
31 National Plan
1966-64
1,10,11,78
Bond 1965
1,03,67,92
3 % 1st Dev. Loan
1970-75
1,15,05,83
(2nd Series)
15,08,67,34
23% Loan 1976
14,77,48
Loans not bearing
21% Bhopal War
interest
3,14,84
Bonds 1957
26-25
-3 % Bhopal Loan
TOTAL
15,11,82,18
1966-76
1,21,73
PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF SJIALL SAVINGS
{Annual & Monthly — Lakhs of Rupees)
Total gross
Total
Repay-
Total .net
Total : out-
T1951-52
Receipts
ments
Receipts ■
• standings
. . 1,45,26
1,06,72
' 38,54
1,40,80
1952-53
. . 1,46,83
1,06,78
40,05
1,80,85
1953-54
. . 1,52,71
1,14,81
' 37,90
2,18,75
1954-55
. . 1,77,32
1,22,13
55,19
'2,73,94
1955-56
. . 1,97,22
1,34,72 ' .
■ ■ 62,60
■ 3,36,44
TOTAL OF ALL POSTAL SAVINGS
• {Lakhs of Rupees)
Total gross
Total re-
Total net
Total
1950-51
receipts
payments
receipts
outstandings
. . 1,30,09
96,65
30,44
. 1,02,27 ,
1951-52
. . 1,45,26
1,06,72
38,54
1,40,81
1952-53
. . 1,46,83
1,06,78
40,05
1,80,86 ■
-1953-54
, . 1,52,71
1,14,81
37,90
2,18,76
:l964-65
. . 1,72,66
1,20,99
51,67
• 2,70,43 .
STATES’ BUDGETS
PART A STATES
REVENUE ACCOUNT. — The consolidated budgetary position
of Part A States on revenue account since 1952-53 is shown below : —
(Crores of Rupees)
. 1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
(R.E.)
1955-56
(B.E.)
1956-57
Revenue
318.2
347.0
368.1
420.8
426.1
Expenditure
318.3
347.1
384.0
471.4
488.9
Surplus(-f )or Deficit(— )
-0.1
-0.1
-15.9
—50.6
-^62.8
Deficit ( — ) exclusive of
Revenue Reserve Fund
Transactions
-12.1
-0.1
-19.6
-60.7
-65.4
GENERAL — Budgets of Part A States show deficits on revenue
account in all years during the period 1951-56 except in 1951-52.
Aggregate net deficit during the First Plan period taking into account
revised estimates for 1955-56, amounts to Rs. 95 crores, part of which
being financed through withdrawals from Revenue Reserve Funds ;
the total amount so withdrawn is placed at Rs. 35 crores. In
1955-56, while a significant rise in expenditure has been indicated,
revenue does not show a commensurate rise.
1955- 56 -(Revised Estimates) — Revenue and expenditure were
both higher than budget estimates by about Rs. 22 crores, the deficit
remaining virtually unaltered at Rs. 51 crores. While both tax and
non-tax revenue showed increases, the bulk of the increase
in non-tax revenue was accounted for by transfers from revenue
reserve funds (Rs. 10.1 crores). On the expenditure side, non-
development services accounted for the major part of the rise,
mainly under famine relief, the provision made for this item being
Rs. 17.5 crores as against Rs. 4.2 crores in the budget estimates.
1956- 57 (Budget Estimates) — With revenue higher by Rs. 6
crores and expenditure by Rs. 18 crores oyer 1955-56, the deficit is
substantially higher at Rs. 63 crores. Dispite the large deficits,
only a few States have made specific proposals for additional taxation,
which are estimated to yield an aggregate additional revenue of over
Rs. 10 crores.
Capital Accounts — ^Receipts on capital account have increased
from Rs. 130 crores in 1951-52 to Rs. 290 crores in 1955-56 (R.E.),
while disbursements have risen only from Rs. 146 crores to Rs. 275
crores in the same period. During the five year 1951-52 to 1955-56,
the annual developmental outlay has increased by Rs. 100 crores to
to Rs. 180 crores. The comfortable position on capital account is
largely due to Central loan assistance which has increased from
240
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Rs. 67 crores in 1951-52 to Rs. 227 crores in 1955-56 (R.E.). In
1956-57 also, a surplus of Rs. 12 crores is envisaged.
PART B STATES BUDGET
REVENUE ACCOUNT
General — The table below gives the budgetary position on
revenue account of Part B States —
(Crores of Rupees)
1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
1955-56
1956-57
Revenue
102-0
106.6
116.4
(R.E.'i
118.5
(B.E.)
128.3
Expenditure
98.7
101.1
111.6
133.7
141.8
Surplus ( -f )
or deficit( — )
-f3.3
-t-5.5
-h4.8
-15.2
—13.5
Surplus(-f) or deficit(— )
exclusive of revenue re-
serve fund transactions
-f3.3
-t-4.7
4-4.8
4-0.6
-16.3
Unlibe Part A States which had a revenue account surplus only
in 1951-52, Part B States had a deficit only in 1955-56 (R.E.) and
consequently for the Plan period as a whole there was a net surplus
of Rs. 4.6 crores.
1956-37 Budget Estimates — ^Budget estimates for 1956-57 place
revenue at Rs. 128 crores or Rs. 10 crores higher than 1955-56 and
expenditure at Rs. 142 crores or Rs. 8 crores higher. The deficit is,
therefore, lower by Rs. 2 crores at Rs. 13 crores. Development ex-
penditure is expected to rise by Rs. 8 crores over 1955-66. A part of
the deficit is to be covered by additional tax proposals anticipated to
yield Rs. li crores.
Capital Account — Receipts and disbursements of Part B States
on capital account which amounted to Rs. 35 crores and Rs. 42 crores,
respectively, in 1951-52 were Rs. 84 crores and Rs. 83 crores in
1955-56. Unlike Part A States and despite an increase of Central
loan assistance from Rs. 7 crores to Rs. 62 crores, during the Plan
period. Part B States show net deficit of Rs. 20 crores on capital ac-
count. During 1955-56 three Part B States entered the market for
loans, net borrowing amounting to Rs. 9 crores.
PART C STATES’ BUDGETS
The combined revenue account of six Part C States,* namely Aj-
mer, Bhopal, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Vindhya Pradesh is
as follows — From a revenue account surplus of Rs. 1.6 crores in 1953-
64, Part C States show increasing revenue deficits in next three years,
with estimated deficits of Rs. 59 lakhs in 1955-56 and Rs. 1.0 crore
in 1956-57 while expenditure has increased from Rs. 12.1 crores in
1952-53 to Rs. 21.4 crores in 1955-56 and Rs. 23.7 crores in 1956-57,
‘Figure relate to the undivided state of Madras.
STATES’ BUDGETS
241
revenue does not sViow a similar increase and moreover, about half
the increase in revenue is accounted for by Central grants and
contributions.
BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART A STATES’^
(On Revenue Account — In Lakhs of Rupees)
MADRAS
Total
Revenue
Total
Expenditure
Stirplus-)-
Deficit—
1953-64 1
. . 64,38
64,38
1954-55
. . 42,36
46,27
— 3,92
1955-6G (Revised)
. . 51,63
63,84
— 2,21
1966-67 (Budget)
BOMBAY
. . 69,63
61,19
— 1,66
1963-64
. . 71,03
69,88
+ 1,15
1964-65
. . 78,01
70,08
+ 7,93
1965-56 (Pujvised)
. . 78,16
77,33
+ 87
1966-67 (Budget)
WEST BENGAL
. . 76,34
76,11
+ 23
1963-64
. . 37,46
44,35
- 6,89
1964-55
. . 41,96
48,46
64,76
- 6,50
1965-66 (Revised)
. . 49,67
-15,09
1966-67 (Budget)
VTTAR PRADESH
. . 48,46
62,65
-14,19
1963-54
. , 71,39
68,56
+ 2,83
1954-65
. , 72,82
72,21
+ 6
1965-66 (Revised)
. . 79,03
79,03
1956-67 (Budget)
PUNJAB
. . 77,97
87,52
- 9,55
1953-54
. . 19,76
18,90
+ 86
1954-55
. . 21,83
19,55
+ 2,28
1966-66 (Revised)
. . 26,76
29,45
- 2,69
1966-57 (Budget)
BIHAR
. . 28,76
29,23
- 47
1963-54
. . 33,17
31,10
+ 2,07
1954-66
. . 35,35
41,48
- 6,13
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 39,24
59,42
-20,18
1966-67 (Budget) .. 42,87
MADHYA PRADESH
63,76
-20,88
1953-54
. . 24,02
23,77
+ 25
1954-56
. . 27,22
27,76
- 64
1966-57 (Budget)
. . 42,87
63,75
+ 61
1955-56 (Budget)
. . 29,18
33,00
— 3,82
♦Transactions of Kutch, Manipur and Tripura are included in the
Central Budget, while those of Bilaspur arc in Himachal Pradesh.
fFigurcs relate to the undivided State of Madras.
16
242
HINDUSTAN
YEAE-BOOK
ASSAill
1953-54
. . 13,90
13.31
59
1954-55
. . 15,71
18,69
—
2,98
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 20,82
21,80
—
98
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 21,15
24,80
—
3,65
ORISSA
1953-54
. . 11,89
12,83
94
1954-55
. . 13,56
15,05
—
1,49
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 19,27
26,15
—
6,88
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 18,71
24,32
—
5,61
ANBERA
1954-55
. . 19,31
24,49
5,18
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 21,86
25,83
—
3,97
1966-57 (Budget)
. . 23,11
26.36
—
3,25
TOTAL BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART A STATES
{On Revenue account — In Lakhs of Rupees)
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus +
Total
Total
Deficit-'
1951-52
. . 3,04,80
2,98,31
+ 6,49
1952-53
. . 3,18,15
3,18,29
- 14
1953-54
. . 3,47,00
3,47,08
- 8
1954-55
. . 3,68,12
3,84,04
-15,92
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 4,20,81
4,71,37
—50.56
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 4,26,08
4,88,93
-62;85
BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART B STATES
(On Revenue Accounts)
{In Lakhs of Ruyyces)
HYDERABAD
Revenue
Expenditure
Stirplus
Deficit -
1953-54
. . 25,35
26,49
- 1,14
1954-55
. . 27,17
28,02
— 85
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 24,37
27,58
— 3,21
1956-57 (Budget)
MYSORE
. . 25,59
29,89
— 4,30
1953-54
. . 15,13
15,24
— 11
1954-55
. . 16,12
16,55
— 43
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 17,60
20,29
— 2,69
1956-57 (Budget) .. 18,30
TRAVANCORE-CO CHIN
22,19
- 3,89
1953-54
. . 16,18
13,86
-f 2,32
1954-55
. . 16,68
12,03
+ 4,83
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 17,42
18,83
- 1,41
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 17,96
21,04
- 3,08
STATES’ BUDGETS 243
RAJASTHAN
1953-B4
18,51
17,98
+ 53
1954-55
21,93
20,04
-f 1,89
1955-56 (Revised)
20,95
23,42
~ 2,47
1956-5Y (Budget)
24,09
26,79
- 1,70
PEPSU
1953-54
6,88
6,72
+ 16
1954-55
7,57
8,93
- 1,36
1955-5G (Revised)
7,76
10,42
- 2,67
1956-57 (Budget)
19,81
9,34
+ 47
JSAVRASHTRA
1953-54
10,66
8,42
+ 2,14
1954-55
12,29
12,27
+ 2
1955-56 (Revised)
13,50
16,32
- 2,82
1956-57 (Budget)
14,12
15,18
- 1,06
MADHYA BHARAT
1953-54
14,05
12,41
+ 1,64
1954-55
14,50
13,71
+ 79
1955-56 (Revised)
16,92
16,80
-1- 12
1956-67 (Budget)
18,41
18,39
+ 2
TOTAL BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART B STATES
{Lakhs of Rtipece)
Total Revenue Total expenditure
Surplus +
Deficits—
1951-62
. 1,00,64
94,37
+ 6,17
1952-63
. 1,01,99
98,74
-f 3,26
1953-64
. 1,06,66
1,01,12
-f 6,54
+ 4,89
1954-55
,
. 1,16,44
1,11,55
1955-56
(Revised)
. 1,18,51
1,33,66
-16,16
1956-57
(Budget)
. 1,28,28
1,41,82
-13,64
BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART C STATES
(On Revenue Account — Lakhs of Rupees)
Total
AJMER
Revenue
Total Expenditure
SurphtsA-
Deficit—
1953-64
1,00
1,45
-f 15
1954-55
. 1,54
1,64
- 10
1955-66 (Revised)
2,54
2,54
—
1956-57 (Budget)
2,56
2,56
—
BHOPAL
1953-54
2,18
2,21
— 3
1954-55
. 2,00
2,68
- 8
1955-56 (Revised)
. 3,59
3,65
— 6
1956-57 (Budget)
. 3,34
3A1
— 7
244
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
DELHI
1953-54
4,18
3,81
+
37
1954-55
4,40
4.18
"i"
22
1955-56 (Revised)
5,31
5,78
—
47
1956-57 (Budget)
6,14
6,60
—
46
HIMACHAL PRADESH
1953-54
1,99
1,92
4 -
7
1954-55
2,19
2.21
—
2
1955-56 (Revised)
3,04
3,06
—
2
1956-57 (Budget)
3, So
3,85
—
(a)
YINDHYA PRADESH
1953-54
4,42
3,47
4*
95
1954-55
4,03
4,53
. —
50
1955-56 (Revised)
5,18
4,96
4~
22
1956-57 (Budget)
5,64
5,74
—
10
COORG
1953-54
91
86
4~
5
1954-55
95
99
—
4
1955-56 (Revised)
1,17
1,42
—
25
1956-57 (Budget)
1,09
1,48
—
39
TOTAL
1952-53
12,35
12,10
4 "
25
1963-54
15,28
13,72
4 *
1,56
1954-55
15,70
16,23
53
1955-56 (Revised)
20,81
21,40
—
59
1956-57 (Budget)
22,62
23,64
—
1,02
2. STATE GO\^RNMENT DEBTS
Debt Position — Gross debt of Part A States, ■w'hicb had increased
by Rs. 175 crores in 1954-55, increased by another Rs. 244 crores in
1955-56 to Rs. 965 crores, the increase during the five years 1951-56
amounting to Rs. 720 crores. A substantial part of the increae over
the five years was accounted for by loans from the Centre, which rose
by Rs. 571 crores to Rs. 726 crores; permanent debt also rose signi-
ficantly by Rs. 126 crores to Rs. 185 crores. As regards the gross debt
of part B States provisional estimates indicate an increase of Rs. 68
crores in 1955-56 and of Rs. 15.4 crores in 1951-56.
State loans — The States' borrowing programme comprised the
floatation on August 16, 1955 by ten States of 4 per cent 12-yeaT‘
loans for an aggregate amount of Rs. 35.75 crores and, again on
August 30 of a second series of the same loan by seven of these States
for a further Rs. 11.75 crores. Total subscription received amounted
to Rs. 51.34 crores and Rs. 16.43 crores, the amount allotted being
Rs. 42.27 crores and Rs. 12.79 crores. The proceeds of the loans were
intended for financing capital expenditure in connection with the deve-
lopment programme.
(a) - A small sturplus of Rs. 32,000.
states’ budgets
245
STATE GOVERNMENT LOANS
(As on 31st March, 1956 — Lakhs of Rupees)
A. Part A States
Amount
outstanding
MADHYA PRADESH
3% Loan 1956 .. 50,54
3% „ 1958 . . 52,70
3% „ 1960 . . 1,01,45
Si.% „ 1962 .. 1,02,18
4% Dev. loan 1963 . . 1,10,18
•SVo „ „ 1964 . . 2,03,29
4% M. P. Loan 1967 . . 1,63,12
■BOMBAY
3% Loan 1956 . . 2,97,18
3% „ 1958 .. 3,06,66
3% Dev. Loan 1960 . . 2,87,82
3% Bom. Tapi Irriga-
tion & Dev. Loan 1961 67,96
•3% Dev. loan 1962 . . 5,53,56
Si% Dev. loan 1962 ., 2,95,25
4% Do 1963 . . 6A2,28
4% Do 1964 .. 3,55,87
4% Do 1967 .. 10,02,21
37,08,79
ANDHRA
Andhra Dev. Loan 1967
BIHAR
4% Bihar Dev. Loan 1963 1,31,29
3% Loan 1961-66
3h% „ 1962
4% Dev. loan 1963
4% Dev. loan 1964
4% „ 1967
3i% U.P.E.E. Acts
Bonds
Amount
outstanding
1,57,14
1,91,02
5,65,16
6,11,45
9,62,54
1,68,93
7,83,46
MADRAS
3% Loan 1956
3% „ 1958
3% Loan 1959
3% Dev. Loan 1960
3% Dev. Bonds I960
23% Loan 1961
„ 1962
4% Govt. Loan 1963
4% Loan 1964
4% Dev. Loan 1967
5,00,16 WEST BENGAL
ZWo W. B. Loan 1962
4% W. B. Loan 1963 .
4% Do Do 1967 1,54,02 4% „ „ 1964
4% „ „ 1967
VTTAR PRADESH
3% Loan 1960
.23% „ 1961
2,85,31
2,17,90
2,20,94
33,72,19
1,25,10
1.07.95
1.23.96
2,78,44
4,38,25
3,81,77
3,01,49
10,33,70
5,24,81
10,47,17
43,62,64
1,75,00
3,60,23
2,00,00
7,58,72
14,93,95
Total Part A States 1,45,06,50
B. Part B States
4% Hyderabad Dev, Loan 3% Do Do 1956-61 5,99,78
1963 ., 3,34,71 3% Mysore Loan 1958 5,08,06
47o Do Do 1967 .. 2,12,42 4% State Dev. Loan
4% M. P. Dev. Loan 1967 .. 3,54,94
1963 .. 1,04,78 Mysore (Total) .. 20,92,05
4% Mysore Dev. Loan 4% Saurashtra Dev.
1963 . . 3,33,47 Loan 1963 . . 1,13,16
5% Jlysore Loan 1955 1,63,44
4% Do Do 1953-61 2,95,86
246
HINDUSTAN 'YEAE-BOOK
Saurashtra State Loan 4% Travancore-Cochin
1964 . . 2,52,00 Dev. Loan 1963 . . 3,25,61
4% Do Do 1967 . . 3,61,66
Total Part B States . . 37,96,36
Saurashtra Total . . 7,26,82 Total (Parts A & B
States) 1,83,02,89
CONSOLIDATED DEBT POSITION OF PART A STATES
{Lakhs of Rupees)
I. Public Debt
1951-52
1952-53
1953-54
1954-65 1955-66
(R.E.)
{a) Permanent debt
69,11
80,44
105,37
118,61
184,96
(b) Floating debt
(c) Loans from Central
2,62
19,10
21
4,47
••
Govt.
217,23
281,69
397,86
648,52
726,27
II. Unfunded Debt
III. Gross total Debt
33,92
37,52
42,11
49,23
64,12
(total of I and II)
IV. Appropriation for re-
duction or avoidance
322,88
418,75
645,55
720,83
965,35
Debt
6,58
8,14
6,42
8,87
13,31
{Report on Currency & Finance 1955-56).
NEW STATES GOVERNMENT 4 P.C. LOANS OF 1956
{All the loans will be repaid on Srd September, 196S except that of
the Government of Bombay which will be repaid on Srd Sept., 1970),
Rupees {lakhs) Rs. {lakhs}
*Govt. of Andhra . . 600 Govt, of Orissa . . 300
Govt, of Bihar . . 200 Govt, of Punjab . . 200
Govt, of Bombay . . 750 Govt, of Rajasthan . . 300
Govt, of Hyderabad . . 200 Govt, of Saurashtra . . 260
Govt, of Madhya Bharat 100 Govt, of Travancore-
Govt. of Madhya Pradesh 160 Cochin . . 200
Govt of Madras . . 1,250 Govt, of Uttar Pradesh . . 800
Govt, of Mysore . . 400 Govt, of West Bengal . . 700
Total . . 6,400
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA— India is one
of the leading agricultural countries in the world and one of the
biggest sources of its wealth is its produce from land. Agriculture
plays a most vital role in our country. It is the basic industry and.
provides employment to about 100 million people. It also contributes
fifty percent of our national income. In addition, a number of agri-
cultural products are exported and earn valuable foreigrn exchange
for the country. Some of our biggest industries like sugar and textiks
depend on agriculture for raw materials.
The world position of Indian agriculture is indeed a big one.
India enjoys a virtual monopoly in lac and leads the world in the
production of groundnut and tea. It is second largest producer
of rice, jute, tobacco, raw sugar, rape seed, sesame and castor seed.
Cereals are the most important item of agricultural production,
being grown on about 60 per cent of the cropped area. Rice accounts
for about half of India’s cereal output ; the other half is accounted
for by a variety of grains including wheat, millet and barley. In
addition to cereal production, 18 per cent of India’s total cropped
area is devoted to pulses, gram and other food crops. Nevertheless,
India does not produce sufficient food for its own needs. One of the
major objectives of the Five-Year Plan is to make India self-sufficient
in foodstaifs by bringing more land under production through irriga-
tion and reclamation and by increasing productivity. Various com-
mercial crops are also significant. Oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane, tea,
coffee, spices, rubber and jute are the most important. Such crops
form the basis of some of major industries and are among the leading
exports either in raw or maniifactured form.
DEFECTS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE AND SHORTAGE OP
FOOD — ^Indeed the defects of Indian agriculture become evident when
the per acre yield of most crops in India is compared to that of
foreign countries. The average yield per acre of agricultural pro-
ducts in India is comparatively poor. Average production of wheat
per acre in India is about 700 lbs. while it is 1,918 lbs. in
Egypt, 1,713 lbs. in Japan, 898 lbs. in China. As regards rice, pro-
duction of India is about 750 lbs. per acre, while it is 3,444 lbs. per
acre in Japan, 2,998 lbs. per acre in Egypt, 2,433 lbs. per acre in
China and 2,185 lbs. per acre in U.S.A. This bespeaks the backward-
ness of India’s agriculture which by the way is due no less to the
growing lack of soil fertility as to the medieval technique of a^cul-
ture and an almost complete lack of capital to be employed in it. It
may also be said that the production of food was
outstripped by the growth of population. The partition
of the country in 1947 and the consequent separation
from India of the canal irrigated areas of Sind and
the Punjab and the lowlands of East Bengal not only aggravated the
food shortage but also created an acute deficiency in jute and long and
248
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
medium staple cotton. Indian agriculture has to contend with a noto-
riously capricious nature. Draughts alternating with devastating
floods are a common occurrence in one part of the country or another.
Moreover agriculture in India suffers from the impoverishment of soil
and the fragmentation of holdings. All these drawbacks account for
the poverty of the peasant and rural indebtedness.
AREA AND SOIL — The total area available for cultivation is 71.^
crore acres or 88.6 per cent of the total area._ The total area culti-
vated annually is 30.24 crore acres. The cultivated area works out
to 1.2 acres per head of the agricultural population. Forests cover
11.56 crore acres while there are 5.52 crore acres of culturable waste
land and 6.81 crore acre of fallow land.
Four main types of soil are (1) alluvial, (2) black, (3) red and
(4) laterite. The first three are rich in potash and lime, hut defi-
cient in phosphoric acid, nitrogen and humus. The laterite soil
possesses plenty of humus, but lacks most of the other chemical in-
gredients. The alluvial soil is the most fertile and easily worked
and covers almost the entire Indo-Gangetic plain and the narrow
coastal strips girdling peninsular India. Highly retentive of moisture
and sticky, the hlack soil covers the western portion of the Deccan
plateau, while the red soil covers the eastern part. The laterite soil
is found in Central India, Assam and along the Eastern and Western
Ghats.
In addition to four main groups of soils mentioned above, the
desert soils of the sub-continent occupy a large tract in Rajasthan
and the south Punjab. Rajasthan desert alone occupies an area of
40,000 sq. miles.
Saline and Alkali soils also form an important group of Indian
soils. Such soils are characterised by a high degree of impermea-
bility and stickiness together with high alkalinity and frequent pre-
sence of large excess of free salts. They are usually poor in nitrogen
and humus and unsuitable for crop growing without previous recla-
mation. Forest soils occupy a large part of the sub-continent. These
soils belong to brown earth and podsol groups. Marshy and peaty
soils are foimd in coastal areas of Orissa and West Bengal, North-
West Bihar, Almora district of U.P., South-East coast of Madras
and in Travancore-Cochin.
CROPS— The two outstanding features of agricultural production
in India are the wide variety of crops and the preponderance of food
over non-food crops. There is hardly a crop of the tropical, sub-
tropical or temperate zone which is not grown in some part or the
other of this country. Food crops occupy about 86 per cent of the
total sown area. There are two well defined crop seasons: (i) kharif
and (ii) rabi. The kharif crop is harvested in Nov. to Oct. 31 and
rabi crop in May 1 to April 30. The major kharif crops include rice,
jowar, bajra, maize, cotton, sugarcane, sesamum and groundnut ;
the major rabi crops are wheat, barley, tea, gram, linseed, rape,
mustard ; and in South India rice, jowar and cotton.
The seasons for individual crops are as follows — ^Wheat — ^Nov. to
Oct.; Sugarcane — ^Nov. to Oct.; Cotton — Sept, to August ; Jute — July
to June ; Tea — Jan. to Dec.; Coffee — July to June.
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
249
Classification of Crops of India — ^The crops of India are usually
classified as follows : — (1) Food o'ops such as rice, wheat,
barley, millets, pulses and gram, sugarcane and spices ; Food
■crops occupy more than four-fifths of the cultivated land (2) Oilseeds
such as linseed, rape and mustard, sesamum, castor, groundnut and
-cocoanut ; (3) Fibres such as cotton, jute, hemp and flax ; and (4)
Drugs mid Beverages such as poppy, cinchona, tobacco, tea and coffee.
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION— Research
and extension activities are being cai’ried out by the Indian Council
of Agricidtural Research, the Central Research Institute and the
■Central Commodity Committees.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is devoted to the
aim of Increasing agricultural production. The I.C.A.R. was set up
in 1929 to promote, guide and co-ordinate research in the field of
agriculture and animal husbandry throughout India and to link it
with research in foreign countries. The Council’s Advisory Board
■consists of experts repi-esenting the States, the universities and
scientific bodies, while the Governing Body is composed of State
Ministers of Agriculture and the representatives of Parliament and
commercial interests. The Council does not possess any research
institution of its own, but sponsors agricultural research in co-
operation with the State Governments in Central and State
research institutions, universities and recognised private institutions.
The Council mainly concerns itself with schemes of regional or all-
India importance ; schemes of purely local interest is left to the
State Governments. The finances of the I.C.A.R. are obtained from
■^vemment grants, contributions from other sources and the income
from a cess of half per cent imposed on the exports of certain agri-
■cultural products specified in the Agricultural Produce Cess Act,
1940.
The Central Research Institutes are engaged on a variety of
research projects, both fundamental and applied. They conduct
■extensive inquiries to improve the fertility of the soil, the quality of
grass and grass lands. They have evolved certain varieties of crops
which are capable of resisting draught, disease, insects and pests.
India’s largest agricultural research institute is at Delhi and is
popularly known as Fusa Institute. The Indian Agricultural Re-
search Institute was established by the Government of India on April
1, 1905 at Pusa. After the Institute building was wrecked in 1934
by a disasterous earthquake, the Government of India transferred it
to New Delhi. The chief functions of the Institute are to conduct
research in the agricultural sciences with a view to gaining knowledge
■which would help to ameliorate the conditions of Indian apiculture
■and to impart post-graduate training of a high order. The investip-
tions of the Institute are divided into six main divisions — (1) Division
of Botany. (2) Dmsion of Agi'onomy, (3) Division of soil science and
Agricultural Chemistry, (4) Division of Mycology and Plant Patho-
^ogy. (5) Entomology Division, (6) Agricultural Engineering Division.
Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack provides field trials and
research on the agronomy, mycology, entomology, botany and chemis-
■try of rice. The multiplication of improved varieties of rice
250
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
and experiments in green manuring and in new methods of trans-
plantation are some of its other functions. The Institute has beeci
selected by the F.A.O. as the venue for an international rice breeding
course. Central Potato Institute at Poona is en^ged in evolving-
improved varieties of potatoes capable of giving high yields. Other
potato research stations are — ^Laboratoi’y at Potato Multiplication
Sub-Division, Bhowali (U.P.) and Laboratory at Potato-
Breeding Sub-station, Simla. The Central Vegetable Breeding
Station at Kulu is experimenting on the _ adaptation of"
European vegetables for Indian conditions. It is also investi-
gating on self-fertilised seeds and the manipulation of agricultural
practices to secure increased production. Indian Institute of
Sugar Technology at Kanpur was established in 1936 and is now
maintained by the Indian Central Sugar-cane Committee. It con-
ducts research in different branches of sugar technology, renders-
technical assistance to factories and trains students. The founda-
tion stone of the Indian Institute of Sugar Technology and Sugar-
cane Research at Lucknow was laid in 1953. Forest Research Insti-
tute at Dehra Dun was opened in 1914 and is engaged in research on-
silviculture, forest botany, entomology, the seasoning, preservation-
and the technology of wood, timber mechanics, cellulose and paper
pulp chemistry and on minor forest products. The Institute also pro-
vides training for forest officers. Indian Veterinary Research Insti-
tute at Izatnagar was established in 1890. It has six main research-
divisions and four auxilary sections. In addition to research, the-
Institute undertakes the manufacture of vaccines and trains students.
The Institute has been recognised by F.A.O. as an international train-
ing centre. Indian Dairy Research Institute at Bangalore trains-
students for diploma course in dairying and conducts research on
dairy problems. It is also engaged in the development of
pedigree herds of Red Sindhi and Gir cows. There are two cattle
farms at Kamal and Coimbatore and a creamery at Anand. Among
the other important research stations are the Indian Lac Research
Institute at Namkum, Ranchi, which is engaged in fundamental and
applied research in the entomology and chemistry, three fisheries-
research stations at Barrackpur, Mandapam and Bombay, Indian-
Institute of Fruit Technology, Delhi.
Commodity Committees — The Indian Central Committees for-
cotton, jutOj oilseeds, sugarcane, coconut, arecanut and tobacco operate-
and _ subsidise a number of research schemes at various research
stations and sub-stations. These committees are financed by proceeds-
of a cess le-ried on the particular commodity : —
(1) Indian Central Cotton Committee is concentrating its-
research on the development of long-staple cotton for which India is-
deficient. At the Institute of Plant Industry, Indore important-
research work is undertaken in botany, physiology, breeding and'
genetics of cotton.
(2) Indian Central Jute Committee's research and extension-
work is undertaken by Jute Agricidtural Research Institute,.
Barrackpur, Technological Research Laboratories, Tollyganf, Cal-
cutta Economic Research Section and the Publicity Section. The
AGEICULTURE IN INDIA.
251 ’
Committee also sponsors schemes of fundamental research at the'
'University of Calcutta, Bose Research Institute and Presidency'
College, Calcutta.
(2) Indian Central Oilseeds Committee aims at finding out the-
relative nutritive values of oil-cakes obtained by the expeller and
Ghani process.
(4) Indian Central Sugarcane Committee maintains Indian
Institute of Sugar Technology at Kanpur established in 1936. It con-
ducts research in sugar technology, renders technical assistance to
factories and trains students.
(5) Indian Central Coconut Committee has two research
stations, one each at Kasaragad and Kayangulam and foiir regional
stations (three in Travancore- Cochin and one in Orissa).
(6) Indian Central Arecanut Committee subsidises number of
research schemes. There are three regional arecanut research
stations in Mysore, Travancore-Cochin and South Kanara started)
with the help of the Committee.
(7) Indian Central Tobacco Committee, Madras.
(8) Indian Central Lac Cess Committee, Ranchi.
(9) All India Cattle Show Committee, Kamal, Punjab.
The number of research institutes, stations and farms are also-
maintained by the Central Commodity Committees : —
1. Indian Central Cotton Committee has — (a) Technological
Laboratory, Matunga, Bombay, (b) Institute of Plant Industry,.
Indore,
2. Jute Committee has — (a) Jitte Agricidtnral Research Insti-
tute, Barrachpore (Bengal), (b) Technological Research Labora-
torics, Tollyganj, Calcutta, (c) Economic Research Section, Indian;
Central Jute Commitee, Calcutta.
3. The Tobacco Committee has — (a) Central Tobacco Re-
search Institute, Rajahmundry, (b) Cigar and Cheroot Tobacco Re-
search Station, Vedasandur, (c) Hookah and Chewing Tobacco Re-
search Station, Pusa, Bihar, (d) Cigarette Tobacco Research Sub-
station, Guntur, (e) Wrapper Tobacco Research station, Dinhata,.
Bengal.
4. Sugar Committee has — Sugar Sub-station, Kamal, Punjab.
The Directorate of Economics and Statistics — ^This sole organisa-
tion under the Central Government dealing with all agro-economic-
problems in the sphere of food and agriculture — has continued to-
fulfil its useful role by supplying statistical material, preparing
memoranda on current issues^ of agro-economic policy, besides exa-
mining the progress in the implementation of the first Five-Year
Plan. They issue All India Crop Estimates and All India Rice
Estimates, regular forecasts for small millets.
OWNERSHIP & HOLDINGS— Of the 294 million persons which
the 1951 census estimates as depending for their livelihood on agricul-
ture, roughly 167 million consist of those who o-wn (wholly or main-
ly) and cultivate land and their dependents. About 314 milliom
belongs to the category of cultivators of land not o-wned by thetm
and their dependents. About 45 million consist of cultivating-
252
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
labourers and their dependents and about 5S million are non-culti-
•vating owners, rent receivers and their dependents.
Average holding in India is about 5 acres though the size varies
from State to State. According to the Report of the Famine En-
•quiry Commission, it was 11,7 acres in Bombay, 10 in Punjab, 6 in
IJ.P., 4.5 in Bengal, 4.4 acres in Madras. A greater evil _ than
sub-division is the fragmentation of holdings. It is the biggest
■single obstacle to economic cultivation, leading to increased overhead
•costs and to the under-employment.
Both voluntary method and compulsory method for the consoli-
•dation of holdings have been tried since 1912 to check sub-division
.and fragmentation. Punjab had led the way in voluntary consolida-
tion. Legislation involving varying degrees of compulsion have
therefore been enacted and revised from time to time in the States.
^Efforts have also been made to organise co-operative farming. The
trend of legislation and land policy in recent years has been to pre-
vent the growth of small and uneconomic holdings and concentration
•of land in a few hands. The legislation for the consolidation of
holdings was first passed in Madhya Pradesh in 1928. Uttar Pradesh
(1939), Bombay (1947), Punjab (1936 and 1948), Delhi (1936 and
1948), Jammu and Kashmir and PEPSU have passed similar acts for
•consolidation of holdings.
AGRICULTURAL POLICY — The growing shortage of food had
been the main feature of the Indian agriculture for the last 30 or 35
-years. The acute food-shortage was brought out prominently during
the Bengal famine of 1943. This food shortage was due to the
•various causes such as phenomenal increase of population outstripp-
ing production of food, partition of the country, etc. So various
Tueans were undertaken by the government to increase the food pro-
-duction of the country. From the famine year of 1953, Grow More
Food Campaign vfas initiated. The shortage of food which
India began to e:^erience during the "iVorld War II reached to an
^icute stage. During first four years of starting of Grow More Food
-Campaign, grants and loans were given by the Centre to the States
to enable them to increase production. Central assistance was
however given only for specific programmes — Such as works schemes
and supply schemes. Works schemes include the construction and
repair of wells, tanks, small dams, channels and tube-wells, and the
installation of water-lefting appliances such as pumps etc. Also
included in this class were the schemes of contour-bunding and the
clearance and reclamation of waste land. Supply schemes covered
the distribution of fertilizers and manures and improved seeds.
The rapid gro-wth in the use of fertilisers is due mainly to the
Grow hlore Food Campaign. Among the various organic manures,
the production and distribution of compost, both urban and rural,
are receiving considerable attention from the Government.
The Grow More Food Campaign has given impetus to better
irrigation facilities, increased use of fertilizers, improved varities
-of seeds, improved cultural practices and various methods of inten-
-.sive cultivation. Central Fertilzer Pool has been formed to make
^ammonium sulphate available to the cultivators throughout the
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
25S
country at reduced and uniform prices. There is also the Standinir
Expert Committee on Seeds. Other important improvements under
G.M.F. campaigns are minor irrigation projects for sinking and con-
structing of tube -wells and introduction of Japanese methods of
paddy cultivation -which lays more emphasis on higher doses of ferti-
lizers and is recommended where adequate moisture supply is assured.
This method started as an experimental method in 1953 has been
organised on a more systematic method with definite targets. This
has resulted in increased food production.
After Grow More Food Campaign came the Integrated
Production Programme. It was formulated in 1950-61 for
the achievement of relative self-sufficiency in food, cotton^
jute and sugar. It has become a part of the First Five-Year
Plan which has, in tern, been integrated into the ten-year programme-
of land transfo-rmation. The five main -programmes are (a) con-
centration of the available funds and technical facilities in 48 million
acres with an assured water supply, (6) reclamation and cultivation
of 10 million acres of waste and fallow lands, (c) organisation of
Bhiimi Sena, (d) gosambardhan drive for producing 80,000 stud bulls
a year and for the eradication of rinder-pest in the country and (e)
regular observance of Vana Mahotsava -with the object of planting
300 million trees.
Crop Competitions — Another method for the increase of crop
production is the crop competitaon initiated by the Central
Government. Under this competition, the Central Government
award all-India cash prizes of 5,000 and a certificate of KriskH
Pandit to the farmers producing highest yield in respect of wheat,
gram, potato, paddy, jowar and bajra crops.
Land Reclamation — The land reclamation work for bring-
ing more land under cultivation is carried on by two agencies,
namely, Central Tractor Organisation and Tractor Organisation of
certain States, Central Tractor Organisation was founded in
1947 with about 200 tractors abandoned by U.S. Army.
Since its inception it _ has carried out some of the largest
reclamation operation in Asia. Thousands of acres of land in
Madiiya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Bharat and Bhopal
infested with a pernicious -weed known as bans, were cleared and
made ready for cultivation. A fleet of 240 new tractors were pur-
chased in 1951 out of a loan obtained by the Government from the
International Bank of Reconstruction and Development. The total
area reclaimed by the Centra! Tractor Organisation in eight years
of its existence exceeded eight lakh acres.
BHOODAN MOVEMENT — On a rough estimate there are about
4.5 million landless labourers in the country. Inspite of the abolition
of zamindaries, there -was no hops for these landless labourers. So
Acharya Vinoba Bhave has started Land Gift Movement. This is
an appeal to the lando-wners of India to donate land for the landless.
The noble efforts of Vinoba" Bhave have met with remarltable success.
The movement has also received direct supports of the State Govern-
ments and some political parties. Millions of acres of land
have been donated. For the proper utilization of this donated land.
■254
HINDUSTAN? I’EAE-BOOK
•tlie scope of fhe movement has been enlarged — ^snch as Koopdan
(gifts for sinking of vrells) and Sampattidan (gifts for procming
•agricnltnral implements and draught animals).
SOIL COlsSERVATIOK — A special provision of Rs. 2 crore has
been made in the Five-Year Plan for soil conservation. A desert
afforestation research station has been established at Jodhpnr to deal
■with the problems created by the insidious advances of the Rajasthan
•desert and a soil conservation branch has been opened at the Forest
“Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Contour-binding has been carried
•out on an extensive scale in Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, and Idadhya
Fradesh. The Central Conservation Board has started functioning
from 1955 to undertake soil analysis and combat soil erosion. This
Board has already started four regional centres. The Board has
also given subsidies and loans to the States for financing the soil
conservation schemes. Shelter belts vrere raised in Eajasthan by
planting trees along roads and railway lines as a desert control
measure.
5LARKETIKG — The Directorate of Marketing and Inspection
and marketting department in the States were created by the (Jovem-
ment of India in 1935 for improvement of marketing conditions of
agricultural, animal husbandry and allied products. It has conducted
nation-wide marketing surveys for various commodities. IVith the
help of subsidies from Indian Cotincil of Agricultural Research, the
State Governments have established similar organisations in their
own areas. The activities of the Directorate mainly consist of grad-
ing and standardisation of agricultural commodities, regulation
of markets and market practices and development of the fruit
preservation industry. Agricultural Produce (Grading and Market-
ing) Act was passed in 1937 for grading the agricultural produce.
But it is a permissive act, but enjoins compulsory quality control on
the basis of “AgamarJd’ specifications in respect of same commodities
exported from India, such as tobacco, sann hemp, wool and bristles.
Asamarh specification has been notified for 110 items so far. To
ensure fair price for a^ctiltural goods 414 regulated marJccts have
been established in India, where market charges are fixed, correct
weigh tment is ensured etc. The Directorate of marketting and Ins-
pection is also controlling quality of fruits and vegetable products
under Food Products Order, 194S. Under this order, factories with
annual production of fruits exceeding 200 lbs. have to obtain licence
^and the quality of fruits is required to be the standard laid down for
the purpose.
ZOOLOGIC-AL AND BOTANICAL SURVEYS— The Ministry of
Agriculture is responsible for Zoological Survep of IrAia which is
mainly concerned with care, preservation and maintenance of natural
-zoological collections in its custody. The Botanical Survey of India
. at Calcutta is also under the Ministry of Agriculture.
FOOD CROPS
Rice — the staple food of the majority of the people, is the lead-
ring crop of India and occupies about SO per cent of the total culti-
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
255
■vated area. As sufficiently high temperature, high rainfall and fer-
tile alluvial plains are necessary for the growth of the crop, the
••southern and north-eastern parts of India are the main regions of
rice growing. In order of merit, Madras, Bihar, Bengal, U.P., M.P.,
Orissa, Assam and Bombay are the main rice growing areas. Rice
is special crop in the monsoon tracts. In eastern and southern India
it is the staple article of diet. The bulk of the rice is winter crop
i.e. sown in June-July and harvested in November-December. There
•are about 4,000 distinct varieties of rice in India. The average rice
yield in India is low, being only 723 lbs. of cleaned rice per acre
as compared to 2,350 lbs in Japan.
Wheat — which is the staple food of central and northern India is
■winter crop sown in India from October to December and
harvested from March to May and stands next only to rice in im-
portance. U.P. and Punjab form the principal wheat growing
area supplying about three quarters of the total outturn in the coun-
try. The two main species of wheat grown in India are the so-called
* bread’ wheat of Europe and the so-called ‘marconi’ wheat and it is
•estimated that about a third of the total acreage of wheat in India
is under improved varieties.
Barley — a subsidiary food to wheat-eaters is a rabi crop and is
grown mainly in the U.P. and Bihar. Compared to her pre-war
acreage and yield of about 6 million acres and about 1-9 million tons,
India has now about 7 million acres under barley producing about
2-4 million tons.
Millets — viz., jowar (called cholam in Madras) and bajra, the
two main varieties of millets ^own in India constitute the staple
•food of the agricultural population of the south. Both of them are
mainly grovm as kharif crops. While jowar is mainly grown in
Bombay, Hyderabad, M.P., Madras, U.P., bajra is grown mainly
in the Rajasthan, Bombay, the U.P., Madras and Punjab in order of
importance. It is estimated that jowar is gro'wn in about 20 million
acres yielding about 4 million tons while bajra is grown in about 16
million acres yielding more than 2 million tons. Another such food-
crop, gro'wn mainly in the south, is ragi which accounts for about 5
million acres producing about 1-4 mUlion tons annually. Another
food crop, uncommonly rich in its food value, is maize (commonly
kno'wn as makai or bhutta). Although gro-cm more or less all over
India, it is grown mainly in the U.P. and Bihar.
Gram and the Pulses — ^These constitute an important and balanc-
ing item of the popular diet in this country. Pulses form the pri-
mary source of protein for the vegetarian population of the country.
Some of them form a source of nutritious fodder, while others
make excellent green manure crops. Gram, the most commonly grown
pulse of India, is a rabi crop and accounts more or less for about 17
million acres and 3’6 million tons. U.P., Punjab, Bihar, M.P.,
and Hyderabad are in order of merit the most important gram pro-
ducing areas. Khesari, mung, masur, arhar, mattar and kalai are
the other pulses, also gro'wn extensively throughout the country.
Spices — of numerous varieties are gro'wn throughout India,
some mainly in the south. Of the Indian spices pepper is confined
256
HmDUSTAN -seae-book;
to the submountanic tracts of the Western Ghats and the total acreage
is estimated to he over 20,000 acres producing about 31,000 tons in
a normally good year. The major share of pepper is produced
by a large number of small holdings, chillies in West Bengal, Madras,
Ginger in Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madias. Cardc-
■mom is an important spice crop on the west coast of India. It
grows wholly in the elevated and ever^een regions of the Western
Ghats and is grown on a .plantation basis in Kerala and
Malabar. Apart from being the principal exporter, India
is the only source for true cardamoms in the world market. Among
others betehnits are grown mainly in West Bengal and South
India, arccanuts being also grown in the same areas. India is how-
ever in short supply of many of the spices and has to import them.
Other important spices of India are tumieric, cashew-rMts, and
levwn grass.
Other Food Crops — Among other food crops mention must be
made of the overall shortage of fruits and vegetables which keeps
the first almost totally out of the reach of the general mass of people
and due to which the later is an insufficient unit of popular food con-
sidering the dietary habits of the people. The present annual supply
of fruits and vegetables amounts to only 1-5 and 1-3 ounces per adult
per day against the diet at 3 ounces, and 10 ounces respectively. To
make the position clear it may be mentioned that in potato for
example, India’s production is so very low that the per capita con-
sumption comes to about only 8 lbs. per annum as compared to 505
lbs. in Belgium.
PLAOT-4TI0N CROPS
Plantation Crops — The great plantation areas of India are
Assam in the north, the Nilgiri Hills and the West Coast area of
Travancore-Cochin in the South.
Tobacco — ^India stands third in the production of tobacco, the
other countries being U.S.A. and China. There are five zones of con-
centrated production in India — (a) North Bengal area, (6) North
Bihar area, growing both Nicothia Tobacum and Nicotina Eustica :
the former used for chewing as well as manufacture of cigarettes
and latter mostly used for hookah, (c) Gujarat area growing Nico-
tina Tobacum suited for bidi. hookah and snuff, (d) Nepani areas
of Belgaum, Kolhapur and Miraj growing Nicotina Tobacum used
for chewing and bi_di_; they are specially rnild and sweet, (c) Guntur
area growing Virginia type tobacco which is excellent for cigarette
manufacture. The chief Virginia variety cultivated in Indian soil is
Harrison special.
Poppy — which was an important narcotic crop before Inter-
national Agreement led to the restriction of opium exports, is at pre-
sent grown chiefly in UJP. and Central India and that mainlv as a
Government monopoly.
Cinchona — ^is mainly grown on Government plantations in the
Nilgiri Hills and Darjeeling. Considering the overall need of the
malaria-stricken country-side, production is still short and has to be
supplemented by imports.
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
257
Tea — ^Indian Union is overwhelmingly the largest producer in the
world. The yearly production is nearly 600 million lbs. About 82
per cent of India’s tea comes from North India, mainly from Assam
and the Dooars (West Bengal) ; this tea is exported through the
port of Calcutta. Tea is, after jute and cotton, India's most im-
portant exchange earner.
Coffee — ^next to tea, coffee is considered the most important
plantation crops in India. The Indian production though small, has
consisted always of a large proportion of highest quality and is
grown in about 224,000 acres yielding about 18,000 tons. India pro-
duces less than one per cent of the world coffee output. There are
about 10,851 coffee plantations in India. With the exception of small
areas in Orissa, Assam and Madhya Pradesh, Indian coffee is grown
in the low hills of South India. Mysore is the most important
growing area followed by Madras, Coorg and Travancore-Cochin.
Rubber — ^The cultivation of raw rubber on a plantation scale was
undertaken in Travancore-Cochin, Malabar, Coorg and Mysore in
early years of the present century. The production of rubber in the
count^ at the present time is of the order of 16,000 to 17,000 tons.
Of the total number of rubber estates and holdings, 72-85 p.c. are
located in Travancore, 7.19 p.c. in Cochin, 16.55 p.c. in Madras
(mainly Malabar) and remaining 2.41 p.c. are in Coorg, the Anda-
mans and Assam.
Pepper — ^India is suppling two-thirds of the estimated world
demand. She is now producing, in and below the Western Ghats be-
tween Karwar and Cape Comorin 31,000 tons of pepper grown over
195,000 acres.
Cardamom — In the recent years there has been a remarkable
expansion in the cardamom growing industry. It is estimated that
the present acreage amounts to over 120,000, about 50 per cent of
which is situated in the Cardamom Hills in Travancore-Cochin and
the remainder in the States of Coorg and Mysore and in the districts
of Madura, Tinnevelly, Malabar and Coimbatore. The total produc-
tion is estimated at about 1,350 tons.
Ooves — are chiefly grown in the foot-hills of the Western Ghats
in the State of Madras. The production is insufficient to meet
demand.
FIBRES
Cotton — ^is the chief commercial crop of India. Bombay, Punjab,
hladhya, Pradesh, Madras, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Saurashtra, are the important cotton producing tracts of
the country.
Jute — A monopoly of undivided India, it is at present
grown in about 766,000 acres yielding about 2 million bales against
a total requirement of about 6 mUlion bales. Endeavour is being
made therefore to extend its cultivation. Reclamation of fallow
land, diversion of arcs paddy land, double cropping of aman paddy
land are some of the measures adopted to secure an increase in jute
production and the result has been the progressive increase of jute
17
258
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
production in India. The heat and humidity and heavy downpour of
rain — unpleasant features of the climate of Bengal are ideal for the
gro'irth of jute. The outturn of dry fibre of jute generally varies 8
to 25 mds. with an average of 11 mds. per acre, depending upon soil
fertility and other factor.
Hemp — ^is another fibre grown in India chiefly in the M.P., the
U.P., Bombay and West Bengal. Small as the production is, it is
used largely for the production of cordage and canvas.
Silk — ^Two-thirds of the total output of this fibre comes from
Mysore. Of the other varieties of silk, “mulbery” silk is grown in
the districts of Murshidabad, Malda and Birbhum of West Bengal,
Debra Dun and Parbatgarh of the U.P., Gurudaspur of Punjab
and in Kashmir, where it is a state monopoly ; ‘tasar’ silk in the
M.P., and the Chotanagpur division of Bihar ; ‘eri’ silk in the Jalpai-
guri district of West Bengal and in Assam ; and ‘Mztga’ silk in
Assam and Manipur.
OTHER CASH CROPS
Sugarcane — In the sugar map of the world, India occupies a
leading place producing about 4i million tons even exceeding that of
Cuba. Sugarcane growing is an important element in the agricultural
economy, specially in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The average yield
of cane per acre is now around 14 tons as compared with 56 tons in
Java and 62 tons in Hawaii.
Indian Central Sugarcane Committee is a Central Organisation
for co-ordinating sugarcane research and development work.
Lac — ^is a resinous material secreted by an insect which lives
as a parasite on certain kinds of tropical tree. It can be marketed
roughly in its natural form as sticklac or refined into seedlac or fur-
ther refined into shellac or buttonlac. Lac is collected over almost
all India, the most important producing states being Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh.
Myrobalans — ^is a small fruit produced on trees in mixed decidu-
ous forests normally below 3,000 feet above sea level, but occasionally
found up to 5,000 feet. When pulped it produces a substance used
in the tanning industry. It is also used as a coimtry medicine.
The fruit is collected in state forests in Madhya Pradesh, Madras,
Bombay, Bihar and Orissa and also derived from private forests.
Lemongrass Oil — Oil of lemongrass is an essential oil, a pro-
duct distilled from the leaves of a special species of grass botanically
known as cymbogon flexuosus. Lemongrass of the best variety which
yields a superior oil is used for extracting aromatic chemicals, employ-
ed in perfumery, soap, cosmatics and pharmaceutical preparations.
The Travancore-Cochin Government Lemongrass Research Station has
been established at Odakali near Perumbavoor, 14 miles from Ema-
kulam on August 27, 1955. Lemongrass is a dollar-saving product.
Nearly 75 per cent of the world’s supply of lemongrass oil is pro-
duced in the State of Travancore-Cochin where the area under culti-
vation is estimated at 40,000 acres.
Cashew Nuts — are grown mostly in Madras, Bombay, Orissa,
AGEICULTUKE IN INDIA
259
Bengal and Kerala. Madras State is by far the most
important State as far as cashew nut production is concerned.
India ranks as the most important producer of cashew nut in the
world and holds almost a monopoly, accounting for more than 95
per cent of the international trade in cashew nut kernels.
OILSEEDS
Oilseeds — India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds and
holds a prominent position in the world trade of oilseeds being one
of the principal exporting countries. Oilseeds in India are grown in
an area of about 23 million acres representing 8 p.c. of the net culti-
vated area. Oilseed crops are those, from the seeds of which oil,
either edible or non-edible is extracted. The crops may either be
perennial as coconut, neem, mahua or annual like groundnut, gin-
gelly etc. Groundnut, gingelly, mustard, copra, castor and kusum are
the most important edible oilseeds. The importance of oilseeds in the
Indian economy is indicated by the fact that more than 25 million
acres are devoted to their production, equivalent to about 10 per cent
of the net area sown with crops in the whole of India. Indian Cen-
tral Oilseeds Committee Act which was passed in 1946 was intended
to promote the improvement and development in the cultivation and
marketing of oilseeds and oilseeds products and in accordance with
this Act the Indian Central Oilseeds Committee, was consti-
tuted in May, 1947. This Committee is responsible for the
development of all oilseeds excepting coconut for which a separate
Committee, viz., Indian Central Coconut Committee at Emakulam
(Cochin) has been constituted under the Indian Central Coconut
Committee Act, 1944.
Linseed — a rabi crop, producing a very important industrial oil,
is at present gro^vn in about 3-3 million acres yielding more than
350,000 tons annually. Cultivation of linseed is widespread through-
out India, main centres being Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra, Bihar, Madhya Bharat, Rajasthan.
Castor — another non-edible oilseed, is a virtual monopoly
of India, the average acreage and yield in recent years being 1'4
million acres and about 130,000 tons. It is grown almost throughout
the length and breadth of India and Hyderabad is the most impor-
tant producer with an area of 879,000 acres. About 70 per cent
of the crop is available for export either as seed or as oil. India
comes next to Brazil only in world production and trade of castor
seed.
Groundnut — ^India has the largest area under groundnuts in the
world. The groundnut cultivation has become a major agri-
cultural operation in India and the crop is now estimated to
occupy nearly 42 p.c. of the area under all oilseeds and 4.4 p.c. of
the total area sown under all main food crops in the Indian Union.
Prom a mere 0-5 million acres at the beginning of the century, the
groundnuts now account for nearly 11 m. acres with an annual yield
of 3i million tons of nuts in shells and 4'10 m. tons of kernels.
Nearly 80 p.c. of the groundnut area is concentrated in Madras,
Andhra, Bombay, and the prominent varieties grown are the Coro-
260
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
mandel and the Peanuts. Bold nuts grown in Saurashtra with a
lower oil content are specially valued for eating.
The oil is used for culinary purposes. The advent of vanaspati
has set up a great demand and vanaspati industry is the single
largest consumer of groundnut oil.
Rape and Mustard — ^two other very important edible oOseeds
are, imlike groundnut, rabi crops accounting for about 4-3 million
acres and a little less than 800,000 tons in normal years. Uttar
Pradesh grows well over half the rape and mustard in India.^ Other
important producing areas are Bihar, Punjab, Assam and Rajasthan.
Sesamum — or gingelly or til also an edible oilseed, is a kharif
crop grown in a little less than 4 million acres_ with an
yield of more than 340,000 tons in normal years. _ The chief growers
of sesamum are U.P., and Madras foDowed by Rajasthan, Hyderabad
and Madhya Bharat.
Coconut — ^is an important oil- 3 ?ielding tropical fruit. It pro-
vides many useful products to mankind. The kernel of the ripe
nut in its raw state finds wide use in culinary preparations or is
dried and converted into copra and crushed for oil. Coconut oil is
greatly in demand for edible purposes as well as for the manufac-
ture of soaps and toUet preparations. The tender nut affords a
refreshing drink, while the unopened spathe on tapping yields a
sweet-juice or neera. Its leaf and timber are extensively used for
constructing houses. In India it grows luxuriantly in the coastal
and deltaic tracts and also in the interior of Mysore. India’s share
in the world acreage and production comes to 1*5 million acres and
3,400 million nuts respectively. The bulk of this produce comes
from the plantations located in the strip of land lying on the west
coast of India between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats
extending from the Konkan in the north to Cape Comorin in the
south and falling vithin the territories of North Kanara of Bombay
State, South Kanara and Malabar districts of Madras and Travan-
core-Cochin. The districts of Tanjore, Godavari and Vizag in
Madras, Andhra and Mysore, Orissa and Bengal also possess appre-
ciable areas under the crop. To rehabilitate the industry and pro-
mote research a statutory body, the Indian Central Coconut
Committee representing various interests was constituted by an
Act of 1944.
Cotton-seed — also an edible oilseed, is naturally a by-product of
cotton cultivation and is extensively grown in India, the average
annual production being above 2 million tons.
CEREALS
Rice
Wheat
Jowar
Bajra
PRODUCTION OP FOOD GRAINS
(Reporting and non-reporting areas)
(Thousands of Tons)
1951-52
20,964
6,085
5.981
2,309
1952-53
22,537
7,382
7,243
3,142
1953-54
27,769
7,890
7,954
4,475
1954-55
24,209
8,539
9,092
3,555
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA 261
Maize
2,043
2,825
2,991
2,944
Ragi
1,291
1,316
1,846
1,778
Barley
2,330
2,882
2,905
2,786
Small millets
1,885
1,895
2,438
2,424
TOTAL CEREALS
42,888
49,222
58,268
55,327
PULSES
Gram
. 3,334
4,142
4,756
5,125
Other pulses
, 4,953
4,902
5,694
5,349
TOTAL PULSES
8,287
9,044
10,450
10,474
GRAND TOTAL
(Cereals and
Pulses)
. 51,175
(Report
58,266
68,718
65,801
on Currency & Finance,
1955-56).
PRODUCTION OF AGRICLUTURAL COMMODITIES OTHER
THAN FOOD GRAINS
(000 omitted)
Unit
1951-52
1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
1. Sugar (raw)
(tons)
6,066
5,019
4,423
5,546
2. Oil seeds
( » )
4,949
4,659
5,286
5,877
(a) Groundnut
( )
3,142
2,883
3,391
3,823
(b) Rape & Mustard ( „ )
928
844
858
962
(c) Sesamum
( „ )
445
464
554
592
(d) Linseed
( ,, )
328
366
379
388
(e) Castorseed
( )
106
102
103
112
3, Cotton (lint) (392 bls.each)
3,133
3,194
3,944
4,227
4. Jute (400 Ibs.each)
4,678
4,592
3,091
2,928
6. Mosta
( )
, ,
8,682
650
1,106
6. Silk (raw)
( lbs. )
2,712
2,558
2,462
3,208
7. Tea
( bis. )
6,41,079
6,75,270
5,88,733
, ,
8, Coffee
( tons )
24
21
25
, ,
9. Rubber
( tons )
14
16
20
19
10. Tobacco
( .. )
206
241
268
248
11. Lac
( mds. )
1,297
1,153
654
1,023
(Bcport on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
INDEX NUMBERS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
(Base ; Agricultural year 1949-50=100)
Commodities Group Weight 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55
Total sereals . - 58.3 90.3 91.2 101.4 119.3 112.1
Total pulses .. 8.6 91.7 90.3 98.8 112.1 113.0
Total food grains . . 66.9 90.5 91.1 101.1 118.4 112.2
Total oilseeds .. 9.9 98.5 97.4 91.9 106.7 115.1
Total fibres .. 4.5 108.6 128.3 128.4 133.5 146.4
Total plantation crops 3.6 104.6 . 109.4 115.7 102.6 106.4
Total miscellaneous . . 15.1 110.3 114.0 101.5 97.1 112.7
Total Non-food grains 33.1 105.9 110.5 103.8 105.5 117.3
All Commodifies . . 100.0 95.6 97.5 102.0 114.1 113.9
(Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
FISHERY IN INDIA
India, with a coast line of 3,500 miles, into which munerons large,
perennial rivers discharge their silt-laden waters, innumerable gulfs,
creeks, bays and oceanic islands, has a fishable area of about 110,000
square miles. Similarly, the extensive backwaters, estuaries,
lagoons and swamps, numerous rivers, streams and channels and a
very large number of perennial and semi-perennial lakes, heels, reser-
voirs, tanks, ponds and other stretches of water, a large_ proportion
of which is culturable, are a rich potential of inland fisheries. So far
as sea area is concerned, only a small portion is at present worked.
This, it is stated, is because the methods used by Indian fishermen
are not modem, most of them using country boats like catamarans
and small nets which are not adequate for fishing in deep seas. The
chief sources of supply of fish are the coastal margins of the sea, river
estuaries and backwaters for marine and estuarine fish and rivers,
canals, tanks, inundated tracts etc. for the fresh water fish.
INLAND FISHERIES — Constitute fresh fish from rivers, canals,
tanks, ponds, irrigation channels, inundated tracts etc. They are the
mainstay of inland fisheries of India. The extensive areas of Ganges
system, Brahmaputra in Assam, Mahanadi in Orissa, Narmada,
Tapti, Godavari, Kistna and Cavery in the Lladhya Bharat and South
India are the main area for inland fisheries. In this class of fish,
West Bengal leads the rest of India. The three States of West
Bengal, Bihar and Assam account for 72 per cent of the total fresh
water fish in India.
SEA FISHING — Sea fishing is mainly carried on in small craft
having a displacement of under five tons, in coastal waters from
five to seven miles from the shore and within a depth of 10 fathoms.
With the exception of a few oflT-shore fishing boats operating in
certain localities, very few fishermen make vojmges which would
entail staying in the open sea longer than 12 hours at a time.
There is, at present, practically no night fishing. This is largely
because the equipment Tised for sea fishing consists mostly boats,
canoes, cntamarans and of small nets and tackles which are not of a
type which can stand the regorous and requirements of off-shore or
deep-sea fishing. These fishing people, poor as they are, have acute
problem of procuring nets, timber for boats, sailing cloth, fish hooks
and coal tar etc. So the mechanization of fishing operation has
become an absolute necessity.
At present sea fishing is carried on within 10 fathoms in the sea.
The sea fisheries are confined to the coastal waters from the shore
of Gujarat, Canara, Malabar coast. Gulf of Manar, Madras coast and
Coromondal coast. The principal sea fish around the coasts of India
are herrings, mackerel, prawns, jew fish, cat fish, mullets, pomfrets,
and Indian salmon, llackerel accounts for over one third of the
total catch. Herrings account for over 15 p.c. of the total catch.
Prawns account for 9 p.c. of the total catch.
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
263
ESTURINE AND BACKWATER FISHING— Chilka lake in
Orissa, backwaters in Madras, Cochin and Travancore, deltaic areas
of Sundarbans and Mahanadi are the principal sources of esturine
and backwater fish. The esturies of Mahanadi and the Ganges
stretching from Puri to Hooghly are extensive fishing grounds con-
taining hilsa, pomfrets, prawns, catla, cat fish, rohu etc.
REFRIGERATION — Another important item for the improvement
for fish production in India is the refrigeration without which this
problem can not be solved. At present, though large quantities of fish
are being caught, but for the want of refrigeration facilities and
transport, only a small portion of the catch can be used in a fresh
condition. So for the better supply of fishes, two things are absolu-
tely necessary — (1) quick transport of fresh fish from large assembly
centres to some of the towns in fast motor vans, (2) provision of
refrigerated rail transport. For the quick freezing and cold storage,
erection of cold storage plants are the ideal solution for the proper
preservation of fish and also erection of as many ice factories as
possible, so that adequate quantities of ice may be available at all
important fishing and consuming centres.
FISHING INDUSTRY — (1) There is practically no fish-canning
industry in India but fish curing is being carried on in various ways.
In India fish is preserved by desiccation with or without salt and byi
the use of antiseptic preservatives, such as brine, vinegar etc. The
main process is the desiccation by drying fish in the sun. It is also
done by salt. Canning is pi’acticed on a limited scale in Madras and
Bombay, The cured fish has developed lucrative export trade with
Ceylon and other countries. Fish curing yards have been established
along the coasts of India. In order to develop fish industry in India
on extensive scale refrigeration system has become absolutely neces-
sary. Cold storage facilities are being developed in every part.
VARIETIES OF FISHES — more than 1,800 distinct species of
fish are known to exist in the seas around the country and the inland
waters, but the varieties that are caught in appreciable quantities are
limited in number. Pisciculture experts classify the commercially
important varieties of sea fish into 15 groups and freshwater fish into
eight.
The sea fish groups include elasmobranchs, eels, cat fishes, silver-
bar fish, herrings and anchovies, Bombay duck, mackerels and per-
ches, silver-bellies, pomfrets, flat fishes, mullets, Indian salmon,
which is stated to be not a true salmon, jew fish, crustaceans and
minor shell-fishes.
Fresh water fishes are grouped under cat-fishes, mullets, ca^s,
prawns, murrels, feather backs, eels, herrings and anchovies.
Though several kinds of edible fish are obtained from fresh water
sources, only a fraction of the inland water area is devoted to planned
pisciculture. , , . , ,
Regarding fresh water fishes, carps form the most highly estee-
med variety, constituting about 34 per cent such as, Rohu, Catla,
Mrigal and Calbans which are well-known throughout India. Other
important varieties are cat fish, wallago, bagarious, clarius, silundia
264
HTNWSTAX YEAE-BOOK
and macrones belonging to this class. Trout has been introduced into
the hill streams in Kashmir, Kumaon and Nilgiri Hills.
Eegarding river fishes, the foUordng may he specially mention-
ed — masheer available in the upper reaches of most rivers in_ India.
Chilwa is a flat-sided, thin-bodied fish with his stomach running an
edge. It occurs freely both in the north as well as in south Indian
rivers. Murrel varies from 2 to 3 ft. in length. Batchwa is small
but excellent for eating. Barils have 14 species and they are widely
distributed throughout India- Olive carp is available in Madras and
is also found in the fresh waters all along the coast of India from
Kutch to Bengal. Mtdlep has no scales.
Regarding tank fishing we have rohu which is met within most
large-sized tanks.
FISH PRODUCTS — Besides articles of food, fish yields several
byproducts, such as fish-oil, fish-meal, fish-manure, fish-mates and
shark-fins. The most important is fish oil, such as, sardine oil and
shark-liver oil which are now produced on commercial basis in India.
The oil is used for the manufacture of paints, soft-soaps, for soften-
ing hides, for temparing steel, batching jute and after hydrogenation
for the preparation of edible fats. Fish liver oil produces vitamins A
and B indispensable for wasting diseases. It is being manufactured
by the Governments of Bombay, Madras and Itevancore, The
Government shark-liver oil factory is situated at Koshikode, Madras
wliich supplies shark-liver oil for use in hospitals and for sale to
the public. _ Indian fishes such as salmons, jew fishes, cat-febes are
yielding ‘Jsin-glass,’ a valuable article for the clarification of wines.
Bombay, east coast of Madras and Snnderbans in Bengal are the
centres of trade of this commodity. Fish-scraps are converted into
fish-meal as additional protein food for poultry and livestock. Fish
refuse is being dried as fish-manure.
Fish-curing is also an important supplementary trade. The
chief methods of curing fish in India are sun-drying and salt curing,
either by dry or wet process.
RATE OF CONSUSIPTION — The average per capita annual con-
snmpHon of fish in India is estimated at 3.98 lbs. Travaneore has
the highest consumption of 21 lbs. per capita a year, which comes to
about one ounce per capita a day. Other States which consume con-
siderable quantities of fish are West Bengal 13 lbs. per capita a year,
Madras 12 lbs., Bombay seven lbs., Assam six lbs., and Orissa five lbs.
Consumption is the lowest in the Punjab with O.OS lbs.
In the FAO surveys India has been included in the category of
low fish-consuming countries whose average per capita consumption
falls below five kfiograms. India’s neighbour, Burma is among the
fish-consuming countries with an average of 20 kilograms per capita-
Nutrition experts estimate that for a balanced diet 1.3 ounces
per day is required per adult, i.e., 20 lbs. per capita per annum.
Approximately 92 per cent of the total production in India is used
for edible purposes and eight per cent for the manufacture of indus-
trial and other products.
FISHERY IN INDIA
265
SECOND FIVE-YEAR PLAN — ^The main programmes of the 2nd
Five-Year Plan are as follows —
(1) Plans to catch the large schools of tuna for canning whose
production is estimated to be around 250,000 metric tons a year
which at present spawn and swim in the deep waters of the Bay of
Bengal.
(2) A dozen of additional powerful mechanised fishing vessels
will augment the Central Governments present meagre fieet of
four mechanised deep-sea fishing vessels during 2nd Five-Year Plan.
(3) Establishment of 'fishing harbours’ in three or four places
on the coast line v/here fishing vessels can berth and land their catch.
(4) Cold storage for keeping the catch and provision of
refrigerated transport for carrying it to cities.
(5) Export of frozen prawns to U.S. where there is a big
market.
(6) Enlargement of the number of co-operative societies for
fishermen.
(7) Increasing the country’s wealth of ‘carp’ has a prominent
place in the development of inland fisheries.
(8) Controlled culture of ‘tilapia,’ much-publicised fast-growing
fish, now popular in many eastern countries. For the present experi-
mental work on this fish in three research stations.
(9) Establishment of number of extension centres where fisher-
men will receive training in handling small power boats.
(10) Establishment of new technological stations for bringing
home the results of research to fishermen and trade.
RESEARCH — Tliere is Fisheries Research Committee of the
Union Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Considerable research
on fisheries and exploratory fishing have been done by the Central
Inland Fisheries Research Station in Calcutta, the Central Marine
Research Station at Mandapam and the Central Deep-Sea Fishing
Station in Bombay.
The Calcutta Station supplies fish seed and spawns not only to
States, but also to foreign countries like Israel and Malaya. The
Calcutta Station has to its credit valuable "work in developing suit-
able fish-farming practices. A pilot deep-sea fishing station was
established in 1948 to undertake exploratory fishing with the object
of charting fishing grounds, determining fishing seasons and fishing
intensities, assessing the suitability of different kinds of fishing
craft and gear under Indian conditions and training of Indian per-
sonnel in powered fishing methods.
FOREIGN AID — ^Fairly generous assistance has been received
from foreign assistance programmes. F.A.O. has been providing tech-
nical assistance for the development of Indian fisheries. The Govern-
ment of U.S.A. under their Technical Co-operation Programme have
also given substantial assistance by providing equipment and techni-
cal personnel. Under the Indo-Norwegian Project Co-operation Pro-
gramme, a Fisheries Community Development Project has been esta-
blished in Kerala and is functioning successfully in improving the
economics, health and sanitary conditions of the fishermen community
within the Project area by introducing motorised fishing, providing
266
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ice and marketing facilities and also by improving supplies of drink-
ing water and facilities for medical relief.
With this foreign assistance and with their own Tesources,
the maritime States have been able to initiate programmes to help
fishermen to equip their boats with engines to enable them to go fur-
ther into the sea. The use of better fishing nets has also been
demonstrated to impress on the fishermen the need to replace their
old small nets.
Progress in Travancore Cochin — ^The development of fishery in
Kerala has been possible due to Norwegian Fisheries DeveJ
lopment Project located in Guilon district. Norv/egian Aid Scheme
has been started under U. N. Organisation with the Governments of
Norway and India as the parties to an agi-eement in 1953. The
Norwegian contribution to the project for the year 1956-57 was
Rs. 41 lakhs. The Norwegian Fisheries Development Project was
really a Community Project in action being worked by Norwegians.
jVQUARIA and museums — ^T here are a small number of fish
aquaria in India. The main aquariams are Taraporevala Aqnariiim,
Blarine Drive, Bombay. Attached to this aquarium is the Marine
Biological Research Station where facilities are available to research
students for M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees. A fish farm is being esta-
blished at Sasson Dock, Bombay for conducting research on problems
relating to ancillary industries like shark liver oil, gelatine, glue,
fish meal etc. These are a museum and an aquarium in JIadras,
which preserves specimens of all important marine and fresh water
fishes, many kinds of sharks, aquatic cureos etc. There is a small
experimental aquarium of the Orissa Fisheries Department at Cuttack.
A small museum exists in the Central Fisheries Research Labora-
tories, Lucknow where an aquarium room in the Laboratory has been
started, with all fish species of U.P.
PEARL OYSTERS — One of the important developments in the
fish industry is the revival of pearl fishing by the Madras (^vernment.
Tuticorin in Madras is the centre of pearl industry in India.
There are two types of oysters — (1) window-pane oyster shell used
for decorative purposes and (2) real pearl oyster. The window-pane
oysters are found in open sea off Coromondal coast. Madras coast and
Cochin coast. The waters of the gulf between India and Ceylon and
of the Arabian sea near the edge of the Kathiawar peninsula, as well
as of the Gulf of Cutch are rich in oyster beds.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
IMPORTANCE OF CATTLE IN INDIA— India possesses over
150 million heads of cattle, more than one fourth of the •world’s total
cattle population. In addition, she has 43 million buffaloes besides
86 million sheep and goats and 3 million other animals like horses,
mules and donkeys. India is mainly an agricultural country and
more than 70 per cent of her population are tillers of the soil and
from time immemorial, man and cow in India have became by long
association inseperable entities. Cattle supply the necessary motive
and tractive power so essential for all our agricultural operations
and invigorate the fields by supplying manure. It is estimated that
the annual direct contribution from our livestock by labour alone
is over 1,000 crores of rupees and by manure another 1,000 crores.
Indian cattle serve two main purposes ; one is the milk produc-
tion and other is the supply of bullock power for agricultural opera-
tion like ploughing, carting, and drawing of water for irrigation.
But Indian cattle is of inferior quality because there is indiscrimi-
nate breeding and a majority of them do not possess characteristics
of any breed. The most important problem of animal husbandry
in India is the breeding improvement of cattle. The old practice of
distributing stud bulls have been found to be inadequate, because
the supply of farm bulls is very small and the continuity of such
supplies cannot be always steady. Even the very little improve-
ment secured through pedigree animals is offset by the existence of
a large number of unapproved bulls in the area. So the main points
are (1) the passing of Livestock Improvement Acts which will secure
the removal of scrub bulls by castration and other measures. Most
States in India have nov/ passed such Acts. (2) The second notable
instrument for the improvement of the breeding of animals is the
introduction in 1946 of the pilot scheme for artificial insemination
which has proved its value and has became the first item in the
programme of cattle improvement, (3) Introduction of herd book
system in which all the animals true to type are recorded. This will
help the systematic recording of milk production and definitions
of breed characteristics of the important type on more scientific
lines.
LIVESTOCK & THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION— Organisation
of agriculture and animal husbandry finds a place in the Constitution
of India. For in Article 48 included in the "Directive Principles of
State Policy” it is directed that State shall endeavour to organise
agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines and
shall, in particular, take steps for presem’ing and improving breeds,
and prohibiting the slaughter of cows and calves and other milch and
draught cattle.
KEY VILLAGE PLAN & OTHER PROJECTS— The most im-
portant development of all is the project for the simultaneous attack
268
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
on the problems of poor breeding, defective and inadequate feeding, in-
cidence of disease etc., 'which is called All India Key VillcCge Scheme
initiated in 1950-51. This scheme provides for the linking up of four
or five villages having a population of 2,000 cows of breedable
age to a central key village where breeding bulls are kept and semen
is distributed for servicing in the outlying 'villages by artificial
insemination. During the First Five-Year Plan 600 key villages
and 150 artificial insemination centres were established and their
work was very impressive and popular. During the Second Plan,
these targets will lae doubled. These key villages 'will produce 3,00d
improved bulls, 36,000 improved bullocks and 10,000 cows. Gosadhan
scheme has also been started for the segregation of old and unpro-
ductive stock. The Central Council of Gosamvardhan has been set
up by the Central Government to deal ■with the various aspects of
cattle development.
Gosamvardhan Day is being observed on the ad'vice of the Central
Council of Gosamvardhana in order to create the necessary enthu-
siasm in the general public for cattle improvement. A centre for
training of gaushala workers at Kamal and the establishment of a
pilot project for development of poul'try at Izatnagar are among the
new ventures undertaken in 1955.
Central Stud Farm — ^All-India Central Stud Farm has been
started in Bangalore in 1955 by the Government of India as a part
of an intensive scheme for the improvement and development of
cattle in the country. The farm consists of pedigree breeds from
all parts of India as well as foreign breeds. The pedi^ee breeds
of this All-India Central Farm 'will consist of the Sindhi, Tharpar,
Gir, Murrah, Ongole and Kangayam types and the Jersy from
America. The semen of these pedigree breeds will be available to
the pilot unit centres which 'will be run on the model of the key
■village scheme with a view to intensifying live-stock development
by increasing the dairy qualities of the indigenous stock grading them
up ■with foreign breeds.
DIVISION OF LIVESTOCK — ^Livestock is generally dmded into
three classes, namely — (a) Bovine, comprising oxen and buffaloes ;
(6) Omne, comprising sheep and goats ; and (c) others, comprising
horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, camels, and pigs.
SPECIES OF CATTLE — ^There are at present forty recognised
breeds of cattle and buffaloes in our. country. In India certain breeds
of cattle are known for their high milk productions, while others
for their high class powers. A third category of animals combine
in themselves a moderate degree of efficiency for production of both
milk and work. Some of the best varieties are mentioned here —
(1) Some of the best Cows in India are Sahhval in Punjab and
Gir in Saurashtra. Red Sindhi whose habitat is in Sind (Pakistan)
has been developed in Coorg and at Government farms of Kamal,
Hosur and Koila. It is a milch breed and cows are one of the ^st
and economical producers of milk.
(2) The important breeds of bullocks are Hissar and Hansi
found in Punjab and Nellorc in Madras. Amrit Mahal is one of the
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
269
best draught breeds found chiefly in Mysore State. Bullocks of this
breed are active and fast trotters. Ongole bullocks are powerful and
suitable for any work. Home of this breed is Nellore and Guntur dis-
tricts of Madras. Other breeds are Kanrej in Gujarat, Kangayam in
Madras, Kherigarh in Uttar Pradesh, Dungi and Nitnar in Bombay
and Harina in Punjab. The finest duel purpose animals, i.e., best
for draught as well as milk purposes are Kanrej and Gir. The best
breeds of buffaloes are Murrah in Punjab, Jafferbadi in Saurashtra
and Mehasana, Surati and Pandharpuri in Bombay. These nine
breeds of cattle from all parts of India are of first rate importance. —
Sindhi — ^This breed hails from Sind, but several pedigree herds
of it have been established in India, particularly in Kathiawar on the
West Coast. It is a distinctive dairy animal.
Sahiwal — ^Though originally belonged to central undivided
Punjab, it is available in Kamal, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Harina — ^The home of the breed is the area covered by the dis-
tricts of Rohtak, Hissar, Gurgaon, part of Kamal and the Delhi State.
This breed is also produced in more or less pure form in Jind, Nabha,
Patiala, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Loharu, Alwar, Bharatpur and in East
Uttar Pradesh.
Murah — ^The cows of this breed is good milker and the bullocks
are excellent for draught. It is available in Southern Punjab, Delhi
and northern Uttar Pradesh.
Gir — ^The home of this breed is Kathiawar. Pure specimen of
this breed is available in Junagadh.
Kankrej — The home of this breed is the country to the south-
east of the Rann of Kutch, extending from the south-west comer of
the Tharparkar district in Sind to Dholka in Ahmedabad district,
also along the Banas and Saraswati rivers. It is one of the heaviest
of Indian cattle.
Tharparkar — Coming originally from the arid semi-desert tracts
of south-east Sind, this breed is mostly bred in India today in the
north-east portion of Bombay State as well as Marwar.
Kangayam — ^The name of this breed is derived from the Kanga-
yam division of Coimbatore district where it has been in existence
for a long time.
Ongole — The home of this breed is Ongole tract of the Madras
Presidency comprising Ongole, Guntur, Narasaraopet, parts of
Bapatla etc.
It is a significant fact that good cattle are generally found in
dry areas and inferior cattle in areas of heavy rainfall. The rainfall
map of India more or less coincides with her cattle map.
Thus Punjab, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Mysore and drier parts of
Bombay and Madras are homes of some of the best cattle in India,
while non-descripts are found in areas of heavy rainfall, like Assam,
Bengal, Orissa and Malabar Coast.
Sheep — Another cattle wealth of India is sheep and goat. Their
distribution is widely divergent mainly dependent upon the
climatic conditions — the number being smaller in heavy rainfall
areas and greater in light rainfall areas. There are in the country
about 38 million sheep some of which are mutton variety and soma
270
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
■of the woolly type. The annual clip of wool is about 38 milhon lbs
valued about Ks. 9 crores. The wool which is one of the main pro-
ducts of the sheep breeding industry, holds eighth position amongst
the agricultural commodities in the country’s export trade and earns
54 million rupees in foreign exchange. The sheep do not only provide
wool, but also mutton, manure, pelts, hair, nnlk, butter and serve as
pack animals to carry essential food grains from their owners, across
the precipitous hiHs where other systems of transport would per-
haps fail.
There are about 14 breeds of sheep in India, which can be divided
into two distinct types, namely, woolly and hairy. The wooUy tjyes
produce wool fibres of fine or coarse quality, while the other just
produce hair and are reared for manurial purposes and to provide
mutton.
The carpet wool produced in India is classified in the world
markets as East Indian type of wool and is sold under well-known
names of Joria and Vinanere. The Bikaneri breed haUing from the
desert of Bikaner is the hardiest breed known in India._ This breed
is becoming a cosmopolitan breed of India and is being introduced in
different States. The fact that India is one of the main producem
of carpet wool, need not leave an erroneous impression that In^a
produces only this wool. This country also produces large qualities
of fine wool, specially in the hills of the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and
Kashmir. But this does not meet the requirements of our country,
with the result, that we have to import about 9 million lbs. of fine
wool every year. There are several types of hill-sheep along the
Himalayan ranges which produces fine wool, such as Gurez, Kamah,
Bhadaswah, and Rampur Busher. The story of Indian hill-sheep
will remain incomplete without the mention of Pasbmina goat com-
ing from Ladakh, Kashmir. This goat produces the finest wool_ in
the world, knowui as Pasham. We have also Tibetan sheep coming
to Indian Hills in summer. Marino sheep are being introduced in
our hill areas to improve the local sheep so as to get more and fine
wool from them.
The wool-producing States are Punjab, U.P., Kajasthan. The
average production of wool per sheep in Inia is 1.9 lb.
There is an Wool Analysis Laboratory in Poona for the
research of wool fibre and various other improvements. The annual
production of wool of Indian sheep is very poor when compared to
those of other countries. The wool produced in India is also of
much inferior quality. .As an exception, the Ifrshmir goats are
famous for fineness of their wool. There are some good sheep in
parts of India like the Bikaner rams which are woolly types.
Goat is also the principal source of meat supply in the country.
The important varieties of goat are — Jamnapuri type of the Deccan
Plateau, the Surti of West India and the black and white bearded
variety of Bengal, Ganjam, and Telingani varieties.
India’s goats number about 58 millions. Goats are prized for
their meat and milk. Goat contributes only 3 p.c. of the total milk
supply of India.
India’s pigs belong to two principal species namely, Indian wild
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
271
boar found throughout India and pig^y hog in the forests at the
base of the Himalayas in Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. Pigs are use-
ful for bristles, lard, meat (pork, ham, bacon) and skin.
HorscB are mainly used for transport. The Kathiawar breed of
horses known as kathi is famous for its great powers and endurance.
The Marhatta pony, the little Gujarat and Dimthadi of the Deccan
arc also famous. The ponies of Manipur are regarded as the best
in India. Bhutia pony is also famous for powers of endurance and
v/eight-carrying capacity.
MILK PRODUCTION — Ill-bred, ill-fed and ill-maintained as our
cattle are today, the return from them is less than the amount expect-
ed. Promiscuous breeding and inadequate nourishment largely ac-
count for the poor quality of the Indian cattle. The average yield
of milk per cow per annum is 413 lbs. which is the lowest figure in the
world. In a deteriorated condition, the milk production per cow in
our country is the lowest in the whole world as the following statis-
tics will show —
Per cow
per annum
India
.. 30 gallons
Sweden
Belgium
. . 362 „
Switzerland
Denmark
.. 387 „
Finland
Netherlands
.. 373 „
Per cow
per annum
. . 326 gallons
.. 380
.. 344
tf
The Second Five-Year Plan contemplates the establishment of
36 milk supply unions, 12 largo scale co-operative creameries
and seven milk drying plants. Milk colonies have been coming
into existence during past few years in various parts of the
country. The most notable and spectacular arc the Aarey colony of
Bombay and Haringhata Colony, Calcutta. The Second Plan con-
templates doubling milk production in India over the next 10 years.
POULTRY — India has about 6.7 million fowls and 6.3 million
ducks. The important poultry-producing areas are Madras (25.2%),
West Bengal (12.6%), Bihar (11.2%), Assam (8.9%), Bombay
(8.5%), Madhya Pradesh (6%). The per capita consumption per
year of poultry meat in India is as low as 0.29 lb. as against 29.32
lbs in U.S.A., 20.94 lbs in Canada, and 13.23 lbs in Prance.
The bulk of poultry population of India consists of the
indigenous or ordinary country fowls dispersed in small units
in the rural areas and maintained by poor people. India has a
total fowl population of 116 million, of which 15 million are laying
hens. The proportion of fowl population to human population in
India is relatively low as it is only 15 hen per 100 of population
Poultry is divided in India into tw'o groups — (1) Fowls comprising
whereas in U.S.A. and Europe it is 300 hens per 100 of population,
hens, cocks and chickens, (2) Ducks comprising ducks, drakes and
ducklings.
Poultry-keeping is an important subsidiary industry of the
poorer classes. Indigenous poultry, of low grade, produce on an
average 60 small-sized eggs per year. Steps are being taken to
272
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
improve them by grading up with foreign breeds like Rhode Island
Red, White Leghorn and Minorca.
The exotic breeds such as Rhode Island Reds, White Leghorns,
Black Minorcas, Orpingtons and Australorps which have been fully
acclimatised to Indian conditions are now strong favourites of poultry
farms in this county.
It has been estimated that India has approximately 16 million
ducks, representing 18 per cent of the domesticated duck population
of the world. Madras and Bengal account for more than 75 per
cent of ducks in India. The average annual egg production of the
Indian duck is 90 to 100. Ducks are hardy and are free from con-
tagious disease. The birds are largely reared in the eastern and
southern parts of the country where there is abundant supply of
water.
Methods of Poultry Improvement — (1) Importation of large
number of day-old chickens from abroad and rear them on Govern-
ment farms. When these chickens come of age, they should be used
as the basic stock for the poultry production centres. (2) _ Im-
provement of the indegenons stock by selective breeding and distri-
bution of pure-bred hens and cocks like white Leghorns, Rhode
Island Reds and Minorcas for grading the desi birds. (3) Installa-
tion of large scale hatchery in two and three centres for hatching
chicks for the poultry keepers. (4) Marketing of eggs.
Poultry Institutes — (1) Government Farm, Sultanpur Road.
Lucknow imparts elementary, intermediate and high standard
courses in poultry science. It also deals in all sorts of the poultry
requisites. (2) Mission Poultry Farm. Katpadi, North Arcot deals
with current scientific work in the field. (3) East Punjab Govern-
ment Poultry Institute, Gurdaspur imparts short courses in poultry.
(4) Rural uplift Department, Santineketan, Bolpnr also imparts
instruction in the poultry keeping in India. (5) Asian Research Ins-
titute of Poona is the only one institute of this nature throughout
Bombay State. (6) Government Poultry Farm, Bhopal and Idlssion
Poultry Farm, Etah are good poultry farms though they do not
impart instruction on the subject.
ANIMAL PRODUCTS — ^Besides animal products of milk and
wool, the principal animal products of India are blood, bones, ivory,
tallow, and hides and skins. Bones are used as manure and for
manufacture of buttons, handles, toys, glue and as a source of
superphosphates. Supply of horns comes from U.P., Punjab, Madras
and Bengal. Buttons, toys, manure, glue, gelatine, etc., are made
by horns. Ivory is used for the manufacture of ivory goods, bones
and teeth. THs supply comes from Assam, Western Ghats and
Mysore. Tallow is derived from the fat of beef, mutton and goats.
Its printing uses are as an adulterant, lubricant, and illnminant and
in the manufacture of soaps and candles.
There is considerable export and trade in livestock products.
While dairj' products, such as condensed milk and cream, milk foods
for infants and invalids, butter and cheese comprise the main imports,
bones and horns are exported. , At the same time, there is a two-way
trade in hides, skins and wool.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
273
PROVINCIAL DISTRIBUTION — The largest number of oxen is
found in the Uttar Pradesh which possesses 23-0 million heads or
nearly 14 p.c. of the total for the country. This is closely followed
by Bengal where there are nearly 22-6 million oxen or approximately
13'6 p.c.; Madras 9’6 p.c. of the total. For Buffaloes : U.P. — 9-9
mfflion or 29 p.c. ; Punjab — 6-92 million or 13-2 p.c.; Madras — 6’1
million or 13 p.c.; Bengal — 1-1 million or 2-3 p.c. of total buffaloes in
India.
The densities of oxen per 10 acres of cultivated area, per 100
persons and per square mile of the country as a whole are 4343 and
106 heads respectively. The all-India average density of buffaloes
works out to 12, 12 and 30 respectively.
TRADE IN CATTLE — Bengal is the principal importer, follow-
ed by Bombay, U.P. and Bihar. The main exporting province in
order of merit are Punjab, Bihar and Orissa.
ANIMAL DISEASES — Remarkable progress has been made in
combating cattle diseases during the last few years. Nearly two
lakhs of cattle are estimated to be affected every year by infectious
diseases and the mortality is about one-fifth and loss is about Rs. 20
crores annually on money value. There are ten veterinary colleges in
India one each at Gauhati, Patna, Calcutta, Bombay, Mathura, Hy-
derabad, Madras, Hisaar, Bikaner and Jabalpur. The chief research
centre is the Indian Veterinary Research Institute at Mukteshwar
(U.P.) and its branch at Izatnagar, near Barielly. This institute
is maintained by the Central Government. The Indian Veterinary
Research Institute also manufactures large quantities of sera and
vaccines. Serum institutes have also been opened in various states,
such as Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Uttar Pradesh.
There is a Central Rinderpest Control Committee which has
drawn up tentative scheme for eradicating rinderpset which kills
400,000 animals a year. ,
LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY IN INDIA
(In thousands)
Livestock
Cattle
Buffaloes
Sheep
Goats
Horses &
1940
. . 137,929
40,125
41,506
60,263
Ponies
1,780
1945
. . 136,739
40,732
37,728
46,302
1,398
1951
. . 165,099
43.351
38,829
47,077
1,614
Mides
Donkeys
Camels
Pigs
Total
1940
60
1,186
617
2,702
live-stock
276,148
1945
45
1,131
666
3,709
268.440
1951
60
1,239
629
4,420
292,218
Poultry
1940
Fowls
. . 65,062
Ducks
2,346 1945
Fowls
54,666
Dtteks
3.681
18
1961
67,136
6,264
FORESTS IN INDIA
FOREST WEALTH OF INDIA— The forests in India play an
important part in country’s agricultural and economic developments.
The forests cover 280,348 sq. miles or about 22 per cent of the
total geographical area of the country. This is a low proportion
compared with most other countries of the world. According to
experts, one-third of the area should be under forests to preserve
climatic condition. Even the area is not evenly distributed oyer
different parts of the country. The Forest Policy Resolution
of May 12, 1952, therefore suggested that India as a whole
should aim at maintaining one-third of its _ total land area
under forests, proportion being 60 per cent in the Himalayas,
Deccan and other mountainous tracts and 20 per cent in_ the
plains. They provide employment for nearly a million
people. The role of forests in conditioning the_ weather, in pre-
venting the erosion of soil and in short in maintaining the phy-
sical condition is not yet fully appreciated. India contains an infinite
variety of types of forests vegetation, governed by the vari-
ations in climate, soil elevation and other local factors. The
forests of India are a source of considerable wealth. They yield valu-
able timber. Our railway system leans heavily on Indian timber ;
paper, plywood, bobbins, match industries depend on timber resources.
The forests also yield large quantities of fuel. The variety and
abundance of Indian economic forest products are perhaps unequalled
in any other similar area in the world. Teak, sal, deodar, chir and
sheesham and many varieties of useful timber come from forests.
Besides providing timber, fuel and fodder, forests 3 neld medicinal
herbs and raw materials for the manufacture of paper, matches,
rubber, resin and terpentine.
Full value of India’s forest wealth is not to be assessed merely
in terms of money, timber output, fuel and innumerable by-products ;
for forest land serves other ends, by mitigating the extremes of the
fiercest climate in the world and breaking the force of the world’s
heaviest rainfall.
FOREST TYPES OF INDIA — is divided into five types —
(1) Evergreen, (2) Deciduous, (3) Dry, (4) HUl, (6) rfdoZ or
Lnttoral. _ Evergreen flourishes where rainfall is 80 to 120".
Such regions are the West Coast of the Peninsula and the
Eastern Sub-Himalayan _ tract. These forests include many
species of great economic value such as ebony, teak, rosewood,
ironwood, bamboos, neem and tamarind. Decidtwzts (rainful 60
to 80”) occupies the larger part of the Deccan and is also
known as monsoon forests. The trees are large-sized and form very
remarkable timbers such as, teak, sal, paduk, redwood, sandal wood,
anjan etc. The Dry forests (rainfall 30 to 40") are found in the
desert regions of Rajasthan and the Punjab and the plants are charac-
FORESTS IN IFTOIA
275
terised by thick and fleshy stems and leaves and mostly consist of
thickets of shrubs and a few stunted trees ; many of them are
leafless. The Hill forests are found in South India above 5,000 feet
and in the Himalayas above 3,000 feet altitude. The trees are ever-
green, of which the following are the most prominent — oak, picea,
deodar, pines, firs, chestnut, walnut, maple, elm ash, birches, laurels,
poplar, rhododendron and spices of abics. The lAttoral forests are
found in the deltas of the Ganges, the Mahanadi, the Indus and also
to some extent in the regions washed by the high tide and salt water.
They are rich sources of fuel. These forests are known as Man-
grove Forests.
_ NATIONAL FOREST POLICY — The national forest policy of
India known as Forest Policy Resolution was enunciated in
1952. _ Among the landmarks of the new policy is the
recognition to the intrinsic right of forests to a permanent
and adequate share of land. So an indication has been pro-
vided of the proportion of land which should be permanently main-
tained under forests. This naturally varies with the configuration
of the ground and rainfall. Thus, while in the flat Indo-Gangetic
plain where slope is imperceptible and erosion is not a serious pro-
blem, the average proportion of forest land to be reserved need not
be more than 20 p.c. of the total land area ; in the mountainous tracts,
with higher rainfall, a much greater area (about 60 p.c.) must be
maintained under forest growth. This means that India as a whole
should aim at maintaining one-third of its total land area under
forests, the proportion being 60 p.c. in the Himalayan, Deccan and
other mountainous tracts and 20 p.c. in the plains. The new policy
directs pointed attention towards reconditioning of hills and dales,
the immobilization of the Rajasthan desert, the prevention of the
encroachment of sea-sands on coastal tracts, the rationalization of
shifting cultivation and_ control of soil erosion in general. The policy
legislates for the functional classification of forests such as "protec-
tion,” “national” and ‘village’ forests.
CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS — Forests in India are classi-
fied according to — (a) Ownership, (6) Legal status, (c) Composition.
From the ownership point of view, forest area is divided into,
(f) States, (ii) Communal and (Hi) Private. The forests owned by
State Forest Departments comprise nearly 95.4 p.c. of the total
forest area, viz., 269,915 sq. miles. The Communal and Private
forests are now only 4.6 p.c. of the total forest area.
From the administrative point of view, forests have been classi-
fied into Reserved and Protected and Unclassified. The first cate-
gory is reserved for Government use and no entry is allowed to any
member of the public. The protected forests are under the control
of the Department, but contracts for their exploitation are given and
the public is allowed to make use of them within the terms of the
contract. The Unclassified forests consist of the shrubs and trees in
villages. They are not under the control of the Department.
From the composition point of view, forests are classified into
coniferous and non-coniferous. In India, forests are mostly non-
(276
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
‘coniferous or broad leaves. This is natural in a tropical country.
On the hilly parts of the country, however, coniferous and in the
valleys and terai areas mixed types of forests grow.
From the point view of the outturn, forests are classified into
Merchantable and Inaccessible (unprofitable). The Merchantable
.forests constitute 73.1 p.c. of the total forest areas, 55.1 p.c. being
Heserved and Protected. Nearly 68,000 sq. miles or 26.9 p.c. are
(inaccessible and therefore unprofitable.
CENTRAL BOARD OF FORESTRY— The Government of India
have constituted a Central Board of Forestry in 1950 for the purpose
of evolving an all-India policy to increase the area under forests
The functions of the Board are — (1) Co-ordination and integration
,of the forest policy pursued by States in the management of their
forests, (2) adoption of conservation measures affecting forests re-
.Eources and soil, (3) integration of plans for land use and national
•reconstruction in which forestry has come to play a progrressively
important role, (4) promotion of legislation considered necessary
for various States for the management of private forests, (5) ref-
lation and development of forests in inter-state river valleys which
are the concern of the Central Government, (6) Maintenance of ade-
quate standards for training of officers, (7) co-ordination of forest
research conducted in Central and State institutes and (8) any other
matters affecting forestry, which are relevant to the objective of the
Board.
AFFORESTATION & SOIL CONSERVATION— Forests must
be planted and reared continually so as to protect the land from the
ravages of erosion, to refertilize the soil, to arrest aridity and modify
the climate. Reafforestation is necessary to provide cheap fuel and
fodder, new grazing lands, beautiful landscapes etc. Cultm-able Gov-
ernment land should be afforested by the Forest IJepartment.
Government can assist by supplying seeds or saplings and give
expert advice. Over-grazing, field cultivation and deforestation
are the main causes of denudation of thousands of acres of unculti-
vated land. State Forest Department should take remedial measures,
puch as, contour trenching of fields, silt catching, building dams and
planting trees as well as rotational grazing schemes. In certain
areas, steps should be taken for controlling pine tapping for resin
extraction to ensure that trees are not killed and the ground is not
exposed to heavy fellings. The work on the reclamation of waste
lands and control of floods should be taken in hand at once. Canal
plantation should be laid out by the Irrigation Department. Nur-
series for growing and distributing saplings, fooder trees should be
established.
The Government have already undertaken the following measures
for the progress of afforeation in India — (1) A scheme for checking
the spread of the Rajasthan desert by means of planting trees on the
present bounderies has already been drawn up (2) From July 1950
a campaign for planting new trees, ya7ia Mahotsava has been
launched. It has become an annual national festival and has given a
great -fillip to afforestation.
FORESTS IN INDIA
27 . 7 >
Soil Conservation Board was fofmed in 1953 to organise ‘ co-'
ordinate and start soil conservation, to assist the States and River-
Valley Authorities in drawing up schemes for soil conservation, to.
arrange for the training of technical personnel and to recommend-
financial help for schemes to the States and River Valley Authorities.
The Board has taken over the Desert Afforestation Research Station
at Jodhpur and established four new research-cum-demonstration
centres.
ADMINISTRATIVE SET-UP — Under the Constitution, the juris-
diction over forests vests in the States (Item No 19, List II of the-
Seventh Schedule). The revenue from these is derived from the sale
of timber, fuel, bamboo, fodder grass and other minor products, such
as lac, tanning materials, gums, resins, medicinal herbs, etc. It also’
includes fees for grazing and the proceeds of the sale of confiscated
drift and -wind wood. Expenditure on the management and collection
of forest revenue is debited to the expenditure head “Forest”; Foresfr
Department is treated as a commercial department and the interest
on capital outlay is debited to it. Most of the capital experditure is'
however met out of current revenue.
The forest administration of the Government of India is carried
on in their Department of Agriculture. The Inspector-General of
Forests is the technical adviser to the Government in forest matters.
Forests are however, a provincial subject. For the purposes of admi-
nistration, the States are divided into one or more Forest Circles,
each in charge of a Conservator of Forests ; while in those States
where three or more forest circles exist, there is also a Chief Conser-
vator who is the head of the Department of his State. Circles arc
de-vided into a number of Forest Devisions, in-charge of members of
the Superior Forest Service. Each Devisions contains a number of
Rangers in charge of Forest Rangers or Deputy Rangers ; heavy Di-
visions are also sometimes divided into sub-divisions. The Ranges
are sub-divided into a number of rounds and beats.
FOREST EDUCATION AND RESEARCH— The scientific forest
management in India owes its inception to Dr. Brandis, a professor
of Bombay from the University of Bonn, who was engaged by the
Govemment of India in 1856 as Superintendent of teak forests in
Burma. Later in 1864 he was appointed first Inspector-General of
Forests in India. It was a result of his initiative that Forest De-
partments were organised throughout India.
The nucleus of forest research and education in India is trace-
able to a forest school started in 1878 in Dehra Dun under the aus-
pices of the Survey of India. The school enjoys the distinction of
being first of its kind in British Commonwealth. By 1906 this insti-
tution became the nucleus around which the existing organisation of
the Forest Research Institute and Colleges have been built up.
Primarily the work of the Forest Research Institute is research
into problems connected -with rearing and protecting India’s forests
and enhancing their value and usefulness, and secondly the more effi-
cient and profitable utilisation of timber and various other produce
of these forests. Four excellent museums are maintained by the
278
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Institute. Of the four museums, one is knoum as_ the timbei
museum -n-hich is devoted to a display of the great variety of India’s
timbers in the form of polished and unpolished boards. It also con-
tains demonstration models of wood seasoning, wood preserving and
timber testing installations. The second museum is arranged to
inicate the infinite range of India’s forest products and to indicate
the methods of their extraction and utilisation. The third museum
houses large scale models to demonstrate silvicultural practices and
the evils of soil erosion. The fourth museum draws attention to the
extent of insect damage to Indian trees and the timber.
The following is the brief account of the activities of the Forest
Eesearch Institute — (1) Silvieidture, (2) Botany, (3) Mycology,
(4) Forest Entomology, (5) Wood. Anatomy, (6) Wood Seasoning,
(7) Wood Preservation, (8) Coposite TFood, (9) Timber Mechanics',
(10) Cellulose and paper, (11) Cheinistry of Forest and minor
Forest Products, (12) Statistical, (13) Publicity and Liaison.
The Indian Forest College at Dehia Dun was originally started in
1926 for training I. F. S. officers, but was closed after 1932 and was
restarted for training for Superior Forest Service officers in the Pro-
vincial Forest Service. The College is housed in the Forest Research
Institute buUding and well-equipped with lecture and common rooms
and biological and chemical laboratories. Course covers two years
only. Those students are admitted who are deputed by a State and
are assured of employment on completion of the course. In view of
the great demand for admission, the Government of India took over
the Coimbatore Forest College in 1948 which has been greatly
expanded.
Indian Forest Rangers College, formerly known as the Forest
School is also situated in Dehra Dun. The course lasts for two
years. Another forest institute has been started at Bangalore, the
first institution in India outside Dehra Dun.
pfDIA’S FOREST PRODUCES AND USES— India has 2.50D
species of wood of which about 450 are commercially valuable.
Apart from timber for structural purposes and fuel, forests supply
wood from which an increasing variety of thingrs are made today.
Acetic acid, acetone, methyl alcohol, certain oils and creosote are
some of the derivatives of wood. We may mention, also, valuable
timber species such as conifers (pines, firs, deodars'), the principal
species^ of the sub-tropical zone, and the well-lmowTi teak which is
met with throughout the Deccan plateau. The chief among other
species of commercial importance are dipterocarpus, acacias, sissoo,
sandahoood and bamboos. The forests in addition, yield a bewilder-
ing variety of minor forest products which are utilised in indigenous
medicine and industry. The various plants and their derivatives ac-
count for items such as essential oils, resin, gums, medicinal herbs,
fatty oils, vegetable dyes, tans, soap-berries, fibres, flooses, edible
wild plants, canes, grasses. This is not all. Animal products such
as honey, beewax, lac, bones, hides and horns play an important part
in the home market and abroad. Out-turn of produce of Indian
forests is of two kinds : (1) Major produce consisting of timber and
FORESTS IN INDIA
279
firewood and (2) minor produce consisting of all other products such
as lac, tanning materials, essential oils, turpentine and resin.
Minor Forest Products — The variety and abundance of minor
forest products in India are remarkable. There are over 3,000
species of plants, besides a large number of animal products. Medi-
cinal and poisonous plants, essential oils, resins, fatty oils and fats,
waxes, starches, gums, mucilages, tans, dyes, bamboos and canes,
fibres, flosses and grasses, animal products, such as honey and lac,
and materials for packing and wrapping can be exploited.
Oil trees are Chandan or Sandalwood found in Southern India.
(Mysore, Coorg, Western Ghats, Nilgiris). It is a hard, close grain-
ed, yellowish brown wood, strongly scented by the oil. It makes
beautifully carved boxes and small articles. The oil is also extracted
from the seeds and nuts of various other trees, such as Chahnugra,
Satinwood, Croton, Coconut, Oil Palm, Pine, Deodar, Kusum, Neem,
Mahua, Garjan.
The gum and resin yielding trees of India are Babul, Catechu,
Sal, Pine, Mango and Banyan. Asofoedita or king is available in
Kashmir only.
Sal is one of the most important timber trees of India and very
hard, heavy and tough wood with reddish brown colour. It is a large
tree with glossy foliage and grows freely in the Northern and Central
Indian regions. The wood is largely used for building construction
and railway sleepers.
Teak {Sagun) is a large deciduous tree grown mainly in the
frost-free parts of India and is a strong wood of great durability.
It is immune to attacks of white ants and insects for very long
periods. It grows in the Deccan plateau in Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Bihar, Bombay and Madras. As it does not corrode steel, it
is mainly used for boat and ship-building, railway carriages and
sleepers, tool handles and furniture, etc.
Arjun is heavier and harder wood than teak. It grows all over
the deciduous region.
Kusum is a very heavy, hard and tough wood. It grows in the
deciduous forests. ‘Lac’ insects are also reared on it.
Ebony is a very dark green or greenish black wood of great
strength. It is obtained all over the deciduous regions excepting
N.E. parts.
Siris is a fairly strong wood. It is obtained all over deciduous
forests.
Palas is important for its crop of ‘lac’ insects. It grows largely
in Chotanagpur and also over the plains of northern India.
Mahua is very common in Chotanagpur area. Its flowers are
important articles of food. A course spirit is distilled from Mahua.
Scmul is well-known for the cotton it yields. Its wood is very
soft and perishable and is suitable for matchbox manufacture.
Jarool is of medium strength and is employed for making cheap
classes of furniture. It is found mainly in Assam, West Bengal, and
is also found in Chotanagpur.
Deodar or Himalayan cedar is the most important timber tree
of the western Himalayas. It grows from 100 to 200 feet in height.
280
HINDUSTAN^ YEAR-BOOK
The wood is moderately hard, scented, oily and very durable. It is
used for building construction, particularly for doors and windows.
Pine — ^The Blue Pine or Kail as it is popularly known is a large
ever-green conifer with bluish feathery foliage. It often_ reaches
120 ft. in height and is found throughout the temperate Himalayan
regpon at altitudes ranging from 6,000 to 10,000 feet. The heart-
wood is of good quality and frequently used in general carpentary
and furniture.
Shisham (Sissoo) is a large deciduous tree which gprows near
river banks from Punjab to Assam. It is a favourite road-side tree
and is easily grown. The sap-wood is perishable but the heart-
wood is heavy, hard and durable. It is largely used for fumitiure.
It also makes lasting carts, boats and v/heel spok^.
Toon — is a large tree of rapid growth and thrives in moist loca-
lities throughout India, often reaching a height of 80 feet. Its red
timber is very durable, yet. not too heavy and is largely used for
furniture. It takes a high polish.
Oak is available in Eastern Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Mani-
pur. It is used for buildings, agricultural implements, axe-handles.
Rosewood is found in various places from Nepal to Travancore.
It is used extensively for furniture, cabinet-work, keels of vessels,
agricultural implements, combs, ornamental articles, finely carved
chairs and tables.
Satinwood is found in the dry forests of Circars, Konkan,
Deccan and Kamatak and is common in Satpura range. It is large-
ly used for cabinet work, picture frames, furniture, etc.
Fir is grown in outer Himalayas, the Punjab and Kashmir and
is used for packing cases, crates, shingles, boards and paper pulp.
Babul tree grows in Western India and is used for all forms of
agricultural implements.
Sundri is available in the deltaic regions of Bengal, particularly
in Sunderbans and in the coasts of Orissa. It is a very hard wood.
Canes and Bamboos are extensively found in Eastern Nepal,
Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh. Deccan, Konkan
and Coromandal Coast. Bamboos grow everywhere in India. It
has nurnerous varieties, from giant bamboo of Assam to dwarfs of
dry region. It_ is used for paper making and for other various
objects. Cane is used for basket works, mats, walking sticks, ropes
and in the manufacture of paper.
Grasses are generally used for fodder for the cattle. Sahai
grass is used for paper_ making. Mtmjh grass growing in all parts
of India and specially in the Punjab is used for thatching, paper-
making, chairs, baskets, ropes and cordage. Rhea grass found in
Assam and Bengal is used for belting, sheeting, lace, net, cordage
sacking, etc.
Lac is an important Indian forest product. It is produced from
an insect which secretes its larvae on certain class of trees. These
trees are palass, peepul and kusum. Lac is produced throughout the
warm tropical areas of the whole of India. The principal places of
production are M.P., Bihar, Bengal, Assam, and Gujarat. Chota-
nagpur in Bihar raises 60 per cent of India’s total. Lac is extensively •
FORESTS IN INDIA
281 -
■used in the manufacture of gramophone records, plastics, lacquer work,
mouldings of ornaments, paint and varnishes, sealing wax etc. Only
2 per cent of the production is consumed in India as rest is exported.
Bee Wax and Honey are also important forest products.
Bee wax is used in candles, foundry moulding, calico printing and
medicine. It is largely used by the shoemakers of India.
Gums and Resins — gum and resin yielding trees in India are
Babul, Catechu, Sal, Pino, Mango and Banyan and are worked for-
making resin and turpentine oil. Resin is used for shellac adultera-
tion, in paper mills, soap factories etc., while turpentine has demand
for medicine and varnish.
Tanning materials — ^various tanning materials are found from
Indian forests, most important of which are myrobalan. Myrobalans
jrrow in abundance in Madras, Bombay, West Bengal, Chotanagpur,
Orissa and other places. Myrobalan is a great tanning materiak
The alkali of myrobalans is useful for preparing different dyes by
mixing with various inprredients.
Sandalwood is used for producing sandalwood oil and from oil
soaps and scents arc made. It is mainly obtained in Mysore.
Classification of Forest Areas
(In thousand sq. miles)
1949-50
1962-53
Geographical area of India
. . 1,267
266
1,267
280
Forest area in the country
A. By types of Forests
1. Merchantable
212
216
1. Unprofitable
64
64
B. By legal Status
1. Reserved
124
134
2. Protected
38
63
3. Unclassod
104
93
C. By Composition
1. Conifers
14
12
2. Sal
39
43
3. Teak
17
19
4. Miscellaneous
196
206
AREA
1946- 47
1947- 48
1948- 49
1949- 60
OF FOREST LANDS AND OUTTURN OF FOREST
PRODUCE
Uvclassi-
Area of
Reserve
Protected
fied State
Forest
Total area
under for-
State
Forests
Forests
etc.
est dept.
(Sq. m.)
(Sq.m.)
(Sq. m.)
(Sq.m.)
(Sq. m.)
631,418
65,773
7,826
16,421
89,019
1,080,919
98,476
14,613
24,162
138,161
1,219,836
101,638
17,949
27,735
160,104
1,266,812
130,641
24,088
■ 27,399
194,836
282
HINDUSTAN YBAK-BOOK
OUTTURN OF FOREST PRODUCE
Proportion of forests Timber & Fuel Minor Produce
to area of State (ooo cu. ft.) (In ]akhs of Rs,)
1946-47
. . 14-1
316.334
235-54
1947-48
. . 12-8
362,017
302-76
1948-49
. . 13-1
859,673
367-77
1949-60
. . 16-4
438,996
479-84
CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST AREA
I.
11 .
III.
IV.
P.c. to the
total area
Total Population (millions) 320.2*
Total general area 1,266^90 100
Forest area 282,840 22'3
Classification of area other than forest land —
(i) land not available for cultivation 176,395 13‘8
(a) land put to non-agricultural uses 47,909 3'8
(b) barren and unculturable land 86,533 6'8
(ii) other uncultivated land excluding fallow
lands 176,439 13-9
(a) parmanent pastures and grazing lands 32,611 2-6
(b) miss, tree crops & groves not included
in the net area sown 52,398 4-1
(c) culturable waste 90,558 7-1
(iii) Fallow lands 108,170 8*5
(a) fallow lands other than current fallows 44,602 3’5
(b) current fallows 49,802 3'9
(iv) Net area sown 463,106 36-6
•Including Jammu & Kashmir.
DAIRY FARMING
Dairying like ag^riculture is one of the basic industries of India
and milk and milk products contributed to no less than Es. 620
crores to the national dividend — almost as much as all the factory
establishments put together. The huge quantity of about 1,500,000
maunds of milk produced per day in the country is obtained from
about 67,000,000 cows and buffaloes maintained in nearly 40,000,000
small fragmented holdings throughout the country.
The Planning Commission correctly holds that despite the fact
that milk is a very important food for a country like India with a
very large vegetarian population and the existence of a large number
of milch cattle in the country, dairying which can provide ample scope
of fruitful whole-time and part-time employment to the unemployed
and under-employed millions thronging the countryside has been in a
backward condition simply for the fact that it has not received the
attention it deserves. Poor quality cattle, insufficiency of feed and
fodder, high incidence of disease and lack of organised production,
improper handling of milk and milk products are problems that re-
quire urgent solution. The Planning Commission opined “the im-
provement of cattle depends primarily upon proper policy and pro-
gramme for breeding and feeding” and suggested the introduction
of schemes for key villages. Gosadan, artificial insemination centres
and the use of oil cakes, bone dust and fish meal as cattle food.
MILK ADULTERATION — ^The Agricultural Marketing Adviser to
the Government of India says in his report of 1950 that “adulteration
of foodstuffs, including milk is not uncommon in Western countries,
but the position is nowhere as bad as in our country. Adulteration
is so widespread that consumers have became almost indifferent to
quality.”
Legal standards prescribed under State Food Adulteration Acts
are lower than the constants for locally produced pure milk and
therefore leave room for 'legalized' adulteration with water or skim-
med milk. There is a strong feeling in the country that official con-
trol of the quality of market milk has been very lax.
The enforcement of the Food Adulteration Acts which rests
entirely in the hands of the municipal authorities has been most un-
satisfactory. The municipal authorities have therefore been urged
to be more vigilant in the matter of quality control of milk and dairy
products.
POOR YIELD — The average annual yield of milk per cow in
India is 413 lbs. which is about the lowest in the world, as com-
pared with 8,000 lbs. in the Netherlands, 7,000 in Australia, 6,000
in Sweden and over 6,000 in the U.S.A. The following table gives the
maximum annual yields of world’s finest dairybreeds : —
284
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Breed
Holstein Friesian
Milking Shorthorr
Ayrshire
Brown Swiss
Milk Butterfat
(000 lbs)
Breed Milk Butterfat
(000 lbs) (000 lbs)
38.6
1.4
Guernsey
24.0
1.0
32.5
1.6
19.7
1.1
31.2
1.4
Jersey
23.7
1.2
27.5
1.1
If
17.9
1.2
According to the livestock census of 1961, India had 165.09*
million cows and 43.35 million buffaloes. The daily average quantity
of milk available per head in India is about 5.8 oz ; quite a few do not
get any milk at ail or even any milk products. In some cities the
average quantity of milk consumed per person is not even one ounce
a day.
As compared to this situation, the daily average production per
head in New Zealand is 244 oz., 148 in Denmark, 37 in U.S.A. and
140 oz. in Britain. The consumption figures are 35 oz in U.S.A., 30 in
Britain, 56 in New Zealand and 61 in Sweden. In other countries the
yield of cows per lactation averages from 3,000 to 4,000 lb, but the
better Indian breeds yield only 1,500 lbs.
LOW MILK CONSUMPTION— -According to the 1951 cattle-
census, the average per capita consumption of milk and milk-products
works out at 5.5 ounces per day. The consumption varies consider-
ably in different parts of the country and among the various classes
of population. It is as high as 16.89 oz. in the Punjab and 15.72 oz.
in Rajasthan, while in Orissa, it is as low as 2.64 oz. Except Punjab
and Rajasthan, the major States of the country are deficient in milk-
consumption by the standard of ten ounces per day recommended by
nutrition experts.
The gross annual milk production in India was 481.66 million
maunds in 1945 and 620.43 million maunds in 1951, out of which the
quantum used as fluid milk came to 174.09 m. mds. (36.1 p.c.) and
195.28 m. mds (37.53 p.c.) respectively ; about 66 p.c. of the total
yield is marketable, the balance being fed to the calves or retained
for home consumption. Excepting some ‘Milk Pockets’ or areas of
concentrated milk production in Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Saurashtra, where a large quantity of surplus
mUk is available during the flush season, milk is produced in the
Indian villages on a small scale — ^the average daily output amounting
to a mere 2.5 mds.
RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS — Indian Dairy Science Associa-
tion was formed in 1948 with the object of advancing the cause of the
science of dairying in India by co-ordinating and unifying the acti-
vities of dairy scientists in the country towards rapid advancement
of nation’s dairy industry.
Indian Dairy Council has been_ inaugurated in 1948 with
the object of promotion and safeguarding the interests of the dairy
indust^ in India. It is a common platform on which representatives
of various interests of the milk industry, such as producers, consu-
mers. traders and technicians could meet together for developing it on
sound and economic footing.
LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION OF MILK— Steps are being taken
DIAEY FIRMING
285
by several States to organise the supply of milk on the Governmental
basis. Government of Bombay has established a very large milk
colony at Aarey near Bombay where about 15,000 animals are housed
under the most modem conditions and the milk is supplied to Bombay
city after pasteurisation. Similar big milk colony has been establi-
shed by the_ Government of the West Bengal at Haringhata near
Calcutta which supplies milk to Calcutta through numerous milk
depots. Milk supply schemes are operating in various States.
DAIRY EDUCATION — There is an Indian Dairy Research Ins-
titute at Bangalore. The Institute is a central organisation for dairy
research and education under the direct control of the Ministry
of Food and Agriculture. Apart from its administrative ofBce and
dairy, there are four research sections, namely. Dairy Husban-
dry, Dairy Chemistry, Dairy Technology and Dairy Bacteriology.
T^e most important work carried out by the Dairy Husbandry sec-
tion relates to scientific breeding, feeding and management of dairy
cattle in order to increase their milk yield. The institute also forms
the centre for artificial insemination of dairy cattle. The Institute
offers training for the Indian Dairy diploma course for two years to
students and a short course of three months’ duration to men in the
trade deputed by the Government. Besides these, the Institute
entertains a limited number of science graduates as honorary
research workers and it also offers a post-graduate course for 16
months leading to the Associateship of Indian Dairy ' Research Insti-
tute. The Veterinary Research Institute at Izzatnagar, the Dairy
Research Institute at Bangalore and Cattle Breeding Station at
Jabalpur carry out research on animal husbandry. The Veterinary
Research Institute, besides teaching and advisory work, manufac-
tures biological products. The Dairy Institute carries on development
work in respect of pedigree herds of Red Sindhi, Gir and Tarparkar
cows and Murrah buffaloes. The Cattle Breeding Station carries
out cross-breeding of cattle under controlled conditions. The foun-
dation stone for the National Dairy Research Institute, Kamal was
laid on August 7, 1955. The institute will have seven divisions— dairy
husbandry, dairy technology, dairy machinery (Engineering), dairy
chemistry, dairy bacteriology, nutrition and dairy extension. In
addition to this, the institute will have a degree college in dairy
science and an economic and statistics section to plan surveys of cost
of milk production and distribution.
GHEE PRODUCTION IN INDIA — The annual production ot
ghee in Indian Union is estimated at one crore and fifteen lakh
maunds i.c., half of what it was in undivided India ten years ago.
In order of importance, the main ghee-producing areas are Punjab,
U.P., ^ladras and Bihar which account for 15-7, 13-8, 9-8 and 6'4 of
the total production respectively. Thus three-fifths of the ghee
production is concentrated in Northern and Western India and the
remaining two-fifths is scattered in the rest of the country. Taking
the country as a whole, India produces 8-9 maunds of ghee per
square mile, 21-4 maunds per village and 3-6 maunds for 100 persons.
The annual per capita consumption of ghee in India is highest in
286
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Gvralior and Sind 'witli 15-5 and 11‘2 seers respectively and the lowest
in Hyderabad and Bengal with 1-1 and 1-3 seers respectively. Of
the total ghee production nearly 30 p.c. is retained by the producers
for domestic consumption and 70 p.c. is marketed.
India imports about 66,000 maunds of ghee mostly by land
frontier routes from Nepal. India also exports about 66,000 maunds
of ghee to the Straits Settlements, Burma, Federated Malaya States
and Africa. {Ghee Marketing Report of the Government of India,
1948).
GHEE ADULTERATION — ^With a view to distinguish genuine
from adulterated ghee, the Government of India have been develop-
ing an organisation for grading and marking of genuine ghee. The
grading organisation started its work in 1938 and its mark is now
known as Agamark. In 1947 the amount of agamarked ghee was
about 2h lakh maunds. The inadequacy will be clear when we see
that this 2i- lakh maunds of certified agamarked ghee constitutes
only 2-2 per cent, of the ghee produced in the coimtry. On an average
only one sample is collected and examined for every 550 maunds of
ghee consumed in the country. Experience has shown, generally
speaking, 50 per cent of the sample tested are found to be
adulterated.
At present the grading under Agamark is voluntary. The ghee
adulteration by mixing Vanaspati (hydrogenated oil) has become so
widespread that the Government of India have been compelled to
put the matter in the hands of an expert committee, known as Ghee
Adulteration Committee which has recommended that every lot of
Vanspati produced in a factory should be accompanied by a certifi-
cate that it gives Baudouin test ; that the Vanaspati should be colour-
ed orange by using carotine oil concentrate as colouring medium, in
addition to sesame oil ; and that the Vanaspati should be fortified by
synthetic vitamin ‘A’ so that its nutritive value may be increased.
The Government have accepted the first and the last recommenda-
tions. As regards second, further experiments are to be conducted,
for the colour suggested was unstable and involved expenditure in
dollars.
INCREASE OF WORLD POPULATION
The world population reached a record 2,652 million in mid-1954.
well over half live in Asia. Following are the details — of the 2652
million people in 1954, 1451 million lived in non-Soviet Asia,
404 million in Europe, 357 million in the Americas, 214 million in the
Soviet Union, 210 million in Africa and 14.4 million in Oceania.
National Populations — China had the world’s largest population
of 582 million, followed by India with 377 million, Soviet Union
214 million, the United States 162 million, Japan 88 million, Indonesia
81 million and Pakistan 80 million.
Population growth — ^Asia’s population increased by 21 million a
year, _ Latin ^ America by four million and those of North
America, Soviet Union, Europe and Africa by three million each.
(UJV. Demographic Year-Book, 1955).
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
India has a rich and varied fauna comprising fish, birds and
mammals. The diversity which manifests itself in the variations in
rainfall, temperature and climate, determine the distribution of its
wild life. India has all the types of forests with the result that
practically all types of birds and animals are found in India, i.e. from
animals like the Himalayan red bear, the snow leopard, musk-deer
etc. living near the perpetual snow line to tigers, elephants, rhino-
ceros, wild buffalo etc. living in the hot tropical forests. More than
600 different species of mammals are found in India. Our forests
perhaps have some of the rarest and most magnificent animals.
Among the cats, we have lions and tigers, besides panthers, cheetah,
wild cats etc. Then we have the elephant, lion, wild buffalo, rhino-
ceros etc which can he classed as rare species. The Indian bison is
the largest of the existing bovines and the Indian rhinoceros, the
greatest of all rhinoceroses now inhabiting the world. The Indian
elephant is much more handsome compared to its African cousin.
The deer family is still richer and some of the most beautiful species,
e.g. cheetal, black buck etc are found in India. Cheetal is considered
to be the most beautiful of all species of deer. Among the reptiles,
the most dreaded species like king cobra, cobra, krait, viper etc are
all present.
PHYSICAL REGIONS OF ANIMALS— For the purpose of
distinguishing the wild life in India, we can divide the country into
three broad physical regions — (1) Himalayas, (2) Indo-gangetio
Plain and (3) Deccan.
Himalayas — The Great Himalayan arc occupies the region bet-
ween the gorges of the Indus and the Brahmaputra covering a length
of about 1,500 miles. The Himalayas can again be divided into three
regions — Western Himalayas, Central Himalayas and Eastern
Himalayas.
Western Himalayas — supports rich and varied wild life — such
as markhor, ibex, wild yak, choral, Tibetan antelope, brown and
black bear, tahr, Kashmir stag or hangul, barking deer, snow
leopard, serow, goral, sambar and ammon. The markhor, wild sheep,
snow leopard and brown bear occur nearer the snow line above
10,000 feet on Tibetan border and in Ladakh in particular, one
comes up against ammon, Tibetan antelope, wild yak, bharal, ibex
and Tibetan gazelle.
Central Himalayas — ^While most of the Western Himalayan
wild life persists in this region, ibex and markhor disappear and
brown bear are seldom met with to the east of the Ganges.
Panther is plentiful. The main sports of the Central Himalayas
are Jaunsar-Bawar and Tehri-Garhwal and Kumann.
Eastern Himalayas — Both panther and tiger are common
along the foothills. Occasionally the great one-homed rhinoceros is
also met with.
288
HIIJDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Indo-Gangetic Plain — ^lies like a moat skirting round the Hinm-
layas from the Bay of Bengal upto the ^vestem boundaries of India.
The representative animals met -with in this region are — ^black buck,
nilgai and pigs in the centre, tiger, panther, sambar, barking deer,
elephant and rhinoceros. So in the foot of Himalayas vre have tiger,
panther, sambar, bear, barking deer, elephant, buffalo, and rhinoceros
(Assam and Bengal), chital, hog deer, swamp deer and _ four-
homed antelope. In central plain, we have black buck, nilgai, pig,
porcupine, in the Thar desert we find desert cat, desert fox, desert
hare and species of desert gerbilles. The moist eastern _ tracts
have rhinoceros, buffalo, swamp deer. In the Aravallis and
Southern Highlands, we have tiger, panther, sambar and barking deer.
Ueccan — Ihe JJeccan plateau have three distinct regions —
West Coast, East Coast and Central Plateau. In the open savannah
lands of the Deccan, we have gazelle, antelope, jungle cat, common
fox, mongoose, hyaenas, jackal, wolf, palm squirrel, hares and
rodents. In the deciduous forests, we have bison, sambhar, spotted
deer, sloth bear and wild dog. In more humid zone, we have swamp
deer, buffalo and elephant. In Nflgiris, Palnis and Anamalais and
evergreen forests of the Western Ghats, we have wild elephant,
bison. Nilgiri langur, lion-taUed macaque, Nilgiri brown mongoose
and Malabar civet. It may be noted that the exclusive feature of
the Deccan animal life is constituted by the spotted deer, nilgai,
black buck, four homed antelope and sloth bear — species winch do
not occur anywhere else outside India.
WTLD LIFE PRESERVATIONS— The revival of interest in the
conservation of wild life in India is a part of general renaissance which
has transformed the country since Independence. In the past, spas-
modic efforts were made to preserve the wild life such as, the short-
lived 1934 All-India Conference for the preservation of Wild Life etc.
But the real attempt in this line has been the formation of Indian
Board of Wild Life at Mysore in 1952. This Wild Life Board has pin-
pointed the need to preser\'e completely certain vanishing species. It
•has urged the States to create wild life board of their own and sanc-
tuaries and national parks and to introduce new methods and to im-
prove existing legislation. It has imposed export restrictions on
certain animals and birds, it has endeavoured to find an alternative
home for the Indian lion which is the nation’s emblem. It has sug-
gested that wild life week be celebrated in the first week of October
each year. But it is to be remembered that the work of the Board is
purely advisory and the States which control wild life along with
forests are free to accept or reject such advice.
Wild life protection is provided for throughout India in the reserv-
ed forests under the sporting rules of the State forest departments
and generally through the implementation of the Arms Act and in
some States, the provisions of special acts for the protection of
animals and birds. Some States not content with the protection
afforded under these various types of legislation has created, like
Bombay and Hyderabad, Wild Life Department.
Sanctuaries and National Parks are being created though very
slowly for the protection of the vanishing animals of India.
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
289
VANISHING ANIMALS — ^The animals which are gradually
vanishing from Indian forests are lions, rhinos, Nilgiri langur, lion-
taUed monkey, Indian wild ass, Kashmiri stag, musk deer, brown
antlered deer, pigmy hog, clouded and snow leopards and the like.
VARIETIES & DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS
(a) Himalayan Species — (1) Sheep — shapu of Ladakh, Bhoral ;
(2) Goat — Asiatic Ibex, markhor, Himalayan tahr, serow, goral,
takin ; (3) Deer — ^Kashmir stag, musk deer ; (4) Bears — ^Hima-
layan brown bear, Himalayan black bear ; (6) Carnivora — snow
leopard, clouded leopard.
(b) Tibetan Species — (1) Yak, Tibetan wild ass, Tibetan ante-
lope, Tibetan gazelle. Great Tibetan sheep.
(c) Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Deccan — (1) General — Indian
rhinoceros, Indian elephant, (b) Deer — Sambhar, spotted deer or
chital, hog deer, swamp deer, barking deer, mouse deer ; (3) Ante-
lopes — ^Nilgiri, black buck, Indian gazelle, four-homed antelope ;
(4) Bovines — ^Indian wild buffalo, gour or Indian bison (B) Bears —
sloth bear, malayan bear ; (6) Carnivora — Asiatic lion, tiger, panther,
hunting leopard or cheetah ; (7) Hyaena — striped hyaena ; (8) Dog
— Indian wild dog ; (9) Goats — Nilgiri tahr.
Description of Animals — Indian rhinoceros is probably the
largest of living rhinoceroses. It may reach 6 ft. at the shoulder
with girth behind the shoulder of 11 ft. or more. This creature
is in fair number in the Chitawan forests of the Nepal Terai of the
Gandak river and it is also found in Bengal and Assam. Assam’s
rhinos are concentrated in the Kaziranga Sanctuary in Sibsagur dis-
trict. The population of rhinos in this sanctuary is roughly estima-
ted to be 250 to 300. Bengal rhinos are found in the Jalpaiguri district.
Elephants are at present found in the forests of the Western Ghats,
in the forests of Mysore, parts of the districts of Coimbatore, Nilgpri
and Madura and Palni hills (South India), occasionally in the eastern
parts of Visakhapatnam and in considerable number in the Orissa
State, east of Mahanadi river. They also occur in the Terai of U.P.,
in the forests of Assam and Bengal and in some parts of Orissa,
cast of Sambalpur. Sambar of India is the largest of forest deers
in South-East Asia. Chital or spotted deer is found only in India
and Ceylon and is widely distributed in India. Nilgai or blue bull—
a kind of antelope so named on account of the colour of the fully
matured animal. Black buck is exclusively Indian animal. Indian
buffalo is becoming scarce and can be seen on Mahanadi river in the
north-west comer of Orissa and in Assam. Indian bison is found
in Peninsular India and in Assam. Asiatic lion — ^is now to be met
with only in the Gir Forest of Saurashtra. Tiger is available in
Chanda District (M. P.), Eastern Kumaun, Sunderban forests.
Panther — ^there is but one species of panther in India. Hyaena
occurs freely all over India. Indian loild dog is found from Ladakh,
Tibet down to the plains and the Deccan plateau. Indian gazelle is
found in many parts of India from Indus to the South. Mouse deer
is a tiny creature. It is quite plentiful in some areas of . Central
19
290
HINDUSTAN YEAB-BOOK
India and Madras State. Hog deer is some Trhat pig-like appear-
ance and has hog-like movement. This deer is common in snh-
Himalayan tracts and in Assam. Clouded leopard has dark and rich
colouring. It is found only m the dense evergreen forests of
Sikkim, Bhutan, and Assam. Himalayan hlaeh hear is fairly common
in Kashmir and in other parts of Himalayas and occasionally in the
Terai forests.
PROBLEM OF VtTLD LIFE IN INDIA— DisaSorestanon in
India during last two thousand years have totally changed the
face of many parts of India, Sportsman’s vrhip had butchered vrild
Die and certain rare animals are nearing esrinction. Indiscriminate
cultivation in the interior of forests brings about needless interference
with “nature’s reserves.” The importance of forests, where alone
genuine wild life can be preserved is coming to be realised more and
more. Realising the need of preserving the wild life of the country,
the Government of India set up in April, 1952, an Indian Board of
Wild Life to assist those in this line.
Desperate efforts are being made in India to save the wild life in
India which are fast disappearing. We now find only last surviving
lions in the Gir forest in ^thiawar and Indian rhinoceros in .Assam,
Bengal and Nepal. There are 225 lions and 350 rhinos in India.
There are other wild animals which are dwingling in numbers in all
states. Several of the State Governme nts have set up their State
WDd Life Boards. Game Reserves and WRd lafe Sanctuaries have
been established.
A good amount of planning and scientific attention are necessary
in settSig up parks, reserves and _ sanctuaries. The following pro-
posals have been made by the I n dia n Board of Wild Life — (1) Ser-
ting up sanctuaries, (2) legislation for the protection of wild animals
and birds, (3) appointment of observer for wild lif^ (4) adoption of
stringent measures against destruction of wild life by employing
poisoned weapons, nets, snares and explosives, (5) setting up of per-
manent machinery to keep constant vigil and for management of
wild life throughout the country, (6) creation of buffer belts round
the sanctuaries where the shooting of animals was to be prohibited,
(7) periodical inoculation of domestic cattle in the neighbourhood of
aD national parks and sanctuaries against cattie-horne disease, (8)
prohibition of the e^ort of trophies except under certificate of
ownership, (9) prohibition of nettmg of birds and animals during
close periods and their sale, (10) fixation of annual limits reganfing
export and import of animal for the purpose of zoos, circuses and
scientific institutions, (11) wild life day on the 7th July each year.
BIRD PROTECTION — National Committee for Bird Preserva-
tion has been formed in India in 1952 for the protection of some of
the species of wild life which are now in danger of extinction. There
are in India about 1,500 main species of wild birds. These are again
sub-divided into several smaller snb-^edes. An important factor
contributing to the extinction of certain species was the indiscrimi-
nate killing of rare birds for their feathers. There is urgent neces-
sity of proper care of certain areas in the country which are alr^dv
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
2&1
being used as sanctuaries such as Herona^ at Bharatpur in Eajas-
than and the Flamingo breeding grounds in Cutch.
NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES IN INDIA
(National Parks are created and modified only by an Act of
legislature, luhereas a Sanctuary can he declared by Government).
Jammu & Kashmir — Three game sanctuaries in Jammu and three
game sanctuaries in Kashmir.
Punjab — Eleven game sanctuaries.
Pepsu — Game sanctuaries in the District of Kandaghat and all the
other reserve forests.
West Bengal — Wild life sanctuary at Gorumara (Jalpaiguri) measur-
ing 3.33 miles under Jalpaiguri Forest Division situated in Lower
Tandu range, (2) Chapramari sanctuary measuring 3.40 sq, miles
in upper Tandu range. These two sanctuaries are mainly meant
for the preservation of the rapidly vanishing Indian rhinoceros ;
(3) the biggest of Bengal sanctuaries is Jaldapara measuring
about 36 sq. miles about 50 miles away to the east of Gorumara’.
Jaldapara sanctuary is under Coach Bihar Forest Division. The
other two sanctuaries of Bengal are Senchal in Darjeeling and
Lothian Island in 24 Praganas. It is estimated that the present
strength of rhinoceros population in West Bengal, is 60 to 70.
Elephants are found in Gorumara and Chapramari and Jaldapara.
Assam — ^Assam has at present four very attractive game
sancturies and four game reserves which ate meant for the
protection of rare animals of the State. There are 464
sq. miles of such sanctuaries and reserves in the State.
(1) Monas Game Sanctuary, spreads over 105 sq. miles on
the north bank of the . Brahmaputra and is in the Kamrup dis-
trict. The sanctuary contains elephants, buffaloes; bisons, rhino,
bears, tigers, pigs and several kinds of deer including barking
variety. The nearest railway station is Barpeta Itoad from which
there is a cold-weather _ motorable road to the sanctuary
entrance. (2) Sonai-Rupai _ Game Sanctaary, Balipara in the
Darrang district. It contains a few rhinos, elephants, bisons
in addition to other animals. It can be reached from Rangapara
railway station and Tezpur Aerodrome by all-weather motorable
road. (3) Pabha Buffalo sanctuary, 19 sq. miles, is situated in
North Lakhimpur. This is exclusively mfeant for the protection
of the magnificent species of wild buffalo in 'Assam. (4) Kazi-
ranga sanctuary is in Sibsagar . district. . , Bounded by Mikir
Hills in the south and Brahmaputra in the north, it is 166 sq.
miles and is easily accessible from Calcutta by air. A five-room
bunglow has recently been constructed at Kahara near the
entrance of the sanctuary. The population of the rhinos in this
sanctuary is 250 to 300. Other animals include about 300 ele-
phants, 500 wild buffaloes in a number of herds, 4 types of deer
including hog deer and swamp deer, . (5) Orang Game Reserve,
Mangalilai to Tezpur. (6) Reserve, for rhino, Laokhowa game
292
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
reserve. Out of the above, the State is converting soon E^zi-
rang and Monas into two National Parks.
Bihar — ^Hazaribagh National Park.
Madhya Bharat — Shivapuri National Park.
M. P. — (1) Tairoba Game Reserve, North Chanda Division, (2)
Bori Game Reserve, Hosangahad Dn., (3) Sanctuary in Mandla
division, ICanha wild game sanctuary.
Bombay — (1) Kanheri National Park, Kanheri valley, (2)_ Wild Life
Sanctuary & National Park, Kulgi & Vimoli, North Kinara Disk,
(3) Elephant Island.
Madras — Mudumalai Game Sanctuary, Nilgiri District.
Mysore — (1) Venugopala Wild Life Sanctuary, (2) Sanctuary for
birds. Near Seringapatam, (3) Fish Sanctuary, Ramnathpur, (4)
Miniature National Park, Mysore Zoo, (5) Bandipur Game Sanc-
tuary. (6) Nagarhol game Sanctuary at Coorg.
Travancore-Cochin — (1) Periyar Catchment area Sanctuary, (2)
Peermade Game Association Area, (3) A Reserved forest serv-
ing Sanctuary and National Park.
Andhra — ^Wild Life Sanctuary to be opened shortly in Cuddapah and
Chittur districts on a patch of nearly 190 square miles of forest.
Uttar Pradesh — In U.P. the most important and perhaps the largest
in India is the Ramganga National Park covering an area of
125 sq. miles. Besides this important Park, there is the Nando
Devi Sanctuary at an altitude of 14,000 to 16,000 feet surrounded
on all sides by the mighty peaks of the Nanda Devi group. The
Kansani Sanctuary in Dehra Dun division covers 28 miles.
Orissa — ^There are at present four sanctuaries as detailed below — (1)
Debigarh Game Sanctuary was. established prior to 1931. It ex-
tends over an area of about 51. sq. miles. The important \vild
life to be seen here is tiger, leopard, sambar, antelope, bison and
nilgai. (2) Raigoda Game Sanctuary established during 1938-39,
lies 23 miles south of Angul town. It is about 17 sq. miles in
area, (3) Ghandika Game Sancttiary established in 1935, covers an
ai'ea of about 12 sq. miles and is situated about 12 miles towards
west of new capital, Bhubaneswar, (4) Balukhand _ Sanctuary
was established during 1935. (5) A National Park in Simlipal
Hills of Mayurbhanj and other game sanctuaries are to be opened
during 2nd Five-Year Plan.
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
IN INDIA
Calcutta
Bombay
Gwalior
Hyderabad
Baroda
Lucknow
Madras
Junagadh
Jaipur
Mysore ’
Ahmedabad
Jodhpur
Trichur .
Nagpur
Bikaner
Trivandrum
Udaipur
Delhi
Poona
Kotah
INDEX NUMBERS ON VARIOUS
SUBJECTS
INDEX NUMBERS OP WHOLESALE PRICES & COST OP LIVING
IN SELECTED COUNTRIES
(Base : 1953=
;100) : P
= Wholesale
Prices :
C=Cost of Living
Australia
Canada
France
India
U. K.
U.
s.
P. C.
P. C.
P. C.
P.
C.
P. G,
P.
c.
1951
86 82
109 98
100 91
112
99
97 89
104
97
1952
97 96
102 101
105 101
98
97
100 97
101
99
1963
100 100
100 100
100 100
100
100
100 100
100
100
1954
98 101
98 101
98 100
98
95
101 102
100
100
1955
102 104
99 101
98 101
90
90
104 106
100 100
(.Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56) .
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX NUMBERS (Working Class)
(Base : 1949=100)
.B
d
§
O
•o
o
K
Ss
B
is
•§
o
»«•»
"2
c
*5
Q
B
o
v>>
“1
§•
'n
o
o
5
5
ca
<
CQ
S
1951-62
.. 104
108
106
108
104
104
116
116
94
1952-53
.. 104
112
100
107
103
107
116
111
93
1953-54
.. 106
118
99
107
109
111
113
110
94
1954-65
.. 99
117
94
103
104
93
104
101
83
1955-56
.. 96
110
93
100
100
89
104
99
79
(Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
ALL INDIA INDEX NUMBERS OF SECURITY PRICES
Group Indices
.a
CS
Base : IHO-SO
1952- 53
1953- 54
90-1
90-4
101-1
87-3
87-3
94- 0
95- 6
294
HlfTOUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
1954- 55
1955- 56
90-5 100-7 88-4 112-9
90-9 100-8 87-3 121-6
INDEX NUMBERS OE INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
(Base; 1951=100)
General Index Mining
Food
Textiles
Cotton
Jute
1952 103
105.6
112.4
103.7
102.3
107.6
1953 105.6
104.2
105.7
107.1
109.1
101.1
1954 112.9
107.2
101.7
110.0
110.9
107.3
1955 122.1
111.7
121.4
113.6
111.9
118.9
Q n 2
Si 5
1 o u
it
1
2e>
A S'®
£
o
® V*
to-Ss
2 ®
s
1952
. . 117.9
106.2
100.1
92.8
104.5
1953-
. . 130.0
108.9
94.5
108.9
113.1
1954
. . 141.1
125.5
114.4
115.9
127.0
1955
. . 159.0
134.8
112.6
183.3
131.2
{Monthly Abstract of Statistics, Sept., 1956).
INDEX NUMBERS OF EXPORTS AND BIPORTS
Quantity Index
(Reserre Bank of India series)
Exports Imports
.S w
r* o
'-'.O
03
'5-S.S
e
o
O
t* o
03
sl
ta 05
c
'c
S'®
s. c
o ^
Food,
& Ti
£ S?
V
o
^ e
s s ^
O
rs^
S
o
c*.»
■S’S-
1953-54
.. 98
74
114
99
64
100
1X4
105
122
1954-55
.. 104
82
115
102
72
104
130
114
122
1955-56
.. 102
: 124
117
115
89
95
183
95
91
Price Index
1953-54
.. 107
99
84
94
92
93
98
93
101
1954-55
.. 130
•98
84
100
78
94
101
91
110
1955-56
.. 114
'92
81
93
84
98
98
94
99
*Ratio of Export Price Index to Import Price Index.
INDEX NUMBER ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS
295
INDEX NUMBERS OP WHOLESALE PRICES IN INDIA*
{Annual & Monthly)
(Base : Year endeS August 1939=100)
Indus-
trial
raw
Semi-
Manu-
Average of
Food
mate-
manu-
factured
General
-iveeks
articles rials
factures
articles
Mis.
Index
1951-62
(31)
(18)
(17)
(30)
(4)
(100)
398-6
691-9
374-4
401-6
721-6
434-6
1952-53
357-8
436-9
343-8
371-2
614-1
380-6
1963-54
384-4
467-7
359-2
367-4
686-6
397-6
1954-55
339-8
436-2
360-3
377-3
612-4
377-4
1955-56
313.2
419.7
338.2
372.9
646.4
360.3
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
^Figures in brackets
refer to weightage.
INDEX NUMBER OF FOOD
PRICES
(Base : Year ended August
1939=100)
Groups
1953-54
1954-56
1955-56 percentage
(1)
(2)
(3)
change of (3)
‘
over (2)
All commodities
397.5
377.5
360.3
- 4.6
Pood Articles
384.4
339.8
313.2
- 7.8
Industrial raw materials
467.7
436.2
419.7
- 3.8
Semi-Manufactures
359.2
350.3
338.2
- 3.6
Manufactures
367.4
377.4
372.9
.
— 1.2
Miscellaneous
686.6
612.4
646.4
-
-10.8
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
INDEX NUMBERS OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
1951=100
1952
1954
1956
1962
1954
1965
General Index 103.6
112.9
122.1
Jute
Coal
105.6
107.2
111.4
textiles
107.6
107.3
118.9
Iron ore
106.3
107.8
116.7
Footwear
Sugar
134.0
97.4
143.0
(leather)
90.6
93.3
97.1
Tea
98.6
102.6
106.2
Paper
104.2
117.7
140.2
Salt
103.3
99.4
109.0
Footwear
Vegetable oil
(rubber)
98.9
136.4
151.4
products
110.7
133.9
161.3
Iron &
Cigarettes
93.8
92.4
106.4
Steel
102.2
113.2
113.3
Cotton
Non-ferrous
textiles
102.3
110.9
111.9
metal
80.7
126.6
123.7
•Ministry of Commerce & Industry {Reserve Bank Bulletin Nov., 1956),
296 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Industrial Profits
(1939=100)
55
-j
,
5;
S
s
§,
g
6
O
O
1950
246.6
456.9
356.6
271.2
262.4
479.0
134.2
209JI
333.4
1951
310.5
679.1
551.1
103.9
420.8
60A1
157.7
178.4
419.7
1952
190.6
183.4
262.8
-88.8
409.1
566.8
162.6
220.4
293.4
1953
261.2
326.2
379.4
391.4
419.8
512.7
179.4
145.5
279.0
1954
314.2
356.4
387.2
712.3
334.9
666.1
222.9
153.0
341.4
{Monthly
Abstract of Statistics, Sept.
1956)
1.
ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF INDLA
1. Production & Prices
1953
1954
1955
(Index numbers 1953=100)
Industrial Production
100
108
119
Wholesale Prices — General
100
98
90
Share Prices — Industrial
100
119
131
Cost of Living
100
95
90
2. Money, Banking & Capital 3Iarkets
National Income . . 104.90
99.10
Money supply — end of year
17.09
18.32
20.47
(i_) Currency do
11.66
12.25
13E6
(ii) Deposit money do
5.43
6.08
6.61
Time deposits do
3.59
3.95
4.46
Govt, deposits do
1.16
0.60
0.39
Domestic loans & Investments of
Commercial Banks
8.77
9.63
10.86
Foreign Assets of Central Banks
7.63
7.71
7.75
Discount rate of Central Banks (p.c.) 3.50
3.50
3.50
Treasury Bill Rate (p.c.)
2.42
2.57
2.52
Long-term Govt, bond yield (p.c.)
3.64
3.65
3.72
3. Government Finances
Revenue
4J2
4.6
5.0
Expenditure
4.1
4.2
4.9
Public Debt
26.4
29.8
32.9
4. Trade CVaiae)
Exports if.o.b.)
5,)1
5,94
5,97
Imports (c.i.f.)
5,72
—0.41
6,56
6,79
Net Balance of Trade
-0.63
—0.82
{Report on
Cnrrency & Finance,
1955-56).
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN
INDIA
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN INDIA— India has a long tradi-
tion of scientific research. It took pride of place in ancient India. Old
Sanskrit texts bear witness to the high quality of research in medi-
cine, astronomy and mathematics. But science was in eclipse in the
middle ages and India began to lose her pre-eminence among the na-
tions of the world. Science received little encouragement under Bri-
tish rule in India. In consequence, the country has remained backward
in many respects. Official patronage was denied to science but it
found devotees among the people. Proposals for industrial research
were shelved on some pretext or other. Circumstances compelled
the British to reverse their policy. With the advent of World War,
India became the supply base for the Allied forces in the Middle and
Far East. So Government of India sought the aid of science to make
the most of the resources available within the country. Accordingly
The Board of Scientific and Industrial Research was set up in 1940.
With the experience gained in the working of the Board, the Cotmcil
of Scientific and Industrial Research came into being in April 1942.
The activities of the Council is financed mainly by the Central Govern-
ment. With the advent of independence on August 15, 1947, a
separate portfolio was created for scientific research under the direct
charge of the Prime Minister Nehru. This was followed by the
creation of the Department of Scientific Research on June 1, 1948 fol-
lowed by the institution of a Ministry of Natural Resources and
Scientific Research in 1951.
Scientific and technological research in India is at present being
carried out in —
1. 33 Universities.
2. Institutes like Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Bose
Research Institute, Calcutta, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeo-Botany,
etc., maintained by non-official organisations with liberal financial
support from Government.
3. 14 National Laboratoiies of Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research.
4. Establishments of the Government of India like Atomic Energy
Commission, Surveys of Botany, Zoology, and Geology, Indian Bureau
of Llines, Survey of India, National Atlas of India Enterprise, Indian
Meteorological Department and the Central Statistical Organisation.
5. A few specialised research institutes maintained by private in-
dustries in the field of cotton, textiles, jute, silk and art silk.
ROLE OF INDIAN SCIENTISTS — The modern scientific re-
search in India started only at the beginning of the century through
the pioneering work of Sir P. C. Roy and Sir J. C. Bose. This was
298
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
followed later by the brilliant investigations of Sir C. V. Eaman,
M. N. Saha, Birbal Sahni, S. N. Bose and Sir J. C. Ghosh. _
India can boast of Nobel Prize winner in Physics in Sir C. "V.
Raman, the famous discover of “Raman effect”-, significant work
has been done by Sir C. V. Raman and his collaborators at Bangalore
on the dynamics of crystals like diamond, rock salt and quartz.
Work on optics has recently been initiated in the newly CTeated
Raman Research Institute at Bangalore, of which he is the director.
Other famous scientists are Sir J. G. Bose who won renown by his
work in plant physiology, S, Ramanujam, the mathematical prodigy
of India whose early death ended a career of great promise. Dr. M.
N. Saha for thermal ionization and radiation, late Dr. Birbal Sahni,
an authority in paleobotany, who carried interesting work on the
age of salt ranges of the Punjab. Dr. K. S. Krishnan, famous for
his work on magnetism, H. J. Bhaba whose work on the cascade
theory and ionisation of showers has won for him international
reputation, P. C. Mahalanobis of statistics fame, late Sir P. C. Roy
for mercurious nitrate, late Dr. S. S. Bhatnagar, well-kno'vra
for his work on mercury nitrates, S. N. Bose of Bose-Einstein
statistics fame, T. S. Venkataraman, the sugarcane expert, Sir J. C.
Ghose, J. N. Jlukherjee on coUoid chemistry and soil research. Dr.
Ghaniusekharis contribution to astronomy and astrophysics, K-
Venkataraman’s researches on dyestafiTs, D. M. Bose famed for
research work in magnetism and Dr. N. R. Dhar for scientific
researches.
In the field of medical science, India was the first country to dis-
cover that micro-organisms which are responsible for malaria and
transmitted by mosquitoes. The diagnosis, prevention and cure of
kala-azar have been made possible by the work of the late Dr. U. N.
Brahmachari ; Dr. R, N. Chopra has investigated the cictine principle
of Indian medicinal plants and their pharmacolcgical action.
INDIA’S INTERNATIONAL CONTACTS IN SCIENCE— India
is a member of the International Council of Scientific Unions and of
eleven individual Scientific Unions. The works of the Indian scientists
have been recognised and many of them have been appointed to vari-
ous organisations under the International Scientific Unions. India’s
views on the various scientific bodies are thus fully represented. Indi-
an scientific delegation are regularly sent to a number of International
Conferences, through which Indian scientists receive regular infor-
mation from abroad on the latest developments in specialized sub-
jects. Several International Conferences are also being held in India
at regular intervals.
The Indian Scientific Liaison Officer with the Indian High
Commissioner , in . London obtains information from Britain and
European countries on technical subjects required by our research
laboratories, universities and scientific institutions. In most cases,
this kind of information can not be, obtained through the ordinary
channels. The Scientific Liaison Office helps the movement of scien-
rists within the Commonwealth and provides adequate facilities for
Indian scientists and others visiting U.K. and European countries.
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
299
MINISTRY OP NATURAL RESOURCES AND SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH — On June 1, 1948 a separate Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research was set lip under the direct control of the
Prime Minister. The functions of this department include the co-ordi-
nation of the scientific activities of other ministries, advice to Govern-
ment Departments, maintenance of scientific liaison with other coun-
tries and institutes, research scholarships in applied scientific sub-
jects, carrying out of all work in connection with the International
Council of Scientific Unions and International Scientific Com-
missions. On the 1st February, 1951 the Ministry of Natural Re-
sources and Scientific Research was created and the former Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research became a part of this new
Ministry. This Ministry is concerned with scientific and industrial
research, undertakes scientific surveys and deals with mining enter-
prises. Atomic Research is also one of its responsibilities. The Coun-
cil of Scientific and Industrial Research comes under this Ministry
for administrative purposes but still retains its separate entity.
Department of Atomic Energy — The work of the atomic energy
was so long under the charge of the Ministry of Natural Resources,
but from 1954 Government of India created a separate Department
of Atomic Energy under the direct charge of the Prime Minister.
This department is located at Bombay and has taken over from the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research all business
connected with atomic energy.
Oil & Natural Gas Directorate — The latest Industrial Policy
Resolution of the Government of India, April 30, 1956 have decided
that the future development of mineral oil should be the responsibi-
lity of the State. An organisation called “Oil and Natural Gas Di-
rectorate” has already been set up under the Ministry of Natural Re-
sources and Scientific Research. This is soon to be reconstituted as
an Oil and Natural Gas Commission.
COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—
At the time of the Second World War, the British Government
was compelled to accelerate the scientific research in India, because
at that time maximum utilization of resources available in India
became an absolute necessity. India at that time was the principal
supply base of the Allies in the East. So in 1940 the Government
of India established a Board of Scientific Research which was con-
verted into the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Plan-
ning and co-ordination were made possible in an increasing
degree by the establishment of the Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research. In 1942 the Council of Scientific and Industrial Re-
search Was constituted as an autonomous body with the object of
establishing, maintaining and managing laboratories and institutions
devoted to scientific and industrial research. In addition to its other
functions, it awards research studentships and fellowships and utilizes
the results of research for the development' of industries. It also
publishes scientific papers and journals to disseminate information
regarding scientific and industrial matters. '
The Council is administered by a governing body with the Prime
Minister for its President and the Minister for Natural Resources and
300
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Scientific Research as Vice-President. Non-officials representing
science, business and industry as well as the representatives of the
Minist^ of Finance is included in the Governing Body. In technical
matters, the Governing Body is advised by a Board of Scientific and
Industrial Research consisting of 19 members. The Government De-
partments interested in the industrial research are also represented.
The Board advises the Government on (a) proposals for the
initiation of research concerning specific problems, (b) proposal from
scientific institutions, including universities for the study of problems
relating to particular trades and industries and (c) proposals for the
study and survey of indigenous resources as an essential preliminary
to systematic investigations.
Following are some of the important works of the Council of
Industrial and Scientific Research -. —
1. It helps in the formation of industrial research associations.
2. It encourages fundamental and applied research in the uni-
versities and other research institutions through grants-in-aid.
3. Biological Research Committee has been set up by the Council
for research in biology.
4. Experiments to produce artificial rain has been carried out in
India under the auspices of the Council.
5. An Indian National Committee has been constituted under
the auspices of the Council to organise investigations in connection
with the International Geophysical year 1957-58.
6. Radio Research Committee of the Council is functioning as
the National Committee in India for the International Scientific Radio
Union.
7. Vigyan Mandirs — For the revival of popular interest in
science which will widen the base of research in the country is the
plan to spread a net work of rural scientific laboratories known as
Vigyan hlandirs. Analysis of the soil and water, dissemination of
scientific information, nature of human diseases, plant diseases, soil
defect, water defect, will be their main activities. These centres will
also have a pathological laboratory to help the public health autho-
rities in fighting diseases. The first Vigyan Mandir was opened by
the Prime Minister on August IG, 1953 near the village Kopasera
near Delhi and the second, called Kidwai Vigyan Mandir was started
at Masauli on Dec. 12, 1954 and a third was started at Kalupapatti
in Madras. These rural scientific centres will be associated with
Community Projects Administration and will be located in Commu-
nity Project areas.
8. Scientific Publications — Dissemination of scientific infor-
mation is one of the important functions of the Council of Scien-
tific and Industrial Research. An important development in the field
of ■ scientific research is the publication of Wealth of India as the
dictionary of economic products and industrial resources of India. A
comprehensive National Register of Scientific and Technical Per-
sonnel has been compiled by the Council. Information concerning
over 22,000 technicians and scientists has already been published
in this book.
The Council also brings out a monthly publication Journal of
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
301
Scientific and Industrial Research from 1942. The joumal publishes
research papers, reviews, scientific and technical articles, etc. The
Council also publishes Vigyan Pragati in Hindi.
An Indian Science News-letter containing current news on scien-
tific and technical work in India is issued fortnightly.
Funds have been provided for the translation into English of a
Bharatiya Jyotish Shastra by the late Shankar Balkrishna Dixit
which is a source box of ancient and mediaeval Indian astronomy.
The publications relating to the activities of the 23 research
committees under the Council of Scientific & Agricultural Research
are brought out from time to time in the form of reports, mono-
graphs and bulletins.
FIVE-YEAR PLANS — under the first Five-Year Plan, a sum
of Rs. 5 crores was spent in building and equiping national
laboratories. The total expenditure on the activities of the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research, during the period amounted to
more than 7 crores. A distinctive achievement of the 1st Five-Year
Plan was the setting up of a chain of national research laboratories,
research institutions such as electronics at PUani and for salt
at Bhavnagar, a national botanical garden in Lucknow. In addi-
tion to research department in 33 universities, there are 88 research
institutions and research centres and 54 associations in the field of
technological research.
Snd Five-Year Plan — provides for an outlay of Rs. 20 crores for
the development programme of the Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research. In addition, the University Grants Commission is
expected to provide a sum of Rs. 17 crores to the universities for
building up research facilities and for higher technological education.
NATIONAL LABORATORIES — ^The establishment of a chain of
national laboratories ranks as one of the major achievements of In-
dia since Independence. These National Laboratories seek to
supplement the work of other research institutions of the country.
The description of these laboratories are given here —
1. National Physical Laboratory, Ncio Delhi — It has nine
divisions dealing with weights and measures, applied mechanics,
heat and power, optics, electricity, electronics, acoustics, _ analytical
chemistry and industrial physics. It has special laboratories for the
study of semiconductors, ultrasonics, luminescence, low tempera-
tures, etc. One main line of research is the practical utilization of
solar energy which a country like India has great prospects. It was
opened on January 21, 1950,
2. National Chemical Laboratory, Poona — ^Tlie laboratory'
was opened in 1950 and has eight main divisions devoted to in-
organic chemistry, physical chemistry, chemistry of high polymers,
organic chemistry, bio-chemisti-y, chemical engineering etc. The
lalwratory has been working on the industrial utilisation of the
natural resources of the country, notably on phosphates, ilmenites
and monazites and containing thorium and rare earths.
3. National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur — ^was
opened on 2Gth November, 1950. Besides metallurgical research, it
302
lUNDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
undertakes xesearch on ores, minerals and refractories as applied to
metallurgy. A .noteworthy feature is the laboratory’s collaboration
with the Tatas. '
■ 4. ■ Central Fuel Research histitute, Digivadih, Dhanoad —
was opened on April 22, 1950. The institute conducts research on
major problems concerning fuel — ^solid, liquid and gaseous — and
operates a physical and chemical survey of Indian coals, the object
being to provide a reliable assessment of the quality and quantity of
the various coal resources of the country in order to ensure that
they are utilised to the best advantage. In addition to problems of
fundamental and applied research, sampling and analysis of coal will
be undertaken and phot-plants are to be developed for various
processes.
5. Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Calcutta —
was opened on 25th August, 1950. The Institute conducts^ funda-
mental research bearing on different branches of glass ceramics. Its
other fimctions will be testing and standardization, technical assist-
ance to the glass and ceramic industry ; dissemination of information
and training of technologists for special work. It has carried out
research on coloured glass, sintered glass and foam glass. A survey
of glass sands has been conducted in the States and more than 120
samples have been analysed and graded. ' " .
6. Central Road Research Institute, Nero Delhi — was opened
on July 16, 1952. It includes the following works — study of the
technique of construction and maintenance of roads with due regard
to the use of indigenous materials, survey of Indian soils with the
object of evolving chief rural roads, investigation of problems of
road safety, development of an improved type of rural vehicle which
would be less destructive to rural roads.
7. Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore City
— It was opened on 21st October, 1950. The Institute studies the
storage, conservation and processing of foodsriiffs, refrigeration, new
sources of food materials, and the production of food concentration,
ritamins and dietetic products. An important branch of the insti-
tute’s work is the economics of food production, also technical propa-
ganda and information.
8. Central Drug Research Institute, ‘Chattar Mansil,’
Lucknorc — ^was opened on Februri^ 17, 1951. This Research Insti-
tute has been set up with five main divisions with chemistry, botany,
pharmacology, biochemistry and microbiology and clinical science.
The Institute is conducting research on drugs which has been used
by indigenous systems of medicine for hundreds of years. Medicinal
plants and herbs are also being tested. The Institute will also work
on synthetic drugs and anti-biotics.
9. Central Leather Research Institute, Madras — was opened
m January 16, 1953. Hides and skins constitute an important item
in Indian export trade. To provide proper facilities for research, a
fullfledged Central Leather Research Institute has been set up in
Madras. Its various sections vrill deal with leather testing, chemis-
try, bacteriology, microscopy and physics. The Institute will have
a model tannery, a pilot plant and a workshop. Work here is devo-
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
303
ted to the improvement and modernization of the leather industry in
this country.
10. Central Electro-Chemical Research Institute, Karaikudi
(Madras) — ^was opened in January 15, 1953. Several ‘key" chemical
industries depend on electro-chemical processes. In fact, some
chemicals can not be manufactured economically by other means.
This Central Research Institute will thus help the development of
the chemical industry. The Institute will have two main divisions —
electrolytic and electrothermic. The main object is to foster new
chemical industries, to expand the existing ones and also to improve
their efficiency.
11. Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee — ^was opened
on April 13, 1953. The institute deals with four principal groups of
problems, namely (i) building material, (ii) methods of construction,
(iii) performance of buildings and Uv) survey and information.
This completes the eleven laboratories first conceived by the Govern-
ment.
12. Central Salt Research Institute, Bkavnagar — ^was opened
on the 10th April, 1954 by Jawaharlal Nehru.- The main func-
tion of the Institute is to work out methods for improving the
quality and to increase salt production for domestic as well as indus-
trial uses. The sources of salt, such as sea and lake brines, contain,
besides salt, other important chemicals. It is the object of the
Institute to conduct research on the economic recovery of the by-pro-
ducts as such or to utilize them for the manufacture of other industri-
ally useful chemicals. Attached to this Institute there is a Central
Model Salt Farm and Field Experimental Station.
13. Central Electronic Engineering Institute, Pilani, Raj-
asthan — was opened in Rajasthan in 1954. The Govt, of India has
allocated a Rs. 25-lakh gprant for the First Five-Year Plan period.
Seth G. D. Birla has donated Rs. 21 lakhs and a recurring annual
grant of Rs. 50,000. The object of the Institute is to undertake
research and development on aU aspects of electronic engineering.
Special attention is devoted to the utilization of indigenous raw
materials for the manufacture of components, the development and
use of electronic circuits for industry, the building of standard elec-
tronic instruments, for test purposes, the electronotic tools for
medical profession, such as electro-cardiographs. It will also con-
duct investigations on radio techniques for civilian uses and on the
application of electronotics in metallurgy.
14. National Botanical Gardens, Lnicknow — Sikandar Bagh of
Lucknow has been taken over by the Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research for the establishment of the National Botanical
Gardens. So far, a nucleus herbarium and horticulture laboratory
has been set up. Research work on various horticultural problems
is being done and more than 500 species of medicinal plants have been
selected for cultivation in nursery plots.
Engineering Research — ^With a view to initiating and co-ordina-
ting research on different engineering subjects, the Board of Engi-
neering Research was inaugurated in 1950. The Board is assisted
by .five expert committees — (1) Civil Engineering Committee, (2)
304
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Blechanical Engineering Committee, (3) Electrical and Radio Engi-
neering Committee, (4) Hydraulics Committee and (5) Aeronautical
Engineering Committee.
3Iedical Research — ^Medical Research is conducted chiefly under
the auspices of the Indian Council of Medical Research, New DeRii.
This Council also grants research fellowships. There is a Scientific
Advisory Board which deals with technical questions, etc. Indian
Research Ftind Association was brought into being with the object
of sponsoring research in subjects relating to medicine and public
health. Among the specialised institutes catering to research and
public health, the following may be mentioned ; —
(1) Central Research Institute, Kasauli ; (2) School of Tropical
Sledicine, Calcutta ; (3) Haffkine Institute, Bombay ; (4) King Ins-
titute, Guindy, Madras ; (5) All-India Institute of Hygiene and
Public Health, Calcutta ; (6) Malaria Institute, Delhi ; (7) Nutrition
Research Institute, Coonoor ; (8) Pasteur Institutes at Kasauli,
Shillong and Coonoor.
Agricultural Research — ^It had its beginning in 1929 with the
starting of Indian Council of Agrieidtnral Research. The primary
function of the Council is to promote, guide and co-ordinate agri-
cultural including veterinary research. The Council’s work has been
enlarged to include the work coimected with the application of the
results of research to field practice and to undertake, aid, promote
and co-ordinate agncultaral and animal husbandry education,
research and its application in practice, development and marketing
by all means calculated to increase scientific Imowledge of the sub-
jects and to secure its adoption in every day practice.
The Council is divided into two parts — governing body which
examines all proposals in connection with the scientific subjects.
Government contribute financial grants every year and a cess of
5 p.c. ad valorem is levied under the Agricultural Produce Cess Act
of 1940 to provide funds for agricultural research programme.
The following are the main agricultural Institutes of India —
(1) Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun; (2) Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, Delhi ; (3) Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Mnkteswar and Izzatnagar ; (4) Indian Dairy Research Institute,
Bangalore; (5) Sugar Research Institute, Coimbatore; (6) Central
Rice Research Station, Cuttack ; (7) Cotton Technological Research
Laboratory, Matunga, Bombay and its sub-station at Indore ; (8)
Central Jute Technological Research Laboratory, Calcutta ; (9) Jute
Agricultural Research Institute, Hooghly ; (10) Indian Lao Research
Institute, Ranchi ; (11) Central Tobacco Research Institute, Raja-
mundry ; (12) Bidi Tobacco Research Station, Anand ; (13) Central
Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpur ; (14 ) Central Marine
Research Station, Madras ; (15) Deep Sea Fishing Research Station,
Bombay ; (16) Central Coconut Research Station, Kayamkulain,
Travancore ; (17) Central Potato Research Institute, Patna ; (18)
Central Vegetable Breeding Station, Kulu, Punjab ; (19) Phuit
Resrarch Institute, Sabonr, Bhagalpnr ; (20) Sugarcane Research.
Station, Poona ; (21) Sugarcane Research Station, Shahjehanpur.
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
305 -
Statistical Research — An important agency of the scientific
research is the Indian Statistical Research Institute of Calcutta ori-
ginally founded as a small statistical laboratory. The Institute has
developed into a big research centre with roughly 800 scientific and
auxiliary workers. It maintains small branches and agencies in other
cities and runs international courses in statistics for undergraduate
and graduate students from south-east Asian countries.
Central Statistical Organisation of the Government of India has
carried out valuable national sample surveys of manufacturing indus-
tries, land holdings, crops, employment & unemployment and also
research on national income statistics.
Meteorological Research — ^Indian Meteorological Department
maintains research stations at Delhi and Poona and sub-stations all
over the country for upper air investigations.
National Research Development Corporation of India — ^has been
established in December 1953. The Corporation will bridge the gap
between research and its development to the production stage by
financing practical trials of promising researches at existing factories
or by installation of pilot or prototype plants. Its scope covers inven-
tions whether patentable or otherwise of national laboratories, other
State-sponsored research institutions, universities and private indivi-
duals also where public interest so demands. Private enterprise is
not always ready to take the risk of utilising new techniques and
processes invented in the National Laboratories and other research
institutions. For evaluating the commercial feasibility of new in-
ventions and processes, the Government of India has established this
Research Corporation. The Corporation is constituted as a State-
owned private company under the provisions of the Indian
Companies Act.
Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre — This centre
provides documentation services to the national laboratories, scienti-
fic institutions, universities and industrial concerns for (1) the
receipt of all scientific periodicals, (2) for supply of photostats and
translation of articles for research workers, (3) for preparation and
maintenance of an index of all scientific journals received, (4) for
answering questions on scientific problems, (5) for supplying to the
other parts of the world information about scientific work done in
India and neighbouring countries. This Centre is the national
repository for reports of the scientific work carried out in this coun-
try and is located at the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi.
Research Associations by Industries — ^It is a very good sign that
industries should organise research independently. So the Council
is promoting research on a co-operative basis and research associa-
tions are being set up — (1) The Silk and Art Silk Mills Association
collected Rs. 35 lakhs to establish a research institute for the in-
dustry. (2) The textile industry of Ahmedabad has also formed •
a research association and earmarked Rs. 62 lakhs for establishing
a research institute. (3) South Indian Textile Research Associa-
tion is planning a textile research laboratory at Coimbatore. (4)
Ahmedabad Textile Industry’s Research Association is sustained by
the co-operative effort of the industry and the Government of India.
20
306 HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
(5) Indian Central Cotton Technological Lahorato^ at Bombay is
the only laboratory of its land in India and is being conducted by
the Indian Central Cotton Committee.
Nuclear Research — ^India has taken in earnest the Nuclear
Research. The first in the field is the Tata Institute of. Funda-
mental Research in Bombay established in 1954. In addition to the
training of students, it undertakes research in nuclear physics.
Another research institute has been established in Calcutta in 1950
known as Institute of Nuclear Physics.
Atomic Research — ^A field of research in which India has made
significant strides and ranks among the first half dozen nations is
the nuclear science. A swimming pool reactor, designed and built by
the personnel of the Atomic Energy Department at Trombay
went into operation on August 4, 1956. The reactor will nro-
duce isotopes for biological, medical and industrial research. This
swimming pool type reactor has cost between Rs. 25 lakhs to 30 lakhs.
The energy produced by this reactor would be equwalent to 1,000
kilowatts. An agreement has been signed with Canada under Colombo
Plan for the construction of a high-power NRX reactor. The Cana-
dian reactor would cost about Rs. 7 crores and would produce
30,000 k.w. This Canadian reactor is expected to be ready in
1958. The Atomic Ener^- Commission is handling projects for heavy
water production in conjunction with fertilizers at Nangal and at
other suitable places and has carried out geophysical surveys and
launched upon drilling, mining and extraction activities in regard to
thorium and uranium. Every advanced country now is using atomic
energy for the development of defence and industry. India is well-
endowed with atomic minerals. In order to use the atomic energy,
a Board of Research in Atomic Energy was set up in June 1947.
The Board was set up to develop the use of atomic energy for peace-
ful purposes.
Department of Atomic Energy vras created by the Government
of India in 1954 under the direct control of the Prime Minister
to take charge of development work. This Department is located in
Bombay.
An Atomic Energy Establishment has been set up. An area
of about 1,10 acres is under acquisition in Trombay, 13 miles off
Bombay. The Establishment at Trombay will consist three main-
groups — ^the Physics, the Chemistry and the Engineering groups. A
unit of hledical & Health Section will also be located at the Estab-
lishment. The Metallurgy Division was set up in 1955 for the produc-
tion of uranium and thorium metals, powder, alloj’s etc. and on design-
ing equipments.
The Commission has been responsible for the setting up of the
Indian Rare Earths Ltd-, in Kerala. This enterprise is owned
, jointly by the Governments of India and Kerala. The factory
was set up at Alwaye in 1952 for producing rare earth pro-
ducts and trisodium _ phosphate out of monazite sands and the’
thorium cake, A pilot plant for the extraction of uranium
ore from copper tailings of the Indian Copper Corporation has been
set up at Ghatsila. It is proposed to set up a pUot plant for the
INDIAN MINERALS
307
production of tintanium sponge metal from rutile and ilmenite sands
available in India.
Heavy water is an essential material for the comprehensive
atomic energy programme. It has now been decided that one of the
new fertilizer factories to be set-up at Nangal in Punjab should be
•closely associated with the production of heavy water.
Survey of India — is a specialised organisation which produces
up-to-date maps of various kinds. It has its own printing presses
at Dehra Dun and Calcutta where maps, both for civil administration
and for defence serrvices are prepared. Officers of the Department
are trained at the Survey Training School at Dehra Dun. In 1951
Survey Priorities Committee has drawn up programme of expansion
which has been approved by the Planning Commission.
Anthropology in India — India was one of the earliest countries
to start an ethnographical sui'vey which it did in the year 1905
during the time of Lord Curzon. But the work was prematurely
•closed down. A Department of Anthropology was started in the
■Calcutta University in 1921. In 1946 a scheme for the reorganisa-
tion of anthropological research was prepared by Dr. B. S. Guha
and Dr. Seymour Sewell at the invitation of the Government of
India and at the end of that year the nucleus of the Anthropological
Survey of India was formed. In 1946 the Survey was definitely
■established with a five-year programme. It is now located at the
Indian Museum, Calcutta. The Anthropology Department has well-
equipped laboratories both for physical and cultural research.
Besides these, it has a big Ethnographical Museum and a well-
stocked library of representative titles and research papers for
reference. For convenience of work and due to the vastness of the
•country, the Anthropology Department has opened some sub-stations,
■one in the Andamans, another at Shillong and another centre at
Nagpur.
The anthropological department of the Delhi University started
functioning from August 1947. Lucknow University started the
Department of Anthropology in 1950. During 1953 and 1954 several
other universities of India, such as Saugar, Bihar, Baroda and
•Gauhati have introduced this subject in their curricula for teaching
and research.
LEARNED SOCIETIES AND RESEARCH INSTITUTES
— Besides the research institutes and laboratories founded in the past
six years, India has a number of older scientific and research organi-
sations originally established in connection with universities
or by private donation, but now considerably enlarged and
mainly financed by grants from the Central or State Govern-
ments. The earliest research society established in India is
the Royal Asiatic Soccity of Bengal in the year 1784.
Survey of India was established in 1800, Geological
Survey in 1851, Botanical Survey in 1889 and the Zoological SuTmey
in 1916. Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science was
established in Calcutta in the year 1876. There are many learned
Scientific Societies scattered throughout the country. These institu-
■tions try to further knowledge in their respective spheres. Indian
308
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Science Congress Association, started in 1914, provides _ a common
forum for the scientists of the country. Under its auspices, Indian
and foreign scientists meet every year to discuss common problerns
and exchange ideas. National Institute of Sciences established _ in
1935 has been recognised by the Government as the premier scientific
organisation engaged in co-ordination between scientific academies,
societies, institutions and Government scientific department and
services. Other learned societies in various parts of India are — (1)
Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, Calcutta, (2) Na-
tional Institute of Sciences of India, Delhi, (3) Indian Research
Fund Association, (4) National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad,
(5) Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore, (6) Mining and
Geological Survey of India, (7) Mining and Metallurgical Society,
(8) Indian Society of Social Sciences, (9) Entomological Society of
India, (10) Horticultural Society of India, (11) Indian Dairy Asso-
ciation, Bangalore, (12) Birbal Sahni Institute of Palseobotany,
Lucknow, (13) Central Research Institute, Kasauli, (14) Central
Road Research Institute, Okhla, New Delhi, (15) Central Water and
Power Station, Poona, (16) Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu,
(17) Hydraulic Research Laboratories, Poona, (18) Indian Associa-
tion for the Cultivation of Science, Calcutta, (19) Indian Central
Cotton Committee Technological Laboratory, Bombay, (20) Indian
Tea Association Research Institute, Tookla, Assam, (21) Ionos-
pheric Research Station, Haringhatta, Calcutta, (22) Oil Techno-
logical Institute, Anantapur, Madras, (23) Bose Research Insti-
tute, Calcutta, (24) Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Institute,
Bombay, (25) Engineers’ Association of India, Calcutta.
INDIAN MINERALS
Nearly a hundred ores and minerals occur in India and are being
produced in quantities large and small, though the production
of only about fifteen to twenty of them is common knowledge.
There are some minerals being extracted of which the general public
has not even heard. Bentonite, Fuller’s earth, felspar, rutile, sillima-
nite, steatite and vermiculite are examples of such obscure mineral
assets. India’s present place in the world of mineral producing
countries rests very largely on her position as the second largest pro-
ducer of manganese and of ilmenite, on her reserves and quality of
mica and, to a lesser extent, on her reserves of mangnetite and bauxite.
The supply of these minerals are more than sufficient, now and in the
foreseeable future, for the country’s requirements and together with
chormite and gypsum form the basis of the country’s foreign
exchange earnings through mineral trading.
310
HmoUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
Apart from these major mineral prodncts India’s reserves of the
non-ferrous metallic ores, copper, lead and zine^ are inadequate. _ A
small quantity of copper and a negligible quantitj' of lead are being"
produced. India is also deficient in some other vital minerals such
as nickel, cobalt and sulphur. Large reserves, horvever, are knotvn
to exist (which is the ore of aluminium) and magnesite.
A small quantity of petroleum is being produced at Dighoi in
Assam for a long time. Plans for striking more oil in the region
have recently been finalised. When the oil resources of the north-
eastern region, are fully exploited, it is estimated that about 50 per’
cent of India’s requirements would be met from internal production,
as compared with the present S per cent.
In relation to the needs of her industrialisation, India may be
said to be well-endowed with the basic minerals but deficient in the
auxiliapf minerals. Coal and iron ore are the chief minerals for basic
industrialisation, and it is for these that fairly accurate and detailed
estimates of reserves exists. For most of the others, the estimates
are largely, and admittedly, guess work. Fifty years of the industry
have not helped to enlarge technical efficiency in operating the mines
beyond a small number of them to which it is still largely confined.
While there is no effective conservation on the one hand, working
methods are wasteful on the other. Marginal grades of ores are
either abandoned or thrown away on mine dumps. These have now
to be carefidly recovered. Ores, which it is not possible to work
economically under normal conditions, should be left in the mines
so that they may be extracted at a future date without serious loss.
The short-sighted policy of selective mining of only the high-grade-
ores should be discouraged. .AB grades should be worked and,
wherever possible, blended to produce marketable grades.
The industrialisation that India has embarked upon needs Jn-
tensive development of the auxilary minerals and their processing
with a view to using them within the country. Under the Indus-
trial Policy Resolution of 1956, the exploitation of minerals is the
exclusive responsibility of the State.
New mineral projects that have already been taken in hand in
the public sector are the mining of lignite in South Arcot district of
Madras State and extraction of coal from the Korha coal-field in
Madhya Pradesh. It is estimated that at the end of Second Plan
period, the four steel works in the public sector (Rourekela. Bhilai.
Durgapur and Mysore) and the two in the private sector (TTSCO and
nSCO) win together require about 11 million tons of iron ore a year.
The present annual production of iron ore is less than 5 million tons.
For the production target set for the aluminium industry, the bauxite
required is estimated at about 113,000 tons, whereas the present pro-
duction is about “75,000 tons.
India’s geologists and geophysicists have been active and over
last two years a number of important discoveries hare been made,
white sand suitable for cement has been found in Sladras. PuRer’s
earth in Hyderabad, pyrite deposists in Bihar, calcite in Saurashtra,
■galena in Mysore, iron ore in Orissa and coal in JIadbya Pradesh are
among the many notable mineral deposits located.
INDIAN MINERALS
311
Minerals of Strategic Importance — ^Minerals of strategic and
defence importance can be regarded as adequate in India although
in parts only ; there is a serious deficiency in munition metals like
tungsten, tin, lead, zinc, mercury and also in graphite and liquid
fuels. But in the basic metals, iron, manganese, aluminium, magne-
sium and chromium, the country is well supplied, in the first three
in large excess.
FOUR CATEGORIES OF INDIA’S MINERAL RESOURCES—
The mineral resources of India can be divided into four categories —
(1) minerals of which India’s exportable surplus can
dominate world market, (2) minerals of which the
exportable surplus forms an important factor, (3) minerals
in which it appears that the country is at present self-sustaining
and (4) minerals for which India has to depend largely or
entirely on foreign imports. To the first category belong iron ore,
titanium ore and mica, while the exportable surplus under the second
head includes manganese ores, bauxite, magnesite, refractory
minerals, natural abrasives, steatite, silica, gypsum, monumental
granites, monazite, coumdum and cement materials. In the number
of minerals including coal, aluminium ore, mineral pigments, sodium
salts and alkalies, rare earths, berylium, glass sand, nitrates, zircon
and phosphates, the country is known to be self-sufficient. And
lastly, the following are the minerals for which it has to depend
solely on imports : copper, silver, nickel, petroleum, sulphur, lead,
zinc, tin, flourides, mercury, tungsten, molybdenum, platinum,
graphite, asphalt and potash.
MINES AND MINERALS CONSERVATION— With the achieve-
ment of independence. Government of India felt the great need of sta-
tutory rules for the conservation of mineral wealth and for the regula-
tion and grant of mineral concessions. Thus the Mines and Minerals
(Regulation and Development) Act was passed in September 1948.
The Central Government assumed the responsibility to co-ordinate
the policy of States for mineral development and the issue of leases.
Tlie Central Government is also following an active mineral policy
to control mining and the consumption of minerals of fundamental
and strategic importance.
The Industrial Policy Resolutions of the Government of India
in April G, 1948 and also of 1956 explicitly recognised minerals
amongst the industries whose location must be governed by economic
factors of all-India import or which require considerable investment
or a high degree of technical skill and must consequently be the
subject of Central regulation and control.
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS— The Ministry of Natural Re-
sources and Scientific Research deals with (1) mines. (2) geological
sun^ey among other subjects. The Geological Survey Department was
founded in 1851 primarily with the object of geological mapping.
This department helps to increase India’s mineral resources. It has
been publishing various technical records and bulletins giving geolo-
gical information on commercial and other minerals. Enquiries from
industrialists are being answered by its information section.
312 HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
The activity of the department is also directed to the compila-
Hon of geological map of India and to the collection and dissemi-
nation of information regarding the mineral resources of the coun^.
The department is responsible for the up-keep and administra-
tion of the geological section of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. _ ,
The following are’ also the important departments concerning
mining in India — , . •
Mineral Information Bureau has been set up in 1948 to give
information and advice to industries. The main function of’ the
Bureau is the dissemination in non-technical language of facts rela-
ting to Indian minerals, fuels, iron ore, ferro-alloy minerals, light
and base metal minerals, precious metals, gems, minerals for
chemical industries, industrial clays, sands and miscellaneous
minerals.
Indian Bureau of Mines was created in 1948 to function as a
body of expert advisers to the Government of India on all matters
relating to mineral development. The Bureau is today_ the chief
national agency for discharging the various duties devolving on the
Central Government under the Mines and Minerals (Regulation and
Development) Act, 1948. Bureau of Mines will have to inspect mines
to effect general improvements in mining methods, plan for the
recovery of the largest possible quantity, to conserve mineral wealth,
eliminate waste in mining, processing and utilization ; use modem
methods of prospecting to locate mineral deposits ; advise Central
and Provincial Governments on questions relating to mineral con-
cessions, royalty rents, taxation, tariff and export policies, pro'vide
analytical and testing facilities for producers of, and traders in
minerals, etc.
This Bureau consists of follo'wing three sections — (1) Mining
Engineering Branch, (2) Mines Inspection Branch, (3) Mineral
Treatment Branch,
Department of Mines — ^This department came into existence in
1902 and is mainly responsible for the Indian Mines Act. Head-
quarters of the department is at Dhanbad. This department is con-
cerned 'with the inspecting of mines, safety of underground workers,
wages, ete., and mining education of the country.
A Mineral Adimory Board was set up during 1953. The Board
•will inter alia re-view the production, distribution, consumption and
export of minerals. It will also advise the Government on the export
and import tariffs on minerals and mineral products.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARTH ON MINES & MINERALS— T/m
Geological Surveg of India, the department that looks after minerals
of India celebrated its first hundred years in 1951. During all these
years, it has not only added materially to our knowledge of minerals
of economic value, and so to the potential and actual w’ealth of the
country, but extended the bounds of research into the science of the
earth.
; During its long history, the Geological Survey has been devoting
its energy in the scientific geological survey of mineral deposits for
the detailed knowledge, of the geology of the different areas with the
estimation of their quantity and quality. Further, geological survey
INDIAN MINERALS
313
has had as one of its main objectives the preparation of a Geological
map of India and except for a few unmapped areas in Orissa, Bastar,
Assam and parts of Himalayas, the geological map of India has now
been completed on one scale to another.
The Department’s work is now organized in three main divisions.
The first consists of the Field Circles, which are responsible for
detailed mapping and for all preliminary investigations of mineral
deposits, water supply and engineering problems. The second con-
sists of the Technical Sections maintained at Calcutta headquarters :
the chemical Petrological, Palaeontological and Palaeobotanical
laboratories, the Geophysical Workshop, the Drawing Ofiice, the
Mineral Information Bureau, the Statistical Section and the sections
responsible for general administration. The third consists of the
Specialist Sections, which are available for work in any part
of India. These sections are responsible for advanced studies in
engineering geology and water supply and Tor detailed testing of
mineral deposits by geophysical methods, drilling or exploratory
mining. These three divisions naturally work in close collaboration.
MINING EDUCATION — The Indian School of Mines and
Applied Geology opened in 1926 at Dhanbad imparts high grade tech-
nical training in Mineral En^neering and_ Applied Geology and offers
a four-year diploma course in these subjects. The school has been
thoroughly reorganised on the recommendations of the Reorganisa-
tion Committee. The new curriculum lays special emphasis on sub-
jects like metallurgy, fuel technology, refractories and ceramics.
A new Faculty of Mining and Applied Geology has been established
at the Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad which will be linked to Bihar
University and will be knov/n as the National School of Mines.
The Dhanbad School of Mines and Applied Geology has been
reorganised to turn out a larger number of technicians every year.
Mining education is also imparted at the Banaras Hindu University
which has a College of Mining and Metallurgy.
GOVERNJIENTS ROLE AND MINERAL POLICY— The Indus-
trial Policy Resolutions of the Government of India published on April
6, 1948 and in 1956 explicity recognised minerals amongst industries
whose location must be governed by economic factors of all-India
import or which require considerable investment or a high degree of
technical skill and must consequently be the subject of central regu-
lation and control.
The Governments’ role in the future development of India’s
mineral wealth was clearly laid down when the Second Five-Year Plan
was begun in April, 1956 and future mineral development will be the
exclusive responsibility of the State in so far as it concerns atomic!
energy minerals, iron and steel, coal and lignite, mineral oils, mining
of iron, manganese, chrome, gypsum, sulphur, gold, diamonds, copper,
lead, tin, zinc, molybdenum and wolfram. All other minerals,
except minor minerals, almunium and other non-ferrous metals not
included in the first category will be progressively ovmed by the State.
In September 1948, Indian Parliament passed the historic
measure — Mines and Minerals {Regulation and Development) Act,
314 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1948. The Act applies to all inmerals_, including oil. It extends
to all States, including Centrally-administered areas. It gives powers
to Central Government to frame rules for the regulation of the terms
and conditions of prospecting licences and grant of leases,' for the
conservation and development of minerals, and for the modification
of existing licences and leases on payment of compensation. The
ownership of mines and minerals continued to vest in the States, and
State Governments will continue to grant concession and collect
royalties and rents as hitherto. But this will now be done 'within
the framework of the general control exercised by the centre and
the rules framed by the Central Government.
DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS
COAL — is the most valuable mineral product and India stands
seventh in the world. The bulk of Indian coal is concentrated in one
enormous series of deposits known as “Gondawana system.’ A little
over 98 p.c. of Indian coal is raised from Gondawana' coal beds and
about 2 p.c. from tertiary beds. This system stretches across
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Central India, Madhya Pradesh and Hyderabad.
The tertiary beds are found in Assam and Rajasthan. A little coal
is produced in Andhra Pradesh. Bengal and Bihar- coalfields
are the sources of the best varieties of coal and it is also the only
source of varieties of coal which can be used directly for metallur-
gical purposes. The coal found, broadly speaking, is of four types,
peat, lignite, bvtu'UiTOov.s, and anthracite. The coal-fields of Bihar
and West Bengal account for about nine-tenths of India’s output.
Jharia and Raniganj are the principal coal-fields and from them
about 70 p.c, of total output is obtained. Jharia coal-fields produce
the best Indian coal. The greater portion of the coal deposits are to
be found in Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih and Karanpura. The
other deposits are to be found in Lakhimpur and Makum in Assam,
Talcher in Orissa, Belarpur, Pench, Mohapani and Korea in Madhya
Pradesh, Singarani in Hyderabad, Bikaner in ^jasthan, Umna in
Madhya Bharat. Large deposits of lignite have recently been re-
ported in the Madras coastal plain.
_ India’s total reserves are estimated at 60,000 million tons of
which about 6,000 million tons are high grade metallurgical coal.
Following important points are to be noted with regard to coal
enterprise in India : (1) The Central Government have declared
the coal industry a public utility service. (2) Per capita production
in India is far lower than in some western countries. (3) Indian
Railways consume the largest amount of coal in India.
India has now nearly 1,000 coal mines. The total output of coal
at present is in the neighbourhood of 34 million tons. Of the total
production Bihar accounts for 55 per cent., Bengal 28 per cent., M.P.
6 per cent., Hyderabad 4 per cent., etc.
A Fuel Research Institute at Diprwadih, near Jharia has been
started in 1949. The function of the Institute is to make survey of
Indian coals and to carry out researches on processing "with, a idew
to manufacturing metallurgical coke and investigation on low-
INDIAN MINERALS
315
temperature carbonisation and tar distillation for dyes, drugs,
plastics, explosive and synthetic liquid fuels.
Stowing in Mines — Stowing is a process in mining operation
particularly in coal mining in which any of the void created by the
extraction of coal is filled with stowing material. The purpose of
such operation is safety to the men working in the mine which pre-
vents premature collapse, surface subsidence, underground fires,
expulsion of inflammable gas from open graves, which might result
in an explosion. In 1941 Coal Mines Stowing Board was formed. It
undertook to supress the fire both in Jharia and Eaniganj coal-fields.
Government of India have appointed a Coal Board to deal with
all problems relating to coal from a comprehensive points of view.
It has enforced the stowing, blending and washing of coking coal.
Coal Board is also taking steps to bring about mechanisation of in-
dustry. Under the Coal Mines (Conservation and Safety) Act, 1952,
the Central Government is empowered (1) to adopt measures for the
safety of coal mines or for conserving coal, (2) to authorise the Coal
Board to deal with problems of the indusfc^, (3) to levy excise duty
on coaband coke, (4) to frame rules for regulating the industry.
MANGANESE — India ranks third in the world in the output
of this mineral. Its chief use is the manufacture of steel. It is also
extensively used in the chemical industry and in making of dry cell
batteries. The manganese mines of Madhya Pradesh contain some
of the best known manganese ore deposits of the world. Deposits
now being worked are in Singhbhum (Bihar), Panchmahal (Bombay),
Balaghat, Bhandara, Chhindwara, Nagpur (Madhya Pradesh), Indore
(Madhya Bharat), Visakhapatnam, Sandur (Madras), Shimoga
(Mysore), Bonai, Keonjhar, Koraput, Patna State (Orissa) and
Banswara (Rajasthan). Madhya Pradesh produces two-thirds of
all-India production. Principal customers of manganese are United
Kingdom, France, U.S.A., Nonvay, Canada and Belgium.
The figures of manganese reserves stand os under : Madhya
Pradesh 100,000,000 tons, Madras/Mysore 2,500,000 tons, Orissa
100,000 tons, Bombay 5,000,000 tons. At present it is being sent
away in foreign countries in its raw state, but now it is being pro-
posed to process and turn it into ferromanganese in India itself.
LIGNITE — is a soft brown type of coal retaining the texture of
wood from which it originated. From it arc obtained a number of
valuable products, among them being petroleum and diesel oils,
waxes and hydrocarbon gases. Lignite quarry is situated at Neiveli
in South Arcot district. It is 24 miles from Cuddolore and about
135 miles south-west of Madras. Lignite, though a member of the
coal family, is different from commonly-used bituminous coal, in that
it contains a relatively high proportion of moisture. In the S. Indian
lignite, the proportion is computed at 30 p.c. to 35 p.c. The success
of this newly-found mineral means much to India as the absence of
coal deposits in the south of India retrads its indusrialisation.
GOLD — stakes the third place which in India, is mined in the State
of Mysore in Kolar where 95 per cent, of India’s output of gold comes.
316
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
India’s production of gold is only about two per cent, of the total
world production (excluding U.S.S.R.). The only other working
mine, Hutti in Hyderabad produces small quantities of gold. Gold-
bearing veins are also known to exist in Dharwar district of Bombay,
Wynaad and Anantpur districts of Madras and at Lowa in the
Manfahum district of Bihar. Alluvial gold is found widely distribu-
ted in many parts of the country — Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Bast Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Kashmir and West Bengal,
but the only sources of gold of any type worked are at Kolar and
Hutti.
Kolar Gold Mines Acquisition Act, 1956 has been passed to na-
tionalise the mines. The Act empowers the State Government of
Mysore to acquire the companies, namely, Mysore Gold Mining po.,
(KGF) Ltd., Champion Reef Gold Mines of India, Nandidrug Mines
Ltd., and Kolar Mines Power Station Private Ltd. A total amount
of Rs. 164 lakhs is to be paid as compensation. The gold mines have
been taken over from 29th November, 1956.
MICA — India is the largest producer of muscovite block mica
and mica splittings. She supplies about 80 per cent of the_ world's,
requirements of good quality mica. Over 90 per cent of mica used
in the manufacture of micanite, made from the mica of inferior
quality is also supplied by India. The United States takes nearly
60 to 70 per cent of the total mica e.xperts from India, the second
biggest importer of Indian mica is the United Kingdom. Bihar belt
is the oldest and the most important of the areas produc-
ing mica in India. The best variety of mica, viz., Bengal Ruby mica
comes mostly from the Bihar mines which are scattered over Hazari-
bagh and Gaya districts of Bihar. The second mica belt_ is the
Nellore district of Madras and third belt is Rajasthan, chiefly in
Jaipur and Udaipur. The main use of mica is for the electrical and
technical industries. The next important use of mica is in the shape
of micanite by electrical engineers, colliery companies, manufactures
of iron, steel and electrical apparatus. Waste and scarp mica is
ground and used for wall-paper industry, manufacture of paints,
rubber industry etc.
PETROLEUM — is the last of five important minerals of India.
India contributes only 1.10 per cent, of the world’s production.
India’s consumption of all mineral oil requires annual production of
about 60 lakhs tons of crude oil. Of the requirements only four lakh
tons of crude oil is produced from Digboi, the only oilfield in
India. The rest of India’s oil need is met by importing crude oil and
refining it_ at the refineries recently started near Bombay.
Realising the importance of mineral oil in India’s developing
economy, the Government of India in the last Industrial Policy Reso-
lution of April 30, 1956 have decided that the future developments of
mineral oil will be the responsibility of the State.
Geologists and mining engineers of U.S.S.R. and other European
countries brought out by the Government of India have suggested the
following places for oil exploration — Jwalamukhi and neighbouring
areas in the Punjab, Rajasthan, Ganga Valley, West Bengal and
INDIAN MINERALS
317
Orissa, Cambay, Kutch and some other areas in Madras, Andhra and
Kerala. Recently oil field has been found in Naharhatia, Assam,
where oil is being dug at 10,000 ft, below.
The Government of India signed an agreement with the Standrad
Vacuum Oil Co, Ltd. for joint exploration for petrolium in West
Bengal basin. In addition, departmental exploration for oil was
initiated in 1955-56 in the Jaisalmer area of &jasthan, and a sepa-
rate Directorate of Oil and Natural Gas has been set up to undertake
intensive exploration.
About 74 p.c. of India’s requirements of petrol comes from Persia,
while the indigenous production amounts to 8 per cent. The other
countries from which India gets her petrol are Bahrein Islands, Saudi
Arabia and the Far East. Though there is shortage of petrol pro-
duction in India, Government of India have started oil refiniries in
conjunction %vith the Standard Vacuum Oil Company and with Burma
Shell Group at Trombay, Bombay. Another oil refinery has been
started by Caltex Oil Company at Visakhapatnam.
The Government of India have set up a high power Oil and
’Natural Gas Commission to undertake exploration, exploitation and
refining of mineral oil in the country. The Commission is located at
Debra Dun.
IRON — India possesses some of the world’s largest reserves of
iron ore, mainly haematites and magnetites with iron content ranging
behveen 60 and 70 per cent. Extensive deposits of iron ore occur in
several parts of India, namely, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, My-
sore and in the adjacent areas of Bonai, Keonjhar and Jlayurbhanj,
which have extent as well as richest in iron content. The e.stimated iron
reserves are as follows ■.—Singhhum and Orissa — 8,000 million tons :
iron Content 60-68 p.c. Drug Dist. (Madhya Pradesh) — 176 million
tons : iron content 60-68 p.c. Chanda District (Madhya Pradesh) —
30 million tons ; iron content 60-68 p.c. Mysore — 150 million tons :
iron contents 55-66 p.c. Madras (Salem District) — 396 million tons ;
iron content 35-40 p.c.=total 9,270 million tons. So it will be seen
that iron content in Indian ore is about 68-7. Few, even amongst
the greatest production countries of the world, can claim a higher
percentage.
SALT — With a coast line of about 3,600 miles, inland sources in
Rajasthan and Little Rann of Kutch and the rock salt mines in Mandi,
India has possiblities of attaining a high position among the salt-pro-
ducing countries of the world. India now claims to be self-sufficient
in all qualities of salt, with the exception of rock variety. In addi-
tion to meeting domestic demands, India now exports salt. Salt is
produced by solar evaporation on almost all the coasts of India, but
particularly on the south-west and near Bombay. The principal salt
producing areas are located in Saurashtra, Madras, Bombay, Rajas-
than, Kutch, Travancore-Cochin and Orissa. Partition left the
Indian -Union with only one source of rock salt — at Mandi in Himachal
Pradesh. Besides the existing model farm and Salt Research Station
at Wadala in Bombay, Central Salt Research Institute was estab-
lished in 1954 at Bhavnagar in Saurashtra under the control ,of the
(iouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research. The principal centres
S18
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
of salt mamafacture are as follows — (1) Marine Salt Works — (a)
Saurasbtra and Kutch (Bhavnagar, Jaffrabad, Jamnagar, Lavanpur,
Porbandar, Bharai and Kandla), (b) Bombay (Dharasana, Bhoyandar,
Bhandup, Uran and Mithapur), (c) Madras (Nanpada, Pennuguduru,
Madras, Cuddalore, Adirampatnam and Tuticorin), (d) Orissa_ (Puri,-
Huma, Gokhurkuda and Sumadi), (e) West Bengal (Contai), (f)
Travancore-Cochin — along the coast, (2) Salt Mines — Salt mines in
Mandi (Himachal Pradesh), (3) Inland Sources — (a) Rajasthan
(Sambhar, Didwana and Pachbadra), (b) Bombay & Saurasbtra
(Kharaghoda and Kuda) and Rann of Kutch.
ILhlENITE — One of the most striking features of India’s mineral
industry is the rapid rise in the production of ilmenite. India has
now become the world’s leading producer of this metal. It is the
•whitest of all substances and wiU replace lead more and more in the
manufacture of white pigment. The mineral occurs along the beach-
sands of 'Travancore and the east and west coasts.
MONAZITE — is available on the beach sands of Kerala State
and also on the beach sands on the Coromondal Coast existing in the
form of beach sands in association with ilmenite and is perhaps the
largest and the richest in thorium in the world and also contains a
small quantity of uranium. In order to conserve supplies for atomic
energy development, exports are now prohibited under see. 3 of the
Atomic Energy Act XXIX of 1948. A factory for processing over
1,500 tons a year of monazite beach sands has been recently set upi
by the Government of India at Always (Kerala).
ORCHES — are well-known as mineral earth pigments. Occur-
ances are fairly widespread in India, chief producing areas being
Madhya Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh and Saurasbtra. The entire
production is retained for internal consumption.
SALTPETRE — occurs as natural efflorescence in extensive areas
in Bihar, U.P. and East Punjab. Crude saltpetre is used as
manure, while refined saltpetre is consumed in the manufacture of
fire works, blasting-powder, soap and matches and in glass, ceramic
and tanning industries.
ZIRCON — ^is also available on the beach sands of Travancore and
-Cape Comorin. Zircon yields zinconia, a high grade refractory and
also an alloy material.
ZINC — ^Zawar mines in Jodhpur are the only important source of
zinc ore in India and there are sufficient indications to show that
large resources of workable ore may be found here. India’s resources
- are however poor.
BERYL — ^is found in small ^antities in certain rocks which con-
■ tain generally mica mines. India has been a large producer of beryl,
- chiefly from Rajasthan, Madras, Kashmir and Bihar.
CHROMITE — India has only moderate resources of chromite ore.
It is both an alloy and a refractory. According to available data,
India’s known reserves of chromite are approximately 200,000 tons
- of high grade ore, while low grade ore reserves are estimated to be
INDIAN MINERALS
319
several times more. The more important deposits are distributed
as follows — Singhbhum & Bhagalpur (Bihar), Ratnagiri (Bombay),
Salem and Kistna (Madras), Mysore, Hassan, Kadur and Chitaldrug
(Mysore), Keonjhar (Orissa), Ladakh (Kashmir). The deposits are
heing worked at present only in Singhbhum, Keonjhar, Kistna, My-
sore and Hassan districts.
MAGNESITE — is valuable to cement, glass, paper, rubber, cos-
metics, refactories and aircraft industries. India’s magnesite deposits
are in the States of Bihar (Singhbhum), Kashmir, Madras (Salem),
Mysore, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, Almora. By far the largest
and the best magnesite deposits in India occur in the Salem district
of Madras.
B.A.UXITE — India has vast deposits of good bauxite scattered all
over the country, major occurrences are in the Ranchi and Palamau
districts of Bihar ; Belgaum, Kharia and Thana districts of Bombay ;
State of Kolhapur ; Jabalpur, Balaghat, Mandia and Bilaspur dis-
tricts of Madhya Pradesh ; the States of _Rewa and Bhopal ; Raisi
and Poonch districts of Kashmir ; Salem in Madras and the Balu-
budan hills of Mysore. India’s total bauxite reserves are estimated
at about 250 million tons, but the workable deposits containing over
50 per cent alumina are estimated only at 28 million tons. It is
largely used as filtering material in petroleum refineries and for the
manufacture of alum. High grade bauxite is also used for producing
aluminium.
CEMENT — ^The ingredients of cement are all available in abun-
dance in India. The principal cement producing centres are Por-
bandar in Kathiawar, Katni in M. P., Lakheri in Rajasthan, Jabal-
pur in M.P., Guntur in Madras, etc.
KYANITE — India is the principal producer of Kyanite, the most
important of the minerals used in the refractory and ceramic indus-
tries. Good workable deposits of kyanite occur in Seraikella and
Kharswan in Singhbhum district, Bihar. Smaller deposits are also
known to occur in the Majnirbhanj district of Orissa, in the Nellore
district of Madras and in the Hassan district of Mysore. The
Lapsa Bum deposit of Kharswan is the largest of its kind in the
world and is the principal centre of production.
FELDSPAR — workable occurances of feldspar are located in the
States of Ajmer, Bombay, Bengal, Bihar, M. P., Madras, Mysore,
Rajasthan and Vindhya Pradesh. The entire output is utilised in the
country mainly in the ceramic industry.
COPPER — The principal copper deposits of India, in order of im-
portance, are in the Singhbhum district of Bihar, at Khetri and
Singhana in Jaipur, at Daribo and Kho in Ahvar (Rajasthan), at
Bhotang and Dikehu in Sikkim and in the Guntur, Kurnool and Nellore
districts of Andhra. The only deposits now being worked are those of
Singhbhum. Here the mine is worked by Indian Copper Corporation.
The Company at present mines at Mosaboni and Badia and works
at Moubhandar and is the only _ copper smelter in India. About
370,000 tons of copper ores are being mined annudlly in Singhbhum,
Bihar, but the production meets only a fraction of India’s demands.
320 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
LIMESTONE — ^used principally for the manufacture • of cement
and for constructional purposes and also as a flax in melting of iron
and lead ores, is found in Rhotasgarh in Sahabad district of Bihar, at
Katni in M.P., in Bundi, Jodhpur, Sirohi in Rajasthan, in Rewah and
Mahiar State of Madhya Bharat.
TUNGSTEN (WOLFRAM) — ^is known to occur in a few localities
in West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Madras and Rajasthan. Of
these only the deposits at Degana in Rajasthan are promising.
BENTONITE — is a valuable clay similar in its properties to
fuller’s earth. It occurs in limited quantities in Rajasthan, Bihar
and Kashmir.
GYPSUM — Gypsum sources in India have been estimated at 85-5
million tons, lying in Bikaner and Jodhpur (Rajasthan), Trichinopoly
(Madras), Saurashtra and Himachal Pradesh. Large quantities of
gypsum have recently been discovered in Jamsar (Rajasthan) and
Ran (Saurashtra), Gypsum is extensively used in cements and
plasters, as paints and filters and as “top-dressing” in agriculture.
SULPHUR — There are no knowm deposits of elemental sulphur
in India. Reports of occurrences in Assam and Ladakh (Kashmir)
require geological investigation. Assam coal is said to have a high
sulphur content. It was reported recently that the Fuel Research
Institute at Digwadih has found Rewa coal also rich in sulphur.
STEATITE — is also known as soap-stone, pot-stone, talc and in
its powdered from as ‘fresh chalk.’ It is one of the most variously
used industrial minerals. It is available in Rajasthan and Madras.
VANADIUM — Singhbhum and Mayurbhanj hold unexploited
reserves of 2-3 million tons of Vanadium.
SILLIMANITE — is a mineral of rare occurrence which is used in
the manufacture of furnace lining in the iron and steel and glass and
ceramic _ industry. It is almost a monopoly of India. Deposits of
sillimanite are known to occur in Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Rewa.
The largest concentration of sillimanite being in the Khasi hills where
the known reserves exceed lakh tons.
CLAYS — India has abundant sources of clays which are dis-
tributed in almost every state of the country. Besides the deposits
of China clay, those of fire clay and other clays- are also widespread.
Deposits of China clay occur and are worked in Bihar, Assam, Bom-
bay, Hyderabad, Madras, Mysore and Travancore. The Travancore
deposits are most important. The cotton ■ textile industry is the
principal user of China clay in India. The entire production of clays
in India is used for internal consumption in the manufacture of
pottery, building bricks, cement, soap and for colour washing.
PYRITES — the deposits of pyrites from which sulphur could be
obtained exists at Amjor (Bihar), Wynaad (Madras), Ingladhal
(Mysore) and Tara Devi (Simla. Hills). But no detailed estimates
are available of the quantities of pyrites in the deposits.
CORUNDUM — ^In addition to the working ' mines in Hassan and
Mysore districts (Mysore) and Rewa (Vindhya Pradesh), Corundum
INDIAN MINERALS
321
deposits are also known to occur in Khasi Hills (Assam) and South
Kanara and Salem districts of Madras. The mineral is chiefly used
as an abrasive.
FULLER’S EARTH — ^is chiefly obtained from Bikaner and
Jodhpur in Rajasthan and a little is also obtained in M. P. Entire
production is used for internal consumption.
GRAPHITE — occurs in small quantities in various parts of India,
namely Ajmer, Hyderabad, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Orissa
and Travancore. During recent years deposits have been worked in
Madhya Pradesh, Mysore and Orissa only. The quantity produced
falls short of the total requirements by about 25 p.c. which is met
by imports. The mineral is mainly used in foundry, pencil and
paint industry in India.
ANTIMONY — ^There are small deposits of antimony in Lahalul
(Kangra district. East Punjab) and at Shagor in Chitral State. The
production is confined to one plant — Star Metal Refinery, Bombay.
LEAD — ^Lead deposits now being exploited in India are located at
Zawar in Udaipur and at the Banjavi mines in Jaipur. These are
now under lease to the Metal Corporation of India.
TITANIUM — The most important deposits of titanium minerals
worked in India lies in Travancore on the south-west coast, in five
stretches along the coast — ^Nindakara (north of Quilon), Anjengo-
Varkala (south of Quilon), Kovilam (south of Trivandrum), Muttam-
pudur (near Colachel) and Cape Comorin-Liparum (on the eastern
coast of Tinnevelly district). Recentl^r titanium has attained per-
haps the highest importance as strategic material because the metal
and its alloys have been found to have better qualities than the
strongest steels and yet are lighter in weight than those steels.
APATITE — only a small output of apatite is obtained from
Singhbhum in Bihar and Trichinopoly in Madras. The entire pro-
duction of the country is used for manures which is estimated to
meet only 5 per cent of the country’s requirements of phosphatic
manures, the balance being imported.
ASBESTOS — ^India has a limited resources of asbestos mainly
in Andhra, Bihar, Mysore and ifejasthan. Of the two chief varieties
found in India, the chrysolite asbestos which is the flexible variety
amenable to spinning and hence more valuable, is found in Cuddapah
(Andhra), while other deposits :^eld_the tremolite type which is less
flexible. India is deficient in this mineral.
BARYTES — ^The mineral is used mainly in the paint and petro-
leum industry in India. The production is only reported from
Andhra. The mineral is also reported to occur in Alway (Rajas-
than), Manbhum and Singhbhum (Bihar) and Gangapur (Orissa).
PRECIOUS STONES — Actual diamons mines are in Panna in
Vindhya Pradesh over an area of 760 sq. miles. Geologically,
the rock formation i-escmbles that Kimberly, South Africa and
Russian experts who visited the mining area recently reported that
a daily output of 1,895 corats could be expected when the mines
21
322
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
are fully mechamsed. Sapphires of a very clear blue colour are
obtained in Kasbmir at an altitude of 14,000 ft. Garnets of a rich
deep purplish red are found in Barwar District in Kishengarh State
and the adjoining tracks of Jaipur State. Emeralds are chiefiy
obtained from Udaipur • (Rajasthan) and from Ajmer.
SIINERAL PRODUCTION OF INDIA
Cl
O
c
o§
2 S
** c
o
Mam
nose
(000 tc
® s
o
o
o
ZS
MS
c5 •
s'-'«
1948
180,430
526
322,282
229,416
3,16,28
1949
164,204
646
329,304
308,180
3,00,31
1950
196,925
883
360,308
212,663
4,14,79
1951
226,364
1,292
369,057
224,084
3,90,65
1952
253,264
1,462
324,634
224,895
3,44,45
1953
223,375
1,902
238,010
215,259
3,89,50
1954
239,168
1,414
342,750
240,513
4,00,00
151^73
151,709
162,447
200,439
152,204
128,492
103,381
(MoTithlv Abstract of Statistics, Sept. 1956).
Coal
Alumifiium
Copper
Leed
(000 tons)
(tons)
(tons)
(tons)
1950
31,992
2,696.4
6,614.4
627.6
1951
34,308
3,848.4
7,083.6
859.2
1952
36,228
3,566.4
6,079.2
1,131.6
1953
35,844
3,758.4
4,920.0
1,694.4
1954
36,768
4,886.4
7.171.2
1,788.0
1955
38,208 •
7,225.2
2,281.6
2,234.4
{Jonrnal of Industry & Trade, 1956).
UNITED NATIONS
ORIGIN — ^The necessity for forming an United Nations Orga-
nization was first discussed at Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D. C.
August 21 — Oct. 7, 1944. It was finally put to concrete shape by
the delegates of 50 Allied Nations assembled at San Francisco from
April 25 to June 26, 1945 where representatives of 50 nations signed
the United Nations Charter. The U. N. officially came into exis-
tence on October 24, 1945.
PURPOSES OP U. N. — ^Four purposes of the U. N. are — (1)
to maintain international peace and security, (2) to develop friendly
relations among nations, (3) to co-operate internationally in solving
international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems
and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
and (4) to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in
attaining these common ends.
FINANCE — ^The United Nations is financed by the contribu-
tions from member States. Member States contribute to the expen-
ses of the budget and Working Capital Fund on a scale determined
by the General Assembly each year on the recommendation of its
Committee on Contributions.
OFFICIAL LANGUAGES — ^The official languages of the U. N,
are Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. Its working
languages are English and French. Spanish is also the working
language of the General Assembly.
Mc 7 nbcrfi/up— Membership of the United Nations is open to all
peace-loving nations which accept the obligations of the U.N. Charter
and, in the judgement of the Organisation, are able and willing to carry
out these obligations. The original members of the United Nations
are those countries which signed the Declaration of the United Nations
on Jan. 1, 1942 or took part in the San Francisco Conference and
which signed and ratified .the Charter. Other countries can be
admitted by the General Assembly upon the recommendation by the
Security Council.
Afganistan
Albania
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bolivia
Brazil
Bulgaria
Members Of The United Nations
Burma
Byelorussian SSR
Cambodia
Canada
Ceylon
Chile
Cuba
Czechoslovakia
China
Colombia
Costa Rica
Dominician Republic
Denmark
Equador
Egypt
El Salvador
Etheopia
Finland
326
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
must abstain from voting in any decision in a dispute to •which it is
a party. On question of procedure, a decision is by the affirma-
tive vote of any seven members.
The Security Council has “primary responsibility for the main-
tenance of international peace and security.”
Permanent Members — China, France, USSR, United Kingdom,
United States.
Non-Permanent Member's — Australia (Until 1958), Iraq, Cuba
(until 1958), Sweden, Columbia, Yugoslavia (until 1958).
SuBsiDiAEY Organs of the Security Council
1. Military Staff Committee — Consists of the Chiefs of Staff of
the permanent members of the Security Council or their representa-
tives. It advises and assists the Security Council on its military
requirements for maintaining international peace and security, the
employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regu-
lation of armaments and possible disarmament.
2. Disarmament Commission •was directed to prepare proposals
to be embodied in a draft treaty for the regulation, limitation and
balanced reduction of all armaments and armed forces.
3. ECONOBIIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL— Consists of eighteen
members of the U.N. elected by the General Assembly, six of which
are elected each year for a term of three years. The Economic and
Social Council is directed to work for higher standards of Imng
and full employment ; the solution of international, economic, social
and health problems ; international cultural and educational co-opera-
tion ; and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights
and fundamental freedoms.
Tlie Council works through Corhmissions and Committees — (1)
Transport and Communications Commission ; (2) Statistical Commis-
sion ; (3) Popidation Commission ; (4) Social Commission (6) Com-
mission on Hivman Rights ; (6) Commission on the status of women ;
(7) Commission on Narcotic Drugs ; (8) Commission ori International
Commodity Trade.
There is also a Sub-Commission, that on Prevention of Discrimi-
nation and Protection of Minorities.
Three Regional Commission have also been established — ^Eco-
nomic Commission for Europe, Economic Commission for Asia and
the Far East and Economic Commission for Latin America.
4. TRUSTEESHIP SYSTEM — An ’ International Trusteeship
System has been set up by the' members of the U. N. for the adminis-
tration of territories placed under U.N. supervision through indm--
dual Trusteeship Agreements.
The Trusteeship System, can apply to territories formally held
under the League of Nations mandate ; taken from enemy States as
an outcome of the Second World War ; and others voluntarily placed
under the Trusteeship ' System.
The present membership consists of (a) Administering coun-
tries — ^Australia, Belgium, Prance, New Zealand, United Kingdom,
UNITED NATIONS
327
U.S.A. and Italy ; (b) other countries — China, El Salvador, Haiti
India, U.S.S.R. Burma, Syria and Guatemala.
Trusteeship territories — (1) New Guinea {Australia), (2) Ru-
anda-Urundi {Belgium), (3) French Cameroons and French Togo-
land {France), (4) "Western Samoa {New Zealand), (5) British
Cameroons, British Togoland, Tangan 3 dka {United Kingdom), Nauru
{Australia), (6) Somaliland {Italy), (7) The Territory of the
Pacific Islands composed of the former Japanese-mandated islands of
Marshalls, Marianas (with the exception of Guam) and Carolines is
a strategic Trust Territory administered by the United States of
America under the agreement approved by the Security Council in
April, 1947.
5. INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE— It is the prin-
cipal judicial body of the United Nations. It is a Court of Law and
deals with legal questions only, not with political disputes. AH
countries which are parties to the Statute of the Court can refer to
it any case they wish. In addition. Security Council may refer a
legal dispute to the Court and all organs of the U.N. can ask the
Court for an advisory opinion on any legal question.
The Court consists of fifteen Judges elected by the General
Assembly and the Security Council voting independently. The
Judges are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, not on the basis
of their nationality. Care is taken, however to see that the principal
legal systems of the world are represented in the Court. No two
judges can bo nationals .of the same State.
The seat of the International Court of Justice is'Tit the Hague,
the Netherlands.
6. SECRETARIAT — is composed of the Secretary-General, who
is the chief administrative officer of the Organisation and an inter-
national staff appointed by him under regulation established by the
General Assembly. The Secretary-General is appointed for a term
of five years.
SPECIALISED AGENCIES OF THE U. N.
The Specialised Agencies are organisations established by
inter-govemmental agreements and having wide responsibilities in
economic, social, cultural, educational, health and related fields.
Agreements brining them into relationship with the United Nations
are negotiated with the agencies by a standing committee of the
Economic and Social Council, the Committee on Negotiations with
Inter-Govemmental Agencies and are approved by the Council and
General Assembly and by the appropriate organ of the agency con-
cerned. The agreements with the following agencies are in force —
International Labour Organisation (ILO). 2. Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the U.N. (FAO). 3. United Nations Educational;
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). 4. International
Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). 6. International Bank of Re-
construction and Development (“Bank”). 6. Inter natio nal Monetary
Fund (“Fund”). 7. World Health Organisation (WHO). 8. Uni-
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
328
versal Postal Union (UPU). 9. International Telecoramimication
Union (ITU). 10. World Meteorolo^cal Organisation (WMO).
Agreements •with above ten specialised agencies are novr in force.
It is proposed to bring the Intemational Trade Organisation (ITO)
and the Inter-Gov emmental Maritime Consultive Organisation
(IMCO) into relationship when they are fully constituted and in
operation.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION— I. L. 0. was
established in 1919 as an autonomous institution associated -with
the League of Nations. It is a tripartite organisation, in wHch Gov-
ernment, employees and workers are directly represented. It seeks
through international action to improve labour conditions, raise living
standards, and promote economic and social stability. In 1946 U. N.
and I. L. 0. concluded an agreement imder which I. L. 0. was recog-
nised as specialised body of U. N.
I.L.O.’s machinery consists of (1) A General Conference
which is I.L.O.’s highest authority. It is the policy making autho-
rity of the organisation. It meets annuaUy and is composed
of national delegations comprising two government delegates and one
deleg:ate each representing management and labour. The chief func-
tion of the Conference is to formulate intmational social standards
in the form of conventions. (2) Governing body composed of 40
members ; 20 representing Governments, ten representing manage-
ment and ten representing labour. Governing Body supervises the
work of the International Labour Office and the Organisations various
Committee and Commissions. (3) International Labour Office is the
secretariat of the I.L.O. Head Office : Geneva, Switzerland.
FOOD AND -\GRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNI-
TED NATIONS (FAO.) — ^The chief aims of F-A.O. are (1) to help
nations raise the standard of living, (2) to improve nutrition of the
peoples of all countries, (3) to increase the efficiency of farming,
forestry and fisheries, (4) to better the condition of rural people and,
through all these means, to widen the opportunity of aU people for
productive work. F-A.O. was founded in October 16, 1945. Head-
quarters : Wale deUe Terme Di Caracalla, Rome, Italy.
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL. SCIENTIFIC .\ND CUL-
TURAL ORGANISATION (UNESCO) — ^‘The purpose of the orga-
nisation” declares Article I of the UNESCO constitution, “is to contri-
bute to peace and security by promoting coUaboration among the
nations through education, science and culture in order to fmrther
universal respect for justice, for rule of law and for the human
rights and fundamental freedoms, which are affirmed for the peoples
of the world without distinction of race, sex, language or religion by
the Charter of the United Nations.’' It was established on 4th Nov.,
1946. Office : Unesco House, 19, Avenue Kleber, Paris 16, France.
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION
(ICAO) — ^is designed to solve the problem of international civil
aviation and establishment of international standards and regulations
for civil aviation. It encourages the use of safety measures, uniform
UNITED NATIONS
329
regulations for operation, and simpler procedures at international
borders. It promotes the use of new technical methods and equip-
ment. It was established on 4th April, 1947. Headquarters ;
International Aviation Building, Montreal, Canada.
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT (BANK) — ^was established in Dec. 27, 1945 when
28 nations signed Articles of Agreement drawn up at Bretton Woods
Conference in July 1944, The purpose of the Bank is to assist in
reconstruction and development of territories of members by facili-
tating the investment of capital for productive purposes ; to promote
private foreign investment ; to promote the balanced growth of
international trade.
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (FUND)— was estab-
lished in Dec. 27, 1945 when nations whose quatas amounted to 80
p.c. of Fund’s resources had signed Articles of Agreement drawn up
at Bretton Woods. The purpose of the Fund is to promote inter-
national monetary co-operation and expansion of international trade ;
to promote exchange stability, to assist in establishment of multi-
lateral system of payments in respect of current transactions between
members. Headquarters : 1818 H. Street, Washington 25, D.C.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO)— The constitution
of the WHO defines health as a “state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or in-
firmity,” It sets down as the objective of this Organisation “the
attainment of all peoples of the highest possible level of health.” Its
services are of two kinds — advisory and technical. It came into
being on April 7, 1948. Headquarters : Palais des Nations, Geneva,
Switzerland.
UNIVERSAL POSTAL UNION (UPU)— Its purpose is to
alleviate the uncertainty, confusion and excessive cost of interna-
tional postal communications by uniting its member-countries in a
single postal territory for the reciprocal exchange of mail. Its aim
is to insure the organisation and improvement of postal services
throughout the world through international collaboration.
Thus every member agrees to transmit the mail of all other
members by the best means used for its own mail.
It was established in 1874 by Universal Postal Convention of
Berne, Switzerland. Headquarters ; Berne, Switzerland.
INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU)—
Its purposes are to set up international regulations for telegraph,
telephone and radio services to further their development and extend
their utilization by the public at the lowest possible rates.
It was established on Jan. 1934 by the Intemational Telecommu-
nication Convention adopted by the Madrid Conference on Dec. 9,
1932 which amalgamated the International Telegraph Union (founded
1866) and the group of countries signatory or adherent to the vari-
ous radio telegraph conventions beginning with that of Berlin (1906).
Hcadqtiarfers : Palais Wilson, Geneva, Switzerland.
330
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION (WMO)—
organisation as stated in the preamble to its convention, is establish-
ed -with a view to co-ordinating, standardising and improving world
meteorological activities and to encouraging an efficient^ exchange of
meteorological information between coimtries in the aid of human
activities.
The WMO came into existence on March 23, 1950.
Headquarters : 14 Avenue de la Paix, Geneva, Switzerland.
. INTER-GOITERNMENTAL MARITIME CONSULTIVE ORGA-
NISATION (IMCO ) — {Not yet in existanee) This organisation when
it comes into being — ^wdll provide inter-governmental co-operation
concerning all matters related to international shipping ; to encour-
age the highest standards of maritime safety and efficiency of navi-
gation ; to promote the availability of shipping services to the com-
merce of the world without discrimination ; to consider unfair res-
trictive protection by shipping concerns, not come into being when 21
nations, of which 7 must each have a total tonnage of at least one
million gross tons of shipping have become parties to convention
drawn up by U.N. Maritime Conference at Geneva 1948.
INTERNATIONAL ‘ TRADE ORGANISATION GENERAL
AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (ITO-GATT)— The
need for some form of international control ih the field of interna-
tional trade was generally acknowledged. Intention was that a
specialised agency dealing with international trade, when brought
into existence, would help to expand the world trade and lead to
higher standards of life. It would abolish or minimise the various
kinds of artificial barriers to trade and would lower the tariffs and
would ensure marketing arrangements. To fulfil this need a draft
charter for an International Trade Organisation was completed in
1948. But the Organisation has not yet been brought into existence
and there is considerable delay to rectify it. Meanwhile an inter-
national commercial treaty had beed drawn up by 34 nations. This
treaty known as General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
has brought unprecedented results in lowering and stabilizing the
tariffs among its 34 members. Through the operation of GATT,
there has been three tariff conferences at which countries represent-
ing nearly four-fifths of world trade have reduced or frozen their
teriffs on some 58,000 items. When the organisation is established,
it is to be brought into relationship with the United Nations.
U. N. Information Centre in India — U. N. Information Centi-e.
Theatre Communications Building, Connaught Place, Queen’s Way.
New Delhi 1. Area Covered — ^Burma, Ceylon, India.
SPORTS SECTION
INDIAN CRICKET
Foreign Teams in India
G. F. Vernon’s Team — (1889-90). Played 12 ; won 10 ; lost 1 and
drawn 1. Captain— G. F. Vernon.
Lord Hawke’s Team — (1892-93). Played 23 ; won 15; lost 2
and drawn G. Captain — ^Lord Hawke.
Oxford Unirersity Anthentics — (1902-3). Played 19 ; won 12 ;
lost 2 and drawn 5. Captain — ^K. J. Key.
M. C. C. Official Team — (1925-26). Played 34 ; won 11 ; drawn
23 and lost none. Captain — A. E. R. GiUigan.
All-Ceylon Team (1932-33) — Played 10 ; won 2 ; lost 1 ; drawn 7.
Captain — Dr. C. H. Gunasekara.
M. C. C. Team (1933-34) — ^Played 34 ; won 17 ; drawn 16 and
lost 1. Captain — D. R. Jardine.
Australian Team (Unofficial 1935-36) — Played 23 ; won 11 ; lost
3 ; drawn 9. Captain — J. Ryder.
Lord Tennyson’s Team (1937-38) — Played 24 ; won 8, lost 5 and
drawn 11. Captain — ^Lord Tennyson.
Second All-Ceylon Team (1940-41) — ^Played 5 ; won 1 ; lost 1 ;
dravm 3. Captain — S. S. Jayawikrama.
Australian Services XI (1945-46) — ^Played 9 ; won 1 ; lost 2 ;
drawn 6, Captain — A. L. Hasset.
West Indies Team (1948-49) — ^Played 17 ; won 6 ; lost 1 ; drawn
11. Captain — John Goddard.
1st Commonwealth Team (1949-50) — ^Played 19 ; won 8 ; lost 2 ;
drawn 9. Captain — L. Livingstone.
2nd Commonwealth Team (1950-51) — ^Played 25 ; drawn 13 ;
won 12 ; played 5 unofficial Test matches, won 2, drawn 3. Captain —
L. E. G. Ames.
M.C.C. Team (1951-52) — Played 18 ; won 7 ; lost 1 ; drawn 10 ;
Test match played 5 ; won 1 ; lost 1 ; drawn 3. Captain — ^N. D.
Howard.
Pakistan Team (1952) — ^Played 12 ; won 1 ; lost 2 ; drawn 9.
Captain — ^A. H. Kardar.
Silver Jubilee Overseas Cricketers’ Team (1953-54) — Played 21 ;
won 3 ; lost 5 and drawn 13.
New Zealand Team (1955-56) — Played 10 ; won 2 ; lost 3 ;
drawn 5.
Australian Team (1956) — played 3 ; won 2 ; lost 0 ; drawn 1.
Indian Teams Abroad
First Parsi Team in England (1886) — Played 28 ; won 1 ; lost 19;
drawn 8. Captain — ^Patel.
Second Parsi Team (1888) — Played 31 ; won 8 ; lost 11 ; drawn
12. Captain — P. D. Kanoa.
332 HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Maharaja of Patiala’s Team in England (1911)— Played 23 ;
won 6 ; lost 15 ; drawn 2. CJaptain — Maharaja of Patiala.
All India Team in England (1932) — ^Played 36 ; won 13 ; lost 9 ;
drawn 14. Captain — ^Maharaja of Porhandar.
All India Team in England (1936) — Played 31 ; won 5 ; lost 13 ;
drawn 13. Captain — Maharajakumar of Vijianagrain.
All India Team in Ceylon (1945) — ^Played 5 ; won 2 ; lost 0 ;
drawn 3. Captain — V. M. Merchant.
All India Team in England (1946) — ^Played 33 ; won 13 ; lost 4 ;
drawn 16. Claptain — ^Nawab of Pataudi.
All India Team in Australia (1947-48) — ^Played 19 ; won 4 ; lost
7 ; drawn 8. Captain — Lala Amamath.
All India Team in England (1952) — ^Played 38 ; won 6 ; lost 8 ;
drawn 24; Test match played 4 ; won 0 ; lost 3 ; drawn 1. Captain —
V. S. Hazare.
All India Team in West Indies (1953) — ^Played 11 ; lost 1 ; won
1 ; drawn 9. Captain — V. S. Hazare.
All India Team in Pakistan (1954-55) — ^Played 14; won 5; drawn 9.
Official Test Matches
India v. England
Match played
Eng.won
India won
Draion
1932 In England
.. 1
1
0
0
1933-34 In India
.. 3
2
0
1
1936 In England
.. 3
2
0
1
1946 In England
.. 3
1
0
2
1951-62 In India
.. 5
1
1
3
1952 In England
.. 4
3
0
1
19
10
1
8
India v.
Australia
Match played Aust. won
India won
Drawn
1947-48 In Australia . . 5
4
0
1
1956 In India
.. 3
2
0
1
India v. West Indies
Match playec
W. Indies
India won
Drawn
won
1948-49 In India
.. 6
1
0
4
1953 In W. Indies . . 5
1
0
4
10
2
0
8
India v.
Pakistan
Match played Pakistan won
India won
Dragon
1952 In India
.. 5
■ 1
2
2
1954-65 In Pakistan
.. 6
0
0
5
10
1
2
7
SPORTS SECTION
333
India V. Neto Zealand
Match played N.Zealand won India won Drawn.
1955-56 In India ..5 0 2 3
INDIA’S TEST RECORD
Hiyliest total — By India ; 498 (4 wkts. Dec.) v. New Zealand,
Hyderabad, 1955.
— Against India : 674 by Australia, Adelaide, 1947.
Individual Score — ^Por India : 231 Mankad, v. New Zealand, Calcutta,
1955. — Against India : 217 Hammond (England), Oval, 1936.
Lowest Total — By India : 58 v. England, Manchester 1952 ; 58 v.
Australia, Brisbane 1947.
— Against India : 107 Australia, Sydney 1947.
Century on 1st Appearance — 118 L. Amarnath v. England, Bombay,
1933
110 b. H. Shodhan v. Pakistan, Cal. 1952.
100 Kiipal Singh v. New Zealand, Hyderabad, 1955.
Highest stand for any wicket in India — India v. New Zealand :
Mankad (231) and P. Roy (173) =404.
CRICKET CHAMPIONSHIP OF INDIA
Winners of Ranji Trophy
[A gold cup presented by the Maharaja of Patiala in memory
of the famous Indian Cricketer, Prince Ranjitsingji.']
1934*35 Bombay
1935- 36 Bombay
1936- 37 Nawanagar
1937- 38 Hyderabad
1938- 39 Bengal
1939- 40 Maharashtra
1940- 41 Maharashtra
1941- 42 Bombay
1942- 43 Baroda
1943- 44 Western India
1944- 45 Bombay
1946-46 Holkar
1946- 47 Baroda
1947- 48 Holkar
1948- 49 Bombay
1949- 50 Baroda
1960-51 Holkar
1951-62 Bombay
1963-54 Bombay
1954- 55 Madras
1955- 56 Bombay
Ranji Trophy Records
Great Totals
912 — Holkar v. Mysore for 8
wickets, 1945-46.
826 — hlaharashtra v. Western
India States, 1948.
798 — Maharashtra v. Northern
India, 1940.
784 — ^Baroda v. Holkar, 1946.
764 — ^Bombay v. Holkar, 1944.
760 — ^Bengal v. Bombay, 1951-62.
757 — ^Holkar v. Hyderabad, 1960.
735 — Bombay v. Maharashtra,
1943.
725 — ^Bombay v. Maharashtra for
8 -wickets, 1950.
714 — Do Do for
8 wickets, 1948.
675 — Maharashtra v. Bombay,
1940.
658 — S. Punjab v. N. India for
8 wickets, 1945.
651 — ^Bombay v. Maharashtra,
1941.
650 — Maharashtra v. Baroda for
9 wickets, 1949.
645 — Bombay v. Baroda, 1945.
638 — Bombay v. Sind for 8
wiclcets, 1947.
632 — Bombay v. Maharashtra for
7 wickets, 1947.
334
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
Banji Trophy Records — {Concld.)
Highest partnership record for
any wicket — By Giil Mahomed
(319) and Hazare (254 not
out) {Jfth wicket partnership)
— 577 runs for Baroda v.
Holkar, 1946-47 {World
Record).
Most centuries in an innings — 6
centuries by Holkar v. My-
sore, 1945-46 — a world record.
Highest aggregate in one iw-
nings — 1325 runs by Maha-
rashtra V. Bombay at Poona
(1941-42).
Lowest Victory — By one run,
Bengal v. Bihar (1941-42).
Smallest Total — 22 runs, S.
Punjab V. N. India (1934).
Lowest innings total : 22 (S.
Punjab) V. Uttar Bharat,
Amritsar, 1934.
Most centuries in d match : 9,
Bombay (5) v. Maharashtra
(4), Poona, 1948-49 {World
Record).
Highest match aggregate : 2376
for 38 wickets (Bombay v.
Maharashtra at Poona, 1948-
49 ) — World Record.
Highest Individual Scores in the Ranji Trophy
*443 — B. B. Nimbalkar (Maha-
rashtra) V. Western Indian
States (1948-49).
*359 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
V. Maharashtra (1943-44).
319 — Gul Mahomed (Baroda)
against Holkar (1946-47).
*316 — V. S. Hazare (Maha-
rashtra) against Holkar
(1944-45).
288 — ^Hazare (Baroda) against
Holkar (1946-47).
278 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
against Holkar (1944-45).
*249 — D. Compton (Holkar)
(1944-45).
246 — D. B. Deodhar (Maha-
rashtra) against Bombay
. (1940-41).
*245 — R. S. Modi (Bom.) against
Baroda (1944-45).
*234 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
against Sind (1945-46).
233— S. Mustaq Ali (Holkar)
against U. P.
217 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
against W. India (1944).
217 — V. M. Merchant (Bom.)
against Hyderabad (1947).
*230 — K. C. Ibrahim (Bom.)
against N.-W. India
(1941-42).
Rohinton Baria Inter-University Cricket
{.Gold cup presented hy Mr. A. D. Baria of Bombay to perpetuate
the memory of his son, Rohinton Baria who died at an early age.)
1935-37 Punjab Univ. ; 1938-42 Bombay Univ. ; 1943 Punjab
Univ. ; 1944-49 Bombay Univ. ; 1950-51 Mysore Univ. ; 1952 Bombay
Univ. ; 1953 Delhi Univ. ; 1954 Bombay Univ. ; 1955 Bom. Univ.
1956 Bombay Univ.
FOOTBALL
I. F. A. Shield, Calcutta
{Started in the year 189S)
1930 Seaforth Highlanders ; 1931 H. L. I. ; 1932 2nd Bn. Essex
Regt.; 1933 D. C. L. I.; 1934 Game abandoned ; 1935 East Yorks ;
Not out.
SPORTS SECTION
335
1936 Mohamedan Sp.; 1937 6th Field Brigade ; 1938 East Yorks ;
1939 Police A.C. ; 1940 Aryans ; 1941-42 Mohamedan Sp.; 1943 East
Bengal ; 1944 E.B. Ely.; 1945 East Bengal ; 1946 Abandoned ; 1947
Mohan Bagan ; 1948 Mohan Bagan ; 1949-51 East Bengal ; 1962
Finalists Mohan Bagan and Eajasthan {match abandoned) ; 1953
India Culture League (Bom.) ; 1954 Mohan Bagan ; 1955 Eajasthan ;
1956 Mohan Bagan.
First year’s winner : Royal Irish Rifles, 1893.
Champions {3 successive years) : Gordon Highlanders (1908-10);
Calcutta F. C. (1922-24); Sherwood Foresters (1926-28) ;
East Bengal (1949-51).
Winners of the highest number of times — Calcutta F. C. — 9
times.
Rovers Cup, Bombay
(Started in the year 1891)
1930 K. O. S. B.; 1931 Royal W. Kents ; 1932 Royal Irish Fusi-
liers ; 1933 King’s Liverpool Regt. ; 1934 Sherwood Foresters ; 1935-
36 King’s Liverpool Regt.; 1937-38 Bangalore Muslims ; 1939 28th
Field Brigade ; 1940 Mohamedan Sporting, Calcutta ; 1941 Welch
Regiment ; 1942 Bata Sp. Club (Calcutta) ; 1943 R. A. F. ; 1944
British Base Reinforcement Camp ; 1945 Militaiy Police ; 1946 Bri-
tish Base Reinforcement Camp ; 1947 Tournament abandoned due to
stand collapse ; 1948 Bangalore Muslims ; 1949 East Bengal ; 1960-
54 Hyderabad Police ; 1955 Mohan Bagan ; 1956 Mahomedan Sporting.
9
Durand Cup, Delhi
(Started in the year 1888)
1950 Hyderabad Police ; 1951-52 East Bengal ; 1953 Mohan
Bagan ; 1954 Hyderabad Police ; 1955 Madras Regemental Centre.
National Football Championship
(Santosh Memorial Trophy)
[The trophy for the championship was donated by the I.F.A-
(Bengal) at a cost of Rs. 1,500 to perpetuate the memory of the late
Raja Manmatha Nath Ray Chaudhury of Santosh, who was the presi-
dent of the I.F.A. for many years.]
1941
. . Bengal
1949
. . West BengaL
1942-43 ..
. . No Play.
1950 . .
. . West Bengal.
1944
. . DelhL
1951 . .
. . West BengaL
1945
. . Bengal.
1952 . .
. . Mysore.
1946
. . Mysore.
1953 . .
. . West BengaL
1947
. . Bengal.
1954 . .
. . Bombay.
1948 ..
. . No Play.
1955
1956
. . West BengaL
. . Hyderabad.
336 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Inter-University Football Championship
(Sir AshutosU Mukherjee Trophy)
1941 i .
.. Calcutta.
1949 . .
.. Mysore.
1942 ..
.. Punjab.
1950 . .
. . Calcutta.
1943 . .
. . Punjab.
1951 . .
. . Nagpur.
1944 . .
.. Punjab.
1952 . .
. . Aligarh.
1945 . .
. . Aligarh.
1953 . .
. . Calcutta.
1946 . .
. . Madras.
1954 . .
. . Osmania.
1947 . .
. . Madras.
1955 . .
do
1948 . .
.. Madras.
HOCKEY
National Hockey Championship (Rangaswami Cup).
(Started in 19ZS)
1928 U. P.; 1930 All India Railway; 1932 Punjab; 1934 No
Coynpetition ; 1936 Bengal ; 1938 Bengal ; 1940 Bombay ; 1942 Delhi ;
1944 Bombay ; 1946 Bhopal ; 1946 Punjab ; 1947 Punjab ; 1948 Bho-
pal ; 1949-51 Punjab ; 1952 Bengal ; 1953 Services ; 1954 Punjab ;
1955 Madras & Services (joint winners) ; 1956 Ser\nces.
Beighton Cup, Calcutta
(Started in 1805)
1931-32 Cal. Custom ; 1933 Jhansi Heroes ; 1934 Cal. Rangers ;
1935 Cal. Customs ; 1936 Bombay Customs ; 1937 B. N. Rahway
(Kharagpur) ; 1938 Cal. Customs ; 1939 B. N. Ry., (Kharagpur) ;
1940 Bhopal Wanderers ; 1941 Bhagwant Club (Tricumgarh) and Bho-
pal Wanderers ; 1942 Cal. Rangers ; 1943-45 B. N. By. (Kharagpttr) ;
1946 Port Commissioners (Cal.) ; 1947 No game ; 1948 U. P. XI
& Port Commissioners (Calcutta); 1949-50 Tata Sports (Bom.); 1951
Hindustan Aircraft ; 1952 Mohun Bagan ; 1953 Tata Sports (Bom.) ;
1954 Tata Sports (Bom.); 1955 Western Railway & U.P. XI
(joint holders); 1956 Services
First yearns winners — ^Naval Volunteers, 1895.
Highest number of vjinners — Calcutta (Customs — 11 times.
Aga Khan Cup, Bombay
1934 Bombay Customs ; 1935 Bombay Customs ; 1936 Bombay
Customs ; 1937 Lahore Y. M. C. A.; 1938 Bhagwant Club (Tricum-
garh) ; 1939 Bhopal Wanderers ; 1940 B. B. C. I. By. ; 1941 Bhag-
want Club (Tricumgarh) ; 1942 No play ; 1943 G. I. P. Ry.; 1944
Kamala Club (Kanpore) ; 1945 Kamala Club (Kanpore) ; 1946
Kalyanmal Mills (Indore) ; 1947 Rawalpindi Spartans ; 1948 Kirkee
United ; 1949 East Punjab Police ; 1960 Tata Sports ; 1951-52 Tata
Sports (Bombay) ; 1953 Lusitanians (Bom.) ; 1954 Abandoned ; 1955;
Punjab Police; 1956 Bombay State Police.
SPORTS SECTION
337
WOMEN’S NATIONAL HOCKEY CHAMPIONSHIP
Inaugurated in 1938 — Lady Ratan Tata Cup
1938 . . Kharagpur 1949 . . Bombay. 1953 . , Bombay &
1939 .. Calcutta, 1950 .. M. P. Bengal.
1947 .. Bombay. 1951 .. Bombay. 1954-55 M. P.
1948 . . Bombay, 1952 . . Bombay. 1955-56 M. P.
DHYAN CHAND HOCKEY TOURNAMENT
(In honour of Dhyan Chand’s services to Indian Hockey)
1952 — Punjab Police 1955 — Sikh Regimental Centre
1953 — Hindusthan Aircraft. (Meerut).
1954 — Western Ry. 1956 — Northern Ry. & Corps, of
Signals (Jabalpur).
NATIONAL BADMINTON CHAMPIONSHIP 1956
Team Champinship — Bombay.
Men’s Shigles—T. N. Seth (U.P.).
Women’s Singles — ^Tara Dandige (Bom.).
Men’s Doubles — N. Natekar & Vimawala (Bom.).
Women’s Doubles — Jasbir Kaur (Punjab) & Meena Shah (U.P.).
Mixed Doubles — D. M. Dhongade & Malati Gokhale (Bom.).
INTER-STATE BADMINTON CHAMPIONSHIPS
No tourna-
ment.
1944 .. Delhi. 1949 .. Bombay. 1953 .. Bombay.
1945 . . Punjab. 1950 . . Bombay. 1954 . . Bombay.
1946 . . Punjab, 1951 . . Bombay. 1955 . . Bombay.
1947 .. Bombay. 1952 .. Bombay. 1956 .. Bombay.
1948 .. No Play.
NATIONAL TABLE TENNIS CHAMPIONSHIP 1956
Men’s Singles — J. R. Div,'an (Bom.).
Women’s Singles — Meena Parande (Maharashtra).
Men’s Doubles — R. Bhandari & K. Jayant (Bengal).
Women’s Doubles — Meena Parande & Prisca Nunes (Bom.)
Mixed Doubles — D. P. Sampat & Prisca Nunes (Bom.).
INTER-STATE TABLE TENNIS
Bama-Bcllak Cup (for men)
1949 ., Bengal. 1952 .. Bengal. 1955 .. Bombay,
1950 .. Bengal, 1953 .. Bombay. 1956 .. Bombay.
1951 .. Bengal. 1954 .. Bombay.
Jayalakshmi Cup (for women)
1954 .. Maharashtra. 1955 .. Maharashtra.
1956 . . Bombay.
22
338
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
BILLIARD CHAJIPIONS
(Started in 1931)
1941 — ^V. R. Freer (Madura).
1942 — ^V. R. Freer (Madura).
1943— 45 — No game.
1946 — C. Hirjee (Calcutta).
1947 — C. Hirjee (Calcutta).
1948 — ^V. R. Freer (Madura).
1949 — T. A. Selveraj (Bangalore).
1950 — Wilson Jones (Bombay).
1951 — ^Wilson Jones (Bombay).
1952— Do.
1953 — A. Driffield (England).
1954 — Wilson Jones (Bombay).
1955 — C. Herajee.
1956 — Wilson Jones (Bombay).
NATIONAL KABADI CHAIMPIONSHIP
(Started 1951)
Tl'f
1953— Bombay.
1954 — Bombay.
1955 — Bombay.
1956 — Bombay.
Women.
1954 — Bombay.
1955 — Bombay.
1956 — Bombay.
NATIONAL LAWN TENNIS CHAIMPIONSHIP 1956
Men’s Singles — R. Krishnan.
Women’s Singles — Mrs. K. Singh.
Men’s Doubles — R. Krishnan & Naresh Kumar.
Women’s Doubles — Mrs. S. R. Mody & Mrs. J. B. Singh.
Mixed Doubles — Mrs. K. Singh & Naresh Kumar.
NATIONAL SWIMMING CHAMPIONSHIP 1956
Men’s Team Event — Services.
Women’s Team Eueitf— Bombay.
Water Polo — Bombay.
NATIONAL BASKETBALL CHAMPIONSHIP
(Todd Memorial Trophy)
1952 . . Mysore. 1955 . . Mysore.
1953 . . Mysore. 1956 . . Mysore.
1954 . . Mysore.
NATIONAL VOLLEYBALL CHAMPIONSHIP 1956
Men’s Team Event — Uttar Pradesh.
Women’s Team Event — Punjab.
ATHLETIC RECORDS IN INDIA
MEN
Hop Step and Jump H. Rebello (Mysore) '48 60 ft. 2 in.
f Bhagwan Singh
Pole Vault .. 1 (Services) '65 12 ft. 3 in.
(K. Ahmed (U.P.) '66 12 ft. 3 in.
SPORTS SECTION
339
Athletic Records in India — (Concld.).
MEN
Hammer throw
Discus throw
Javelin throw
Shot Put
High Jump
Long Jump
100 yards run
200 „ j, • •
400 „ II • •
One Mile „ . .
Three Miles „ ..
Five Miles i,
Six Miles ,i
100 metres „
200 ,, II • •
400 ,, I, . .
800 I, „ . .
1,500 I, II . ,
3.000 ,, II • •
5.000 „ „ ..
10.000 „ „
15.000 „ „
20.000 „ „
30.000 „ „
Marathon
10.000 M. walk
60 kilometres walk . .
4x100 m. relay
1,600 „ „
4X400 „ „
110 metres hurdles . .
400
3.000 m. Steeplechase
Devidayal (Services)
Parduman Singh (Servs.)
Sarwan Singh (Services)
Praduman Singh (Servs.)
Ajit Singh (Punjab)
Shadilal (Services)
R. A. Vemeaux (Bom.)
E. Whiteside (Punjab)
G. P. Bhalla
Chand Singh (Patiala)
Raunak Singh „
Gujjar Singh (Punjab)
Raunak Singh (Patiala)
Balwant Singh
La-v^ Pinto (Bom.)
Joginder Singh (Services
Sohan Singh (Services)
Makhan Singh (Services)
Chand Singh (Patiala)
Gurdial Singh
Buta Singh
C. S. A. Swami (Bom.)
C. S. A. Swami (Bom.)
R. G. Michael „
Chota Singh (Pepsuj
Harnak Singh (Services)
Raghbir Singh (Services)
Services Team
Bombay Team
Services
Srichand (Services)
Jagdev Singh (Punjab)
Dalu Ram (Services)
’55 162 ft. 5 in.
’56 151 ft. 6i in.
’56 192 ft. h in.
’55 48 ft. 105 in.
’56 6 ft. 5 in.
’55 23 ft. 15 in.
’34 9-7 s.
’36 21-8 s.
’34 60-0 s.
’88 4 m. 25-6 s.
’34 16 m. 3-7 s.
’34 27 m. 10 s.
’35 31 m. 33-5 s,
'54 10.5 s.
’55 21-7 s.
’55 48 s.
’56 1 m. 52-0 s.
'65 3 m. 58-2 s.
'44 8 m. 49-9 s.
’66 16 m. 01-1 s.
’55 30 m. 49-3 s.
. . 68 m. 16-4 s.
. . 1 h. 16 m. 0 s.
. . 2 h. 13 m. 50 s.
’63 2 h. 33 m. 21-4 s.
’54 50 m. 26-6 s.
’65 5 h. 3 m. 47-2 s.
’63 42-5 s.
'60 50 m. 26 s.
’65 3 m. 22 s.
’56 14-9 s.
’55 53-6 s.
'55 9 m. 24 s.
WOMEN
100 metres run . .
200 metres run
Running High Jump
80 metres hurdles ..
High Jump
Discuss Throw
Javelin Throw
Broad Jump
Shot Put . .
M. D’Souza (Bom.) 1954 . . 12-3 s.
M. D’Souza (Bom.) 1952 . . 26-1 s.
Miss U. Lyons (Punjab) ’40 4 ft. Ill in.
Violet Peters (Bombay) ’55 12-0 s.
Una Lyons (Punjab) ’40 4 ft. Ill in.
Coline O’Connel (Mysore) ’66 99 ft. 11 in.
E. Davenport (Bihar) ’55 113 ft.
C. Brown (Bombay) ’54 17 ft. 5 in.
E. Davenport (Bihar) ’56 33 ft. 3 in.
340
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
INDIAN SWIMMING RECORDS
MEN
Free Style
100 m. ..
S. Bazaz (Bom.)
1955
1 m. 2-7 s;
200 m.
R. Bazaz (Bom.)
1955
2 m. 24 s.
400 m.
S. Bajaj (Bom.)
1956
6 m. 13.3 s.
1600 m.
L/NK Ram Singh
(Services)
1956 21 m. 4-5 s.
Bach Stroke
S. Bazaz (Bom.)
1955
100 m. ..
Rupchand (Services)^
1956
i m. 16’2 s.
200 m.
Chandra Sekharan
(Services)
1955
2 m. 44*4 s.
Breast Stroke
100 m. . .
Udai Pratap Singh
(Services)
1956
1 m. 22-2 s.
200 m.
Udai Pratap Singh
(Services)
1956
.2 m. 59-7 s.
Butterfly
100 m. . .
S. G. Latm (Bom.)
1955
1 m. 14-7 s.
200 m. , .
S. G. Lathi (Bom.)
1955
2 m. 55-3 s.
Relay
4x100 m. . .
Free Style
Bom. Team
1955
4 m. 26’5 s.
4x200 do ..
Services Team
1955 10 m. 11-4 s.
WOMEN
too m. Breast Stroke Dolly Nazir (Bom.) 1960 . . 1 m. 38 s.
100 m. Free Style . . P. Ballantyne (Bom.) 1947 . . 1 m. 18’6 s.
100 m. Back Stroke T. MacQumpha (Bom.) 1947 1 m. 39 s.
200 m. Free Style . . Dolly Nazir (Bom.) 1956 3 m. 1-98 s.
400 m. Free Style .. Dolly Nazir (Bom.) 1956 6 m. 13-6 s.
200 m. Breast Stroke Dolly Nazir (Bom.) 1955 3 m. 28-9 s.
CRICKET
Summary of Test Matches
England v. South Africa
First played 1888-89 ; England won 40 ; South Africa 16 ; 29 matches
drawn.
England v. New Zealand
First played 1929-30 ; England won 6 ; matches, drawn 15 and N. Z.
won 0.
England v. India
First played 1932 ; England won 10 ; India won 1 and 8 matches
drawn.
England v. Australia ■ •
First-played 1876-77 ; England won 60 ; Austradia 69 and 39 matches
drawn.
SPORTS SECTION
341
England v. West Indies
First played 1928; England won 11; West Indies won 10 and 9 matches
drawn.
England v. Pakistan
First played 1954 ; England won 1 ; Pakistan won 1 and 2 matches
dravm,
Australia v. South Africa
First played 1902-3 ; Australia won 24 ; South Africa won 3 and 7
matches drawn.
Australia v. West Indies
First played 1930-31 ; Australia won 11 and West Indies won 2 and
2 matches drawn.
Australia v. India
First played 1947-48 ; Australia won 6 ; 2 matches drawn.
Australia v. Neio Zealand
First played 1945-46 ; Australia won 1 ; New Zealand won 0.
India v. West Indies
First played 1948-49 ; West Indies won 2 and 8 matches drawn,
SotUh Africa v. New Zealand
First played 1931-32 ; South Africa won 7 ; New Zealand 0 and 2
matches drawn.
West Indies v. New Zealand
First played 1951-52 ; West Indies won 1 and 1 match drawn.
India v. Pakistan
First played 1952 ; India won 2 ; Pakistan 1 ; Drawn 7.
Pakistan v. New Zealand
First Played 1955 ; Pakistan won 2, New Zealand 2, Drawn 1.
Test Match Records
Highest Match Aggregates — 1981 runs (35 wickets) — England vs.
South Africa at Durban, 1939.
Lowest Match Aggregates — 234 runs (30 wickets) — ^Australia vs.
South Africa, Melbourne, 1932.
Highest totals — 903 (7 wkts. dec.) for England vs. Australia, Oval,
1938.
Lowest totals — ^26 for New Zealand v. England, Auckland 1955.
Highest Aggregate by a side in a match — 1121 (19 wkts.) — ^England
vs. West Indies, Kingston, 1930.
Loiocst Aggregate by a side in a match — 81 (20 wkts.) South Africa
vs. Australia at Melbourne, 1932.
Most Hundreds — 29, D. G. Bradman (Australia).
Highest Individual innings — L. Hutton 364, oval 1938.
Most hundreds in a Test match — Seven ; Entrland vs. -Australia at
Nottingham, 1938 (Barnett 126. Pasnter 216*, L. Hutton 100, D.
Compton 102 (Eng.) S. McCabe 232, W. Brown 133, D. G.
Bradman 144* (Australia).
7 — Australia (6) v. West Indies (2), Kingston, 1955. For Aus-
342
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
tralia (5). — ^N. Harney 204, E. Archer 128, C. McDonald 127, E.
Benaud 121 and K. Miller 109. For West Indies (2) — Clyde Walcott
155 & 110.
Two separate hundreds in a Text mach twice in one Series : C.
Walcott (West Indies) v. Australia, 1955. — 126 & 110 (2nd Test,
Part of Spain) and 155 & 110 (5th Text, Kingston).
Most wickets in test cricket (Bowling) — 221 in 47 matches — ^Alec
Bedser (England).
Hundreds in consecutive innings — Five by Everton Weeks.
141 {vs. England, Kingston 1947-48).
128 (vs. India, Delhi 1948-49).
194 (vs. India, Bombay 1948-49).
162 & 101 (vs. India, Calcutta 1948-49).
Longest Test Match — South Africa v. M. C. C. (1939), for 10 days.
Eecord Individual Scores — First-Class Matches
•462 Bradman
1930
*344 Headley
1932
*443 B. B. Nimbalkar . .
1948-49
344 Grace
1876
437 Ponsford
1928
*343 Perrin
1904
429 Ponsford
1923
341 Hirst
1906
424 A. C. MacLaren
1895
340 Bradman
1929
383 Gregory
1906
338 Eead
0
1888
369 Bradman
1935-36
338 Blunt
1932
368 Hutton
1938
*336 Hammond
1933
*365 Hill
1900
336 Ponsford
1928
364 Hutton
1938
333 Bradman
1930
*357 Abel
1899
333 Duleepsinghji
1930
352 Ponsford
1927
325 Sandham
1930
321 Murdock
1882
World Cricket Eecords — First Class
Highest team score (1st class ) — ^1,107 Victoria v. New South Wales
(Australia), 1926-27.
Highest Individual Score — 452 (not out) D. G. Bradman, 1929-30.
First Wicket Partnership — 555 Holmes and Sutcliffe, Yorkshire vs.
Essex, 1932.
Second Wicket Partnership — 455 by B. B. Nimbalkar and K. V.
Bhandarkar, Maharashtra v. Western India States, 1948-49.
Highest Partnership for any wicket — 577 V. S. Hazare (254*) and
Gul Mohammed (319), Baroda v. Holkar, 1946-47.
Aggregates — J. B. Hobbs— 61,221 ; W. G. Grace — 54,896.
Highest Aggregate — 2,376 Bombay 651 and 714 for 6 Dec. v. Maha-
rashtra.
Most Centuries in an innings — Six individual centuries by Holkar
V. Mysore in Eanji Trophy, 1944-45.
‘Signifies not out.
SPORTS SECTION
343
Mile Runners
4: 56 C. Lawes (Britain)
4: 36-5 R. Webster do
4: 29 W. Chinery do
4: 12-6 N. Taber (U.S.)
4: 10'4 P. Nurmi (Finland)
4: 09-2 J. Ladoumegue (Fr.)
4; 28-8 W. C. Gibbs do
4: 26 W. Slade do
4: 24-5 W. Slade do
4: 22-2 W. George do
4: 21-4 W. George do
4: 19-4 W. George do
4: 18'4 W. George do
4: 18-2 F. Bacon (Scot.)
4: 17 F. Bacon (Scot.)
4: 15-6 T. Coneff (U.S.)
4; 15-4 J. P. Jones (U.S.)
4: 14-4 J, P. Jones (U.S.)
1864
1865
1868
1915
1923
1931
1868
1874
1875
1880
1882
1852
1884
1894
1895
1895
1911
1913
4: 07-6 Lovelock (N. Z.) 1933
4: 06-8 G. Cunningham
(U.S.) 1934
4: 06-4 S. Wooderson (Br.) 1937
4: 06-2 G. Haegg (Swe.) 1942
4: 06-2 A. Andersson (Swe.) 1942
4: 04-6 G. Haegg (Swe.) 1942
4: 02-6 A. Andersson (Swe.) 1943
4: 01-6 A. Andersson (Swe.) 1944
4: 01-4 G. Haegg (Swe.) 1945
3; 59-4 R. Bannister (Br.) 1954
3: 68 J. Landy (Aust.) 1954
3: 68-8 R. Bannister (Br.) 1954
3: 69-6 J. Landy (Aust.) 1955
3: 69 L. Tabori (Hungary) 1955
3: 69-8 C. Chatavmy (Br.) 1955
3: 69-8 B. Hewson (Br.I 1955
3: 59-4 Derek Ibbotson(Br.) 1956
MEN’S WORLD TRACK & FIELD RECORDS
100 yards
220 yards
880 yards
1 mile
2 miles
3 miles
6 miles
10 miles
15 miles
26 m. 385 yds.
100
metres
200
»
400
if
800
tf
1,000
tt
1,600
if
2.000
ff
3,000
if
6,000
if
10,000
if
20,000
if
25,000
ft
30,000
if
(M. Patton (U.S.A.)
' ( H. D. Hogon (Aust.)
. M. Patton (U.S.A.)
. L. V. Spurrier (U.S.)
, J. Landy (Australia)
. S. Iharos (Hungary)
. S. Iharos (Hungary)
. D. Stephens (Aust.)
. E. Zatopek (C’slovakia)
. E. Zatopek (do)
. K. Son (Japan)
Willie Williams (U.S.)
Ira Murchison (U.S.)
. Mel Patton (U.S.)
. L. Jones (U.S.A.)
. R. Moens (Belgium)
. A. Boysen (Norv.-ay)
S. Iharos (Hungary)
G. Nielsen (Denmark)
. I. Rozsavolgi (Hung.)
. S. Jaharos (Hungary)
. I. V. Kuc (Russia)
. I. V. Kuc (Russia)
• E. Zatopek (C'slovakia)
, do do
, do (C’slovakia)
’48 9-3 s.
’64 9-3 s.
'49 20-2 s.
’55 1 m. 47-5 s.
’54 3 m. 57-9 s.
’55 8 m. 33-4 s.
'55 13 m. 14-2 s.
’56 27 m. 54 s.
’51 48 m. 12 s.
’55 1 h. 14 m. 01 s.
’36 2 h. 29 m. 19.2 s.
’56 10-1 s.
’56 10-1 s.
’49 20.2 s.
'55 45-4 s.
’55 1 m. 45-7 s.
’55 2 m. 19 s.
’55 3 m. 40-8 s.
’65 3 m. 40-8 s.
’55 5 m. 02-2 s.
’55 7 m. 65.6 s.
’56 13 m. 39.6 s.
’56 28 m. 45.0 s.
’51 69 m. 51.8 s.
’51 1 h. 16 m. 36.4 m.
’52 1 h. 35 m. 23.8 s.
344
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Walking
2 miles . . W. Hardmo (Sweden) '45 12 m. 45 s.
5 miles . . J. Dolezal (C’ Slovakia) ’55 34 m. 32.8 s.
3.000 metres . . V. Hardmo (Sweden) ’45 11 m. 51'8 s.
6.000 „ .. do do 20 m. 2G-8 s.
10.000 „ .. do do 42 m. 39-6 s.
20.000 „ .. J. Dolezal (C’ Slovakia) ’53 1 h. 30 m. 26.4 s.
30.000 . . J. Dolezal (C’ Slovakia) ’52 2 h. 21 m. 38.6 s.
50.000 „ . . J. Ljnnggren (Sweden) ’53 4 h. 29 m. 58 s.
Hurdles (10 Hurdles)
120 vds.(3ft. 6in.) R. A, Attlesey (U.S.A.) ’50 13-5 s.
220 yds.(2ft. 6in.) H. Dillard (U.S.A.) ’47 22-3 s.
440 yds. (3 ft.) . . Y. Lituyev (Russia) ’54 51-3 s.
Jumping
Long Jump . . J. Owens (U.S.A.) ’35 26 ft. 8i in.
High Jump . • Charles Dumas (XJ.S.) . . 7 ft. g in.
Hop. Step and , .
Jump . . Adhemar F da Silva (Brazil) *65 54 ft. 4 in.
Pole Vault .. C. Warmerdam (U.S.A.) ’42 16 ft. 7i in.
Throwing
Discus .. F. Gordien (U.SJl.) '53 194 ft. 6 in.
Javelin . . Egil Danielson (Norway) ’66 281 ft. 2i in.
Hammer 'Throw M. Krivonosov (U.S.) '55 211 ft. Si in.
Decathlon . . R. Johnson (U.S.) ’55 7,985 points.
SIEN’S WORLD SWTJIMING RECORDS
Free Style
100 yds. . . R. Cleveland (U.S., 1952) . . 49’2 s.
100 metres . . do do ’54 . . 54-8 s.
200 metres . . J. Wardrof (Britain, 1955) . . 2 m. 3-4/10 s.
600 yds. . . J. B. Marshall (Australia, 1950) 5 m. 120-0 s.
600 metres . . J. B. klarshall (Australia, 1951) 6 m. 43-7 s.
1 mile .. J. B, Marshall (Australia, 1960) --19 m. 49-4 s.
Breast Stroke
100 yds. . . L. Brock (Sweden 1953) . . 1 m. 4-3 s.
100 metres . . JI. Petrusevicz (Poland 1954) 1 m. 9.8 s.
200 metres . . M. Furukawa (Japan 1955) . . 2 m. 33.7 s.
200 yds. . . R. R. Gowboy (U.S. 1955) . . 2 m. 38 s.
400 metres . . Bob Bonte (Holland, 1948) . . 6 m. 40-2 s.
600 metres . . Bob Bonte (Holland, 1948) . . 7 m. 10-1 s.
Butterfly
100 yds. . . A. Wiggins (U.S. 1955) . . 54.7 s.
100 metres A. Wiggins (U.S. 1955) . . 1 m. 1.5 s.
200 metres . . J. Nagasawa (Japan, 1954) . . 2 m. 21.6 s.
SPORTS SECTION
345
Back Stroke
100 yds. .. Y. Oyakawa (U.S. 1954) .. 55.7 s.
100 metres . . G. Bozon (Prance, 1955) . . 1 m. 2.1 s.
200 metres . . G. Bozon (France, 1953) . . 2 m. 18-3 s.
400 yds. .. 3. Wardrof (Britain, 1955) 4 m. 36-9710
TVOMEN’S WORLD TRACK AND FIELD RECORDS
100 yds. run . . M. Jackson (Australia, 1952) . . 10-4 s.
220 yds. run .. Marjorie Jackson (Aust. 1954) 24 s.
880 yds. run .. Nina Otkalenko (Russia, 1954) 2 m. 8.4 s.
100 metres run M. Jackson (Australia, 1952) .. 11-4 s.
200 metres run M. Jacfeon (Australia, 1952) .. 23’4 s.
Long Jump , . W. Y. Williams (N.Z., 1954) , , 20 ft. in.
High Jump Wildred DIcDaniel (U.S. 1956) 5 ft. 9J in.
Discus Throw .. N. Dumbadez (U.S.S.R., 1963) 187 ft. Ig in.
Javelin Throw .. N. Konjaeva (U.S-S.R.. 1954) 182 ft.
Shot-put . . Galina Zybina (U.S.S.R., 1955) 53 ft. 42 in.
Pantathlon . . A. Chudina (U.S.S.E. 1954) . . 4,704 points
WOMEN’S SWBIMING RECORDS
Free Style
100 yds, J. Alderson (U.S., 1964) .. 68.1 s.
100 metres .. Dawn Fraser (Australia, 1956) 62.0 s.
1 mile L. de Nijs (Holland, 1955) . . 22 m. 5.5 s.
Breast Stroke
100 yds. , . N. Van Vliet (Holland, 1947) 1 m. 9-2 s.
100 metres . . E. Szekely (Hungary, 1951) . . 1 m. 16-9 s.
Back Stroke
100 yds. . . J. Wielema (Holland, 1950) . . 1 m. 4-6 s.
100 metres . . Cor Kint (Holland, 1939) . . 1 m. 10’9 s.
200 metres . . J. Wielema (Holland, 1950) . . 2 m. 35'3 s.
Butterfly
100 yds. . . S. Mann (U.S., 1954) . . 1 m. 6-3/10 s.
M. Kok (Holland, 1955) . . do
100 metres . . A. Voobij (Holland, 1955) . . 1 m. 13-7 s.
DAVIS CUP
(International Lawn Tennis ; Men’s Team Event — Started in 1900)
Winner and Points
1933 Great Britain 3
1934 do 4
1935 do 6
1936 do S
1937 U.S. 4
1938 U.S. 3
Winner and Points
1939 Australia 3
1940-45 — No Game
1946 U.S. 6
1947 U.S. 4
1948 U.S. 5
1949 U.S. 4
Winner and Points
1960 Australia
1961 do
1952 do
1953 do
1954 U. S.
1965 Australia 6
1956 Australia
itkWiN
346
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
WIGHTMAN CUP (WOaiEN’S TEAM EVENT)
{Annual Competition by icomen lawn tennis players of Great Britain
and V.S-A. — started in 1923)
1946 U.S,
1947 U.S.
1948 U.S.
1949 U.S.
1950 U.S.
1951 U.S.
1952 U.S.
1953 U. S.
1954 U. S.
1955 U. S.
1956 U.S.
VTMBLEDON TENNIS CHAMPIONSHIP
{International lawn tennis tournament for individual championship
held annually at Whtibledon, England)
Men’s Singles
1950 B. Patty 1954 J. Drobny
1951 R. Savitt (Czech.)
1952 F. A. Sadgeman 1955 T. Trabert (U.S.)
1953 E. V. Seixas 1956 Lew Hoad (Aus.)
(U.S.)
1946 Y. Petra
1947 J. A. Kramer
1948 R. Falkenburg
1949 R. Schroeder
"Women’s Singles
1953 M. Connolly (U.S.) 1954 M. Connolly (U.S.)
1955 Louise Brough (U.S.). 1956 Shirley Fry (U.S.).
WORLD CHESS CHAMPIONS
1851-58 — ^Adolph Anderson
(Ger.).
1858-62 — ^Paul Morphy (U.S.A.)
1862-66 — Adolph Anderson
(Ger.).
1866-94 — ^Wilhelm Steinitz
(Australia)
1894-1921— E. Lasker (Ger.)
1921-27 — J. R. Capablanca
(Cuba)
1927-35— A. A. Alekhine
(Russia)
1935-37 — Dr. M. Euwe (Holland)
1937-46 — A. Alekhine (Russia)
1946-47 — Fnconf.
1948-54 — M. Botwinnik (Russia)
WORLD BOXING CHAMPIONS
Heavy Weight (any weight) — Light Weight (135 lbs.) — Wall-
Fioyd Patterson (U.S.A.) ance Bud Smith (U.S.A.)
Light Heavy Weight (175 lbs.) — Frnf.hrr weight (126 lbs.) —
Archie Moore (U.S.) Sandy Saddler (U.S.A.)
Middle Weight (160 lbs.) — Bantam Weight (118 lbs.) —
Gene Fullmer (U.S.A.) M. Dagata (Italy)
Welter Weight (147 lbs.) — Flu Weight (112 lbs.) — ^Pascual
Carmen Basilio (U.S.A.) Perez (.Tamaica)
MODERN HEA'W-WEIGHT CHAhlPIONS
1SS2-92 John L. Sulivan 1S99-1D05 James J. Jeffries
1892-97 James J. Corbett 1905-1906 Marvin Hart
1897-99 Robert Fitzsimmons 1906-08 Tommy Bums
SPORTS SECTION
347
1008-15 Jack Johnson
1915-19 Jess Willard
1919-26 Jack Dempsey
1926-28 Gene Tnnney
1928-30 Vacant
1930-32 Max Schmeling
1932-33 Jack Sharkey
1934- 35 Max Baer
1935- 3T James J. Braddock
1937-49 Joe Louis
1949-51 Ezzard Charles
1951- 52 Joe Walcott
1952- 55 Rocky Marciano
1956 Floyd Patterson
WORLD TABLE TENNIS
SWAYTHLING CUP— Men’s Team Event
1926-27-
-1930-31
Hungary
1947-48
Czechoslovakia
1931-32
Czechoslovakia
1948-49
Hungary
1932-33-
1935-36
-1934-35 Hungary
. . Austria
1949- 50-
1950- 51
Czechoslovakia
1936-37
* ,
U.S.A.
1951-52
, ,
Hungary
1937-38
Hungary
1952-53
• •
England
1938-39
Czechoslovakia
1953-54
Japan
1939-46
, ,
No competition
1954-55
• •
Japan
1946-47
• •
Czechoslovakia
1955-56
Japan
CORBILLON CUP~TVomen’s
Team
Event
1933-34
Germany
1947-48
England
1934-35
Czechoslovakia
1948-49
U.S.A.
1935-36
do
1949-50
Rumania
1936-37
U.S.A.
1950-51
do
1937-38
Czechoslovakia
1951-52.
• • •
Japan
1938-39
Germany
1952-53
Rumania
1939-46
No competition
1953-54
Japan
1946-47
England
1954- 55
1955- 56
Rumania
Rumania
ST. BRIDE VAS— Men’s Singles
1936- 37 — R. Bergmann {Austria)
1937- 38 — V. Varna {Czechoslo-
vakia)
1938- .30 — ^R. Bergmann {Austria)
1939- 46 — No competition
1946- 47 — V. Varna {Czechoslo-
vakia)
1947- 48 — R. Bergmann {England)
1948- 49 — J. Leach {England)
1949- 50 — ^R. Bergmann {England)
1960-51 — J. Leach {England)
1951- 52 — Satoh {Japan)
1952- 53 — P. Sido {Hungary)
1953- 54 — ^Ichiro Ogimura {Japan)
1954- 55 — ^T. Tanaka {Japan')
1955- 56 — Ichiro Ogimura {Japan)
GASPER-GEIST PRIZE — Womeii’s Singles
1949- 50 — A. Rozeanu {Rumania) 1952-53 — A. Rozeanu {Rumania)
1950- 51 — ^A. Rozeanu {Rumania) 1953-54 — do do
1951- 52 — ^A, jRozeanu {Rumania) 1954-55 — do do
1955-56 — Tomi Okawa {Japan)
S48
HINDUSTAN YEAPv-BOOK
WORLD FOOTBALL CUP
(Jules Rjinet Cup)
{Played every fourth year — started m 19S0)
1930 — Uiuguay- 1950 — ^Urngniay
1934 — Italv 1954; — Germany
1938— Italy
ASLAN FOOTBALL QUADRANGULAR TOURNAJIENT
(India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon)
1952 — India & Pakistan 1954 — India
{Joint holders) 1955 — India.
1953 — India
WORLD SKATING, 1954-55
Figure {men ) — Hayes Jenkins World Dancing — Miss J. West-
U.SA. vrood & L. Denny (G.B.)
Figtire {ladies) — T. Albright World Speed {men ) — Sigge Eric-
U-SA. Eson (Sn-eden).
Figtire {icorld -pairs) — Miss J. World Speed {ladies ) — M. Kuo-
and J. Nicks (G.B.) pio (Finland).
THOJLAS CUP
{International Badminton Championship)
1949 — ^Malaya 1952 — Malaya 1955 — ^Malaya
OLYMPIC HOCKEY CHAMPIONS
1908 Great Britain
1928
India 1948
India
1920 Great Britain
1932
India 1952
India
1936
India 1956
India
OLYMPIC SCORE BY NATIONS
U.S.S.R.
G.
S.
B,
G.
S.
B.
37
29
33
Turkey
3
2
2
U.S.A
32
25
17
Canada
2
1
3
Australia
13
8
14
Iran
2
o
1
Germany
Hungary
6
9
13
10
•7
7
Bulgaria
Denmark
1
1
3
2
1
1
Italy
8
8
9
Ireland
1
1
3
Britain
6
7
11
Nevr Zealand
2
0
0
Sweden
S
5
6
Korea
0
1
1
Japan
4
10
5
Yugoslovia
0
3
0
France
4
4
G
Norway
1
0
2
Rumania
5
3
5
Argentina
0
1
1
Finland
3
1
11
Chile
0
2
2
Poland
1
4
4
Mexico
1
0
1
Czechoslovakia
1
4
1
Brazil
1
0
0
SPORTS SECTION
349
Olympic Score by Nations — iConcld.)
Austria
.. 0
0
2
Greece
.. 0
0
1
Belgium
.. 0
2
0
Bahamas
.. 0
0
1
India
.. 1
0
0
Portugal
0
0
0
Trinidad
.. 0
0
0
Nigeria
.. 0
0
0
Uruguacy
.. 0
0
1
Cuba
.. 0
0
0
Sv/itzerland
.. 0
0
1
Malaya
0
0
0
Iceland
.. 0
1
0
Spain
.. 0
0
0
Pakistan
.. 0
1
0
G — Gold Medal ; S — Silver Medal ; B — ^Bronze Medal.
NEW OLYMPIC ATHLETIC RECORDS
The following is a list of the new Olympic athletic records set
up during the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games.
MEN
200 metres — 20.6 sec. by Bob Morrow (U.S.A.). Old Record —
20.7 sec.
800 metres — 1 min. 47.7 sec. by T. Courtney (U.S.A.). Old
record — 1 min. 49.2 sec.
1500 metres — 3 min. 41.2 sec. by R. Delaney (Ireland). Old
record — 3 min. 45.2 sec.
5000 metres — 13 min. 39.6 sec. by Vladimir Kuc (Russia). Old
record — ^14 min. 6 sec.
10.000 metres — ^28 min. 45.6 sec. by Vladimir Kuc (Russia). Old
record — ^29 min. 17 sec.
High Jumi) — 6 ft. Hi in. by C. Dumas (U.S.A.). Old record —
6 ft. 8.32 in.
Hop, step and jump — 53 ft. 75 in. by A. P. da Silva (Brazil).
Old record — 53 ft. 2.69 in.
Putting the shot — 60 ft. 11 in. by W. P. O’Brien (U.S.A.). Old
record — 57 ft. 1.43 in.
Pole vault — 14 ft. 115 in. by R. Richards (U.S.A.). Old record —
14 ft. 11.14 in.
Discus — 184 ft. 105 in. by A. Oerter (U.S.A.). Old record — 180
ft. 6.85 in.
Hammer throw — 207 ft. 35 in. by H. Connolly (U.S.A.). Old
record — 197 ft. 11.67 in.
Javelin — 281 ft. 2i in. by Egil Daniellsen (Norway). Old record
—242 ft. 0.79 in.
3.000 metres steeplechase — 8 min. 41.2 sec. by C. Brasher
(Britain). Old record — 8 min. 45.4 sec.
110 metres hurdles — 13.5 sec. by L. Calhoun (U.S.A.). Old
record — 13.7 sec.
400 metres hurdles — 50.1 sec. by Glen Davis and E. S. Southern
(both U.S.A.). Old record — 50.8 sec.
4x100 metres relay — 39.5 sec. by U.S.A. Old record — 39.8 sec.
S50
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
WOMEN
100 metres — 11.4 sec. by Betty Cuthbert (Australia). Old
Tecord — 11.5 sec.
High jump — 5 ft. 9i in. by M. McDaniel (U.S.A.). Old record —
.5 ft. 6i in.
Broad jump — 20 ft. 92 in. by E. Kizesinska (Russia). Old record
— 20 ft. 5.66 in.
Discus — 176 ft. li in. by O. Fikotova (Czechoslovakia). Old
Tecord — 168 ft. in.
Putting the shot — 54 ft. 5 in. by Tamara Tychkevitch (Russia).
'Old record — 50 ft. 2.58 in.
Javelin — 176 ft. 8i in. by Idessa laounzem (Russia). Old record
— 165 ft. 7.05 in.
80 metres hurdles — 10.'7 sec. by Shirley Strickland de la Hunty
'(Australia). Old record — 11.2 sec.
4x100 metres relay — 44.6 sec. by Australia. Old record — 45.9
:sec.
SOME NOTABLE WORLD RECORDS
Fastest on Water — Donald Campbell (Eng.) — 255 m.p.h., in tur-
“bojet speed boat ‘Bluebird,’ 1956.
Motor Cycle Record — Wilhelm Herz (Ger.) — 210.64 m.p.h. over
■a measured mile on Aug. 4, 1956.
Record Dive — George Wookey (England) — 600 feet in a helmat-
•ed flexible diving suit, 1956.
Deep-Sea Diving Record — Lt. Comdr. Georges Honot and engi-
•neer Lt. Willm of the French Navy reached a depth of 13,287 ft. ot
2i miles on Feb. 15, 1954 off the west coast of Africa in a bathys-
•caphe.
World’s Fastest on land (motor) — John Cobb (Bncland) 394,196
m.p.h. (1947); 24 hours — Eyston (England), 3578-3 miles.
A.utomobile World Speed
(One mile per hour)
Year
Speed
1898
39.24
1904
91.37
1910
131.724
1919
149.875
1935
301.13
194"
394.196
Miscellaneous Records
C. Laubat.
Henry Ford.
B. Oldfield.
Ralph D. Palma.
Sir Bl. Campbell.
John. R. Cobb.
Golf Ball — 176 ft. per second.
Tennis Balt — 220 ft. in one second by W. T. Tilden II in 1931,
Ice Skating — 100 yds. in 92-5 seconds in 1931.
Bifle — 2,880 miles per hour (i.e., 4,100 ft. per second).
■Sound — ^780 miles per hour.
SPOPwTS SECTION
351
Leaping — ^Frog : 19 ft. in 1937 in America in frog contest with 100
frogs.
Horse : 37 ft. by steeple chaser, Chandler, 1947 in England
(Average is 23 and 27 ft.).
Tight Rope Walking — Allan Lundbnrg (Sweden) completed 27
hours 2 minutes on a tight rope with non-stop walk on 30-8-54.
Diving — Jack Brown, April 28, 1945 attained a depth of 550 ft.
Diving, highest — 205 ft. 9 in, by Alex. Wickham (Solomon Islands).
Piano Marathon — Heinz Amtz (Germany) played piano for 424 hours
at a stretch in 1955.
Mountain Climbing — 29002 ft. highest known ascent on Mt. Everest
by Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norkey, 1952.
Rope Skipping — 18,463 turns (no break) in 1 hour 41 minutes by
Tom Morris (Australia).
Cricket Ball Throw — 422 ft. by R. Pareival, Durham, England, 1884.
Railway World Speed Record — 243 kilometres (about 152 miles)
per hour on electrified Paris-Lyons line (Feb. 19-21, 1945).
EXCHANGE VALUE OF THE INDIAN RUPEE
One Indian rupee is equal to 21 cents (U.S.A.) ; 1 sh. 6 d.
(U.K.); 0.88 d. marks (West Germany); 0.84 roubles (U.S.S.R.);
73.49 Francs (France) ; 131 liras (Italy); 1.09 SKr. (Sweden); 75.6
Yen (Japan); 2.4 rupiah (Indonesia); It is at par with Burma,
Ceylon and Pakistan rupee.
ROADS IN INDIA
At the beginning of the first Five-Year Plan, India had 97,000
miles of metalled roads and about 147,000 miles of unmetalled roads.
During the Plan period, about 10,000 miles of new surface roads and
about 20,000 miles of low-type roads are expected to have been added,
and about 10,000 miles of existing roads improved.
AVIATION
Aeroplane Altitude Records
Height (feet)
Year.
Aviator
41,795
1929
W. Neuenhofen (Ger).
43,166
1930
A. Soucek (TJ-S.A.')
43,976
1932
C. F. Unwins {Eng.).
44,819
1933
G. Lemoine {France).
47,352
1934
R. Donati (Italy).
47,806
1935
V. Kokkinaki {UE.SJt.).
49,994
1936
S. R. D. Swain (Eng.).
53,937
1937
FI. Lt. Adam (Eng.).
66,046
1938
Mario Pazzi (Italy).
59,445*
1948
J. Cunningham (Eng.)
79,494
1964
Major William Bridgeman (V.SA..)
65,896*
1955
Walter P. Gibb (Eng.).
Endurance Flight Record
Hr.
Min.
Year.
Aviator.
150
40
1929
Carl Spaatz (U.SA..)
246
43 .
1929
, *
MendeU & Reinhart (UEA.)
555
41
1930
J. & K. Hunter (U.SA.)
647
4
1930
Jackson & O’Brine (U.S.A.).
653
34
1935
A1 & Fred Key (VEA.).
. 1.124
14
* •
Jongeward & Woodhouse (U.S.A.).
Speed Records
(Over 3' Kilometre — ^1'864 m. course)
peed (m.p.h.)
Year
Pilot
304-98
1933 . .
J. R. Wedell (UJSjI.).
314-32
1934 . .
R. Delmotte (France).
352-39
1935 . .
Howard Huges (U.SA.).
379-63
1937 . .
Herman Wurster (Ger.).
469-22
1939 . .
Fritz Wendel (Ger.).
606-25
1945 . .
Gp. Capt. H. Wilson (Eng.).
615-78
1946 . .
Gp. Capt. Donalson (Eng.).
650-80
1947 . .
Maj. Marion Carl (U.S.A.).
670-98
1948 . .
Maj. R. L. Johnson (Eng.).
698-51
1952 . .
Capt. J. S. Nash (TJ.SA.).
755-15
1953 . .
Lt. Col. P. K. Everest (VE.A.).
800
1955 . .
Col. Horance A. Hanes (U.S.A.)
832
1956 . .
L. Peter Twiss (Eng.).
*Jet-pTopelled aircraft.
AVIATION
353
ROUND THE WORLD FLIGHT
1924 (April 6 — Sept. 28) — Six U.S. Army fliers first round the world —
26,345 miles in 175 days. Total flying time 865 hrs. 7m.
1931 (June 23 — July 1) — ^Wiley Post & Harold Gatty — 15,128 miles
in 8 days 15 hrs. 61 m.
1933 (July 15-22) — Wiley Post’s solo flight — 16,696 miles in 7 days
18 hrs. 49J m.
1938 (July 10-14) — Howard Hughes with a crew of 14 — 14,672 miles
in 3 days, 19 hrs. 14 m.
1947 (Aug. 7-10) — W. P, Odom (solo) — 19,645 miles in 3 days
1 hrs. 5 m.
1949 (Fob. 26 — March 2) — James Gallagher & U.S. crew (non-stop
flight) — 23,452 m. in 94 hrs. 1 min.
POLE FLIGHTS
1926 (May 8-9) — Byard & Bennet to North Pole and back in 16?! hrs.
1929 (Nov. 28-29) — R. Byard & others to South Pole.
1930 (July 12-14) — Soviet flier M. Gromov’s non-stop flight;
1961 (May 29) — Charles Blair’s solo non-stop flight over the North
Pole.
NON-STOP LONG DISTANCE RECORD
Distance
(miles)
1,960
3,610
3.911
4.912
6,657
7,916
11,236
Alcock & Brown (Eng., 1919). ..
Lindburgh (1927, U.S.)
Chamberlain & Levine (U.S., 1927)
D. Coste & M. Bellonte (France,
1930) . . -
P. Codes & M. Rossi (France, 1933)
Irvine & Stanley (U.S., 1945)
Davis & U.S. Crew (U.S., 1946) . .
New Foundland to
Ireland.
New York to Paris.
New York to Ger-
many.
France to Manchuria.
New York to Syria.
Guam to Washington
Aust. to Columbus.
Balloon Records
Altitude
Height (ft.)
Year
Balloonists.
600
1783
Pilatre de Rozier (France).
61,775
1931
Auguste Piccard (Ger.).
61,237
1933
T. G. W. Settle & C.
Fordney (U.S.).
72,394.8
Distance
1936
A. W. Stevens & Anderson (U.S.).
miles
Year
Balloonists
27
1783
Charles & Robert (France).
1,120
1859
Johnwise.
1,890.8
1914
Hans Berliner.
Duration
Hrs. m.
Year
Balloonests
25
1783
De Rozier & D. Arlandes.
■ 2
1783
Charles & Robert
87
2R
1913
H. Kaulen (Ger.).
354
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Aeroplanes
First Aeroplane Flight — World’s first controlled fliglit in power-
driven aeroplane by Orville Wright, 284 yds. on December
17 1903.
World’ Air Speed Record — Lt. Commander L. F. Twiss (Eng.) — ^1132
m.p.h. on March 10, 1956 flying a Pairey Delta 2 (Jet).
Sea planes
Distance Air Line — Capt. Bennet and F. 0. Hervey (Great Britain)
6-8 October, 1938 ; Dundee to Port Nolloth (South Africa) —
5,997‘462 miles (965'001 kilometres).
Distance Over Closed Circuit — M. Stoppani and C. Tonini : Italy,
27-28 May, 1937—3,231-123 miles (5,200 kilometres).
Greatest Speed — Francesco Agelo, Italy, 23rd October, 1936 — 440-681
miles per hour.
Solo Flight around the World — Capt. Odom (America) set world
record of solo flight round the World in 73 hrs. 6 mins. (19,646
miles) in 1947.
Gliders
Duration — Charles Atger (Prance), April 2-4, 1952 — 56 hrs. 15 m.
Distance Straight Line — R. H. Johnson (U.S.), Aug, 5, 1951 — 535-169
miles.
Altitude — ^William S. Ivans (U.S.), Dec. 30, 1950 — 42,100 ft.
Point to point Distance — Major Fonteilles (France), May 13, 1956 —
416 miles.
Parachute
Descent — Rene Michenaud (1932, France) jumped from an aeroplane
at an altitude of 25,590 ft. in Prance.
Delayed Parachute jump—Vlentina Seliverstova (Russia) jumped
from 23,295 ft. and did not open her parachute until she had
fallen 20,777 ft. (1951).
Women’s Flight Records
Distance Air Line — V. Grisodoubova and P. Ossipenko, U.S.S.R.,
September 24-26, 1938 — 3,671-432 miles.
Altitude — ^Mile Hilz (France) — 46,948-725 ft. on June 23, 1936.
Speed — Jacqueline Auriol (France) — ^715.35 m.p.h. in turbojet fighter
on May 31, 1955.
First Woman Trans-Atlantic Solo . Flight — ^Mrs. Amelia Earhart
Putnam (U.S-A.), approximately in 13 hrs. 30 mins., on May
20-21, 1932.
Helicopter
Distance Airline — E. G. Smith (U.S.) — 1,217-14 ra. 1952.
Altitude — Billy I. Wester (U.S.A.) — ^24,521 ft., 1954.
Distance, closed circuit — Jean Boulet (Prance) — 778.311 miles,
July 2, 1953.
Maxinnim Speed— Billy I. Wester (U.S.A.)— 156.006 m.p.h. 26th.
Aug., 1954.
Speed, close circuit {1,000 fc.m.)— Maj. D. H. Jensen and Maj. W. C.
Dodds (U.S.A.) — 66-642 m.p.h. on Nov. 14, 1946.
INDIAN PORTS
The earliest recorded history and literature of India contain
frequent references of flourishing ports on the coast line of India,
to which traders came from far off-lands. It is only at the begin-
ning of the 17th century that we come across references in recorded
history to the ports of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. It is again
in the late 19th century that the ports of Bombay and Calcutta came
into being in the first decade of the present century. Two more
major ports were added to the coast line at Visakhapatnam and
Cochin in the thirties of this century. A sixth major port has been
constructed at Kandla on the coast of Kutch. Under the Constitution,
the responsibility for major ports vests in the Central Government,
while all other ports are within the executive responsibility of State
Governments.
Indian Ports — with a coast line of 3,500 miles, India possesses
only six important ports, or one to every 60 million of its inhabitants.
The major ports of India are Bombay, Cochin, Visakhapatnam,
Madras, Calcutta and Kandla. Bombay, Cochin and Visakhapatnam
provide natural harbours. Madras has an artificial one barely pro-
tected from weather particularly during October and November when
cyclones prevail. Calcutta lies at the head of a 120-mile-long turbu-
lent river which has a wide range of tides to which deep-drafted
ships have to suit themselves. A sixth, Kandla in Cutch, is in the
process of being developed. Kandla will serve the vast hinterland
of the Punjab, the north, western and central India more economi-
cally than Bombay. Technically major port is one which is capable
of taking oceangoing steamers with a registered tonnage of 4,000
or more and berth them along harbour and they must carry on a
minimum requisite trade of 5,000,000 tons per annum. These ‘major
ports’ are administered under the Central Government’s control.
Minor ports are under control of the Maritime State Governments.
The following important points are to be noted — (1) 80 per cent of
all trade passes through the five major ports. (2) 75 per cent of
the traffic of the major ports falls to the share of Calcutta and
Bombay. (3) At Calcutta and Visakhapatnam, the larger share of
the traffic consists of exports while at Madras, Cochin and Bombay
imports predominate.
Major and Minor Ports — Apart from six major Ports (Calcutta,
Visakhapatnam, Madras, Cochin, Bombay, Kandla), the number of
ports notified as open for traffic on the whole coast under Indian
Ports Act, 1908 is 226 and the number of working Ports, i.e. ports
through which some traffic however small, has passed through, is only
150, as follows — Orissa 9 declared open, 3 used ; Madras 54 and
30 ; Travancore-Cochin 9 and 6; Bombay 87 and 80 ; Saurashtra 60
and 29 ; Kutch 7 and 7. At present all ports which are directly
under the Central Government are called major ports and all other
ports which are under the direct administrative control of State
Governments are classified as minor ports. The Port (Technical)
Committee distinguished a major port as one capable of taking in
ocean-going steamers with a gross registered tonnage of 4,000 or
356
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
more. There is father sub-classification of ports as “minor.” The
ports which handle or have handled in the' port 100,000 tons or more
of cargo per year or are otherwise important are classed as inter-
mediate ports. Other ports with an annual cargo tonnage below
100,000 tons and nor less than 1,500 tons or which have an importance
for any reason (such as passenger amenities, customs or naval
requirements, etc., may be classified as minor ports. These ports are
the responsibility of the State Governments. All the remain-
ing ports may be classed as sub-ports or petty ports. This
classification gives the following distribution ; — ^ports declared open
227 ; Intermediate ports 18 ; minor ports 67 ; sub-ports 142.
Port Trusts — Of the five major ports, Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras have for long been under the management of statutory Port
Trusts and the ports of 'Visakhapatnam and Cochin are directly ad-
ministered by the Central Government through Adniinistrative
Officers. Port Trusts enjoy a large measure of autonomy in day-to-
day affairs but are subject to the overall control of the Central Gov-
ernment exercised in terms of a Port Trust Act governing each of
the three ports. The Port Trusts and Ports (Amendment) Act was
passed in 1951 to bring about uniformity in port administration and
to ensure greater Central control and supervision in matters of
policy. Its other object was to effect decentralization of authority
in the existing administration of the major ports at Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras. Further a National Harbour Board, consist-
ing of the representatives of the Government of India, the maritime
states and major port authorities, was constituted in 1950 to advise
Government on the general policy relating to the development of
ports, specially the minor ones.
National Harbour Board — The Government of India announced
the formation of a National Harbour Board in 1950, to con-'
sider and advise the Government on important problems relating to
the administration and development of ports and harbours in the
country. The Board is, for the present, composed of represen-
tatives of the ministries concerned of the Government of India, State
Governments and of the major port authorities and have as its'
chairman the Minister for Transport and Railways. There is
18 members on the Board. The National Harbour Board cons-
titute the principal forum for discussing common problem relating
■to ports in their specialised aspects such as the need for technical
personnel and equipment, the pooling of technical knowledge, the.
method of control and administration, laws relating to ports and
their financial position, etc. The Board also pays due regard to
the effects of changes in port policy generally in industry, trade and
railways.
, Lighthouses — The Light House Department is now functioning
as an independent unit under the administrative control of the TVans-'
port klinistry. It was separated from the Directorate General of Ship-'
ping on July 1, 1953. There are 1,714 light houses in India consisting
of shore-lights, light-vessels, bury-lights, beacons, etc. The Five-Year
Flan envisages the construction of nearly a hundred new light houses
and the improvement of many existing ones, the installation of E. M,
INDIAN POETS
357
F. radios beacons and V. H. F, trans-receiver sets, the establishment
of two Decca navigator chains on the east and west coasts, the laying
of new light-buoys and the establishment of high and low powered
fog signals. Moreover it is proposed to bring the existing aids to
navigation in conformity with the internationally accepted standards.
'The total cost of this scheme is estimated to be nearly Es. 5 crores.
The rates of light-dues is three annas per ton on ships other
than sailing ships and one anna per ton on sailing ships.
DESCRIPTION OF PORTS
1. Kandla — ^With the loss of Karachi after partition, there is no
big port along 1,000 mile-long coast line between Bombay and
Karachi to serve vast hinterland. So in 1948 the Government of
India accepted the recommendation of the West Coast Major Port
Development Committee that Kandla in Gulf of Kutch where Kandla
Creek forms a good natural deepwater harbour, should be developed
as a major port to serve central and north-west India and to relieve
the pressure on Bombay. The geographical position of Kandla is
best suited to replace Karachi in its service to hinterland. _ Delhi
is 656 miles from Kandla as against 783 miles from Karachi. The
Kandla port project is under the immediate control of a high-power
organisation under a development commissioner. There will be four
cargo berths for ships upto 600 feet in length, passenger berths for
coastal traffic between Bombay and Karachi and for ferry services
across the gulf, a basin for country craft and lighters, an oil berth
for tankers upto 32,600 tons (d.w.) and a small concrete floating
dock.
To open the hinterland, a metre-gauge railway line was com-
pleted in 1952 upto Deesa in the north of Bombay State on the
Western Railway, about 174 miles distant. The foundation stone of
the harbour works was laid by the Prime Minister of India on Jan. 10,
1952. The hinterland for the new port will be Gujerat, Rajasthan,
Ajmer, Delhi, Punjab, West Uttar Pradesh. Township of Gandhi-
dham intended for resettlement of displaced persons from West
Pakistan is being built alongside the new port.
Bombay — ^Bombay is the natural outlet for India’s trade with
the west. It is strategically situated in the middle of the west coast
of the country, thus enabling it to draw up a vast hinterland extend-
ing beyond the uplands of the Deccan to the fertile Indo-Gangetic
plain and it is close to Aden and the Suez Canal as any other west
coast port. The affairs of tne port are under the supervision and
control of the Bombay Port Tiiist, consisting of a Chairman ap-
pointed by Government and twenty-one members elected and nomi-
nated. The harbour, which is one of the safest and the most spaci-
ous in the world, covers 70 square miles and provides secure and
ample shelter for shipping at aU seasons of the year, being 14 miles
long, 4 to 6 miles wide with a general depth varying from 22 to
40 feet. There are three main docks and a number of open wharves
for country craft. Besides the enclosed docks there are situated
along the harbour, a number of ‘Bunders’ or open wharves and basins
S58
HINDUSTAN TlEAR-BOOK
•where the trafSc carried by coasting and conn-try craft ^d “oTerside”
cargo from the docks a-nd stream is handled. Seeds, hides and skin,
cotton, oil cakes, piecegoods, food grains, -tnrmeric, ores, "tohacco are
chief exports.
The harhonr is about 12 mDes long, 4 to 6 miles tride with a
minimum of 30 feet at low water in the entrance fairway. Trans-
oceanic passenger traffic is mostly dealt with at jthe Ballard Pier.
Coastal and harbour passenger tr^c is dealt at New Ferry "Wharf.
The Bombay Port Trust is administered by a chairman appoint
ed by the Government and a Board of Trustees, 10 of whom is nomi-
nated by the Government. The entire administration is subject to
the provisions of the Bombay Port Trust Act, 1879.
Madras — the third largest port of India is situated on the east
coast of India, has a vast hinterland lying in the States of
Madras, Andhra, and Kerala. It is controlled by a statutory
body, the Madras Port Trust. It was an open roadstead ■with
surf-beaten coast line, but the present harbour has been formed by
two concrete -walls projecting into the sea so as to enclose a space of
about 200 acres with an entrance which gives a depth of 37 feet at
high-water and 34 feet at low-water. The pori; can take vessels ■with
30’ draft at all times. It is an artificial port developed by man’s
ingenuity. It handles over two million tons annually. Being an
artificial harbour, the problem of silting is ever present, and constant
dredging is required. It has at present nine alongside berths besides
several mooring berths, and the Buckingham Canal links it •with a
rich tohacco-grb-wing region. It is well served -with rail and road
communications, has a modem airport, and the Buckingham Canal
which links the city -with the tobacco-growing areas, brings large
tonnages for export do-wn to the city.
The port's gr^test enemy is the sand menace. During south-
w^ monsoon period, fine sand carried along -with the -wind settles
down. Hundreds and thousands of tons of sand thus settle down every
year in and outside the Madras Harboar and all this sand has to be
got rid off, if Madras is not one day to cease to be a port. There
is constant dredging going on in the harbour. The Madras Port
Trust is carrying on an unceasing and continuing fight against this
enemy.
Chief imports are oil. coal, foodgrains, metals, timber, textiles,
cbemieal manures, machinery, steel, hardware, etc.
Chief exports are hides and sldns, edible oils, textiles, ores,
tobacco, etc.
Calcutta — ^is the largest terminal port in south Asia. It is also
a recei-ving and distributing centre to the States of U. P., Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Assam. The port handles
annually about 10 million tons of cargo which is more than half the
sea-borne trade of 'the "Union of India, comprising jute, gunnies, tea,
coal, foodgrains. iron and steel, machinery, timber, salt, ores and
miscellaneous cargoes. It is situated on the Hooghly river 90 miles
from the Bay of Bengal and is the clearing centre for the whole of the
trade, both inward and outward of North-eastern India, where it forms
the terminal of railway, road and inland waterways system and for
INDIAN PORTS
359
ocean-goin;? and coastwise-shipping. Being a terminal of east
India’s railway, road and inland waterways system, it has a hinter-
land in Bengal, Assam, Bihar and U.P. possessing the important jute,
tea, steel and coal industries. Ships of 15,000 tons can enter the
port where there is a jetty and mooring accommodation. A maxi-
mum draught of 30 feet is available at certain times of the year.
There are moorings in the stream available for 60 ocean going
vessels ; 30 vessels can be accommodated at Kldderpore Docks ; and
14 at King George’s Dock. Calcutta suffers from the inevitable dis-
advantages due to its location several miles inland, on the bank of
the estuarine Hooghly, which is subjected to strong tides and bores
from the sea to a distance of 160 miles upstream. Calcutta’s ship-
ping is at the mercy of the tides. The ships can enter and clear only
at a fixed hour corresponding with the tides. The pilotage on the
Hooghly, one of the most difficult waterways in the world was under
the direct administrative control of the Government of India till
hlay 16, 1948 when it was handed over to the Calcutta Port Commis-
sioners for administrative reasons. There is an excellent pilot
service and wireless stations keep in touch with all the vessels in
the river and the Bay. Calcutta is the principal exporting port for
commodities like jute, tea, coal and iron ores which form the bulk
of our export trade.
The chief exports from Calcutta are coal, tea, jute, gunnies, bone
and bone-meal, skin, hemp, iron and steel manufactures, lac, oil other
than petroleum, scrap ores, pig iron, hides and mica. Principal
imports are salt, food grains, machinery, hardware, petroleum, as-
phalt, bitumen, metals and other articles.
Cochin — This port’s commercial and naval importance has been
greatly developed within recent years. 680 miles south of Bombay
and 200 miles north of Cape Comorin and in the centre of Kerala,
a region recently endowed by nature and known as the Garden of
India lies this port, the finest natural harbour in the East. Behind
an opening from the sea which is about 400 yards wide, there is an
area of 120 sq. miles of sheltered backwater, a calm harbourage all
the year round within a vast expanse of lagoons. Even in the worst
monsoon weather, vessels can lie comfortably in the harbour and carry
on landing and shipping operations. The system of backwaters run-
ning parallel with the coast affords cheap transport and excellent
waterways connecting several places of importance in the Cochin and
Travancore States. The port of Cochin serves most of the Malabar
and Travancore-Cochin area and is an important nerve centre of com-
merce and trade. It lies on the direct route to Australia and the
Far East from Europe. Its hinterland is rich in natural produce
such as pepper, cardamoms, tea, coffee, rubber, timber, etc. Other
products of the area are mangalore tiles, coir and coir products and
lemon grass oil. The port, which includes the Willingdon Island, is
situated in an area famous for its system of backwaters and inland
■waterways. The entrance channel to the harbour gives access to
about 120 square miles of navigable backwaters.
Cochin port is directly administered by the Ministry of Trans-
360
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
port of the Government of India throngh the Administrative Officer
assisted by an Advisory Committee.
The range of exports now covers coir yam, fibre and mats and
mattings, all estate produce, cashew-hemels, cashew-shell liquid,
spices, lemongrass oil, marotli oil, raw earth concentrates, cotton,
handloom piecegoods, cotton sewing thread, crude dru^, soap,
hydrogenated oil and glycerine. Imports cover a wide field including
coal, chemicals, grains, hardware, paper, petroleum and petroleum
products, copra and metals.
Visakhapatnam — is a great ore-exporting port and is the_ only
landlocked and protected port in India and is situated about midway
between Calcutta and Madras. This also happens to be the only
port administered by Railway in India. Owing to a hill-range
bordering the sea, harbour remains concealed from the
vessels plying on the ocean outside. This fact added
much to its strategic importance. In October 1933, the port
was opened to ocean-going ships. The principal articles of export
from the port are manganese ore, bunker coal, tobacco, myrobian,
and oilseeds. Exports are much larger than imports since the port
does not serve any large consuming area, while two thirds of its
exports are made np of manganese ore, most of which comes from
Madhya Pradesh.
It is now the centre of ship-building industry in India where
Scindia Steamship Company first established ship-building yards
which is now being owned by the Government and the Com-
pany. Foreign imports are directly received from foreign ports.
It is a natural harbour. The ship-yard can build ocean-going vessels
with a maximum length of 550 ft. and a maximum carrying capacity
of 12,000 tons cargo.
Tnticorin — ^This port is open all the year round and has next
to Madras and Cochin the largest trade in southern India. The
harbour is so shallow that steamers anchor about 5 miles from the
shore and continuous dredging is necessary to keep the channel open
between the sea and roadstead. A Port Trust was formed in 1924.
There is a considerable trade with Ceylon in rice, pulses, onions,
chillies and livestock.
Saurashtra Ports — For purposes of administration, all the ports
in Saurashtra have been divided into five groups, each under a port
officer wnth headquarters at the most important port in the group.
The five groups are —
Bhavnagar with its sub-ports of Talaja, MaJmva, Port Albert
Victor, Bherai, and Jafrabad.
Bcdi was its sub-ports of Sikka, Salaga, Jodia and Pindhera,
Navalakhi.
Veraval with its sub-ports of Mangrol, Navabandar, Simar, Shil
and Rajpara.
The five main ports of Bhavnagar, Bedi, Navalakhi, Veraval and
Porbandar and several smaller ports of Saurashtra are served by a
metre-gauge railway line. In all, Saurashtra has, at present five
intermediate ports and nine minor ports of the total 18 intermediate
and G7 minor ports in the Indian Union.
INDIAN PORTS
361
' Okha — ^is an western Indian port situated in a detached portion
of Baroda. It lies in a strategic position at the extreme north-east
point of the Kathiawar peninsula readily accessible to all steamers
tiding along that coast. The port is available even to large ships
at all states of tides and at all seasons of the year. This port is,
from the marine point of view is easily the finest of the smaller ports
of India. Deep W'ater is available for a larger number of ships to be
at anchor, unaffected by the strongest spring tides or S. W. monsoon.
Surat — situated 14 miles from the sea with which it is connected
by a river navigable only by small country craft. Surat was one of
the earliest and most important of the East India Company’s
factories. But the trade of Surat has considerably declined due to
the rise of Bombay port.
Mangalore — is a tidal port served chiefly by backwater commu-
nication with hinterland. The backwater of Mangalore is 35 miles
long and 2,000 ft. wide. The hinterland of Mangalore consists of
South Canara, Coorg, and the Malnad districts of Mysore State.
Mangalore is the north-western terminus of Southern Railway. The
chief exports to Europe are pepper, tea, cashew kernels, coffee,
sandalwood from Mysore, rice, salt fish, dried fruits, fish manures.
Mangalore is the favourite port on the coast for the Laccadive and
Amindive Islanders who bring their coir and other coconut produce
for sale.
Calicut — ^is some 42 miles from Tellicherry and 90 miles from
Cochin. The port is practically closed during the south-west mon-
soon from the end of May until the latter half of August. The
principal exports are coir, coir fibre, copra, coffee, tea, pepper, ginger,
rubber, groundnut, raw cotton and fish manure.
Alleppey — is the premier port and commercial centre in
Travancore and is situated about 35 miles south of Cochin. A canal
connects the port with the interior backwaters. It possesses a road-
stead affording safe anchorage during the greater part of the year.
The chief exports are copra, coconuts, coir fibre and matting, carda-
moms, ginger and pepper.
Quilon — is the Coilum of Marco Polo. It is connected with
Alleppy by backwater. The chief industries are cotton spinning and
tile manufacture. Vessels anchor about 3 mile from the shore and
a 'railway siding runs up to the landing place.
Dhanushkadi — is the terminus of Southern Railway, on the S-E.
extremity of the Island of Rameswaram at the junction of Falk
Strait with the Gulf of Mannar and connected with Talaimannar in
Ceylon, 21 miles distant by a daily turbine steamer service.
Negapatam — is the chief port in the Tanjore District about 13
miles south of Karikal. Numerous sailing craft trade between this
port and Ceylon.
Cocanada — is situated on the Cocanada bay just north of
Godavari river, some eighty miles south of Visakhapatnam and 270
miles north of Madras. Inspite of several disabilities, it ranks fourth
in importance among the ports of Madras State. Principal
shipments are raw cotton, groundnuts, castor seeds, rice. Imports
consist of kerosine, metals, etc.
362
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Karikal — ^was a Prench settlement covering an area of 53 square
miles and a sea board of 12 miles and is almost surrounded by Tan-
jore district. The chief traffic is rice, betelnuts, matches, fireworks
and kerosene oil.
Pondicherry — ^is now an important port of India and is situated
on the Coromandel Coast, 104 miles south of Madras. The roadstead
possesses a good anchorage. Pondicherry is the centre of the export
trade in groundnuts.
Bhatkal — ^is ideally situated to meet the needs of Mysore. A
number of important industries are located in this area which is
Imown as Nalnad area.
Malpe — is situated midway between the ports of Goa and Cochin,
is the largest fishing centre of the west coast of India. There is a
large tract of waste land nearby suitable for establishing naval and
shipbuilding yards. A long chain of islands known as Mary’s Isles
IJ miles in length running parallel to the coast, can serve as a sea-
wall. The port has a natural harbour, free of rocks, sand-drifts and
dangerous currents and is protected by nature against storms.
CARGO HANDLED BY DIFFERENT PORTS
1950-51
Bombay
Imports
(tons)
6,185,000
1951-52
6,806,439
1952-63
4,695,000
1953-54
4,776,000
1951-52
Calcutta
Imports
(tons)
4,093,068
1952-53
3,319,018
1953-54
2,723,062
1950-51
Imports
(tons)
67,334
1951-52
290,085
Exports
(tons)
1.702.000 1950-51
1,673,152 1951-52
1.943.000 1952-53
1.951.000 1953-54
Exports
(tons)
5,489,914 1951-52
6,354,058 1952-53
5,336,037 1953-54
Visakhapatnam
Exports
(tons)
878,469 1952-53
936,627 1953-54
Cochin
Imports Exports
(tons) (tons)
1,098,214 248,964
1,262,638 318,209
1,224,851 326,443
1,233,501 323,681
Madras
Imports Exports
(tons) (tons)
1,854,682 300,138
1,869,082 335,685 ■
1,641,325 494,610 .
Imports Exports
(tons) (tons)
152,554 1,047,741
185,824 1,205,015
TRAFFIC IN FOUR MAJOR PORTS
(1953-54)
Tit
^ CO
1
« o
CO
Ca op
CO
S CO
2 ^
CO si 'S y—
^ ^ « CO*
CO 5^
tonna
(lakh
tons)
>■“’** *^
•5^ si ti
p-^-5 §:§«
to -s
Calcutta
. . 1,419
87.11
27.23
53.36
-82.66
Bombay '
. . 2,908
137.80
47.75
19.51
-4.78
Madras'
. . 1,037
65.67
16.41
4.95
4-41.66
Cochin
. . 1,034
29.88
12.34
3.24
-i-7.43
INDIAN PRESS
BEGINNINGS OF INDIAN PRESS— The Indian journalism had
its first beginning when James Augustus Hickey started his Bengal
Gazette on Jan. 29, 1780 at Serampore near Calcutta. The first jour-
nals published in this country were started in Bengal. At that time,
newspapers were started mostly for the benefit of the British in India.
Hickey’s venture was followed by a number of others in quick succe-
ssion. The most significant of these was the John Bull in the East
in 1821 which was subsequently changed into the Englishman.
The development of the Indian Press i.e. National Press was
conditioned by the political stimulus that gave rise to it but it has
been one long history of trials and tribulations. Indian Press had
to struggle against several statutory disabilities. The conflict which
began with the notorious Vernacular Press Act, 1878 continued un-
abated. Other more drastic measures followed such as Newspapers
Incitement to Indian States Act of 1922, Official Secrets Act of 1923,
Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act of 1931, Foreign Regulations
Act of 1932, Indian States (Protection) Act of 193 Ji, etc. etc.
During the Second World War, when the relations between the
British Government and the Press was considerably strained, a
‘gentlemen’s agreement’ was concluded between the Government and
the press with the result, Press Advisory Committee came into being
at the Centre and in many provinces. This gave the press a con-
sultive status. Difficulties were smoothed over by mutual
consultation.
This system is being still carried on and it has strengthened the
foundation of a free press in India.
With the attainment of freedom, a new era of public responsibi-
lity dawned upon the Indian Press. The disappearance of the an-
tagonism between the people and the rulers opened a new chapter
in the relationship between the Government and the Press. The
supreme duty of the press now is to educate and mould public
opinion in favour of peace and harmony among the various commu-
nities in the country.
On a persistant demand from the Indian Press, the Government
appointed a Press Laws Enquiry Committee in March, 1947 to enquire
into the press laws and recommend necessary changes in them. The
Committee submitted its report in May, 1948. Among its recom-
mendations were the repeal of certain laws like Indian Press (Emer-
gency Powers) Act of 1931 and the States (Protection) Act of 1934
and the modification of others. At the same time, the Committee
Articles on the Fundamental Rights of citizens. Fore-
recommended that State Governments should make the widest pos-
sible use of the press consultive machinary and avoid any action
against newspapers except after consultation with the Local Press
Advisory Committee.
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS — ^The Indian Constitution contains
364
HIOTUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
important Articles on the Fundamental Eights of citizens. Fore-
most among these fundamental rights is the right to “freedom of
speech and expression.”
Unlike American and some other constitutions in which freedom
of the press is mentioned in terms as one of the fundamental free-
doms of the citizens guaranteed by the constitution, the Indian
Constitution does not specifically mention freedom of the press ; the
fundamental rights clause of the Indian Constitution treats freedom
of the press as an aspect of the larger “freedom of expression.”
With the coming of Independence, the freedom of the Press
has been embodied in the Constitution. Article 19(1) of the Cons-
titution guarantees that all citizens shall have “the right to freedom
of speech and expression.’ But under the Constitution (First Amend-
ment) Act of 1951, Parliament can pass legislation reasonably restric-
ting the exercise of “the right to freedom of speech and expression”
“in the interest of the security of the State, friendly relations
with foreiggi States, public order, decency or morality or in relation
to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to offence.” The
words “reasonable restriction” make such legislation in this behalf
justifiable.
PRESS LAWS — The acts in conformity with the recommenda-
tions of the Press Commission’s Report are being passed by the
Government. One of these is the Working Journalists (Conditions
of Service and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, which was passed in
1955. Under this Act, Labour Ministry has established a Wage
Board for the improvement of the service conditions of working
journalists, by fixing the rates of wages- in respect of working journa-
lists in accordance with the Act. Besides Chairman, the Board will
consist of three representatives of employers and three of working
journalists. The Act also provides for the payment of gratuity and
provident fund to working journalists and regulates the hours of work,
holidays with pay, notice period for termination of service. An Act
for the registration of newspapers by a Press Registrar who has
powers to call for information relating to ownership, circulation, etc.,
has been passed in 1955. Prize Competition Act, 1956 prohibiting the
running of cross-word competitions in which prizes for more than
Rs. 1,000 are offered has been passed. The promoters of the
competition offering prize upto Rs. 1,000 will be required to take out
licences and also keep regular accounts for showing them to the
licensing authority. The Act will apply to all States in India except
four, namely Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal and Kerala whose legisla-
latures have not yet passed resolutions in favour of the Act.
Press and Registration of Books (Amendment) Act in pursuance of
the recommendations made by the Press Commission has been passed
to remedy practical difficulty and lacunae in the working of the
original enactment of 1867.
The other acts which affect the Indian newspapers are the
Indian Copyright Act of 1914, Press and Registration of Books
Act, Indian Official Secrets Act, Sections of the Indian Penal Code
and Criminal Procedure Code and Indian Evidence Act, Sea Cus-
toms Act, Indian Post Office Act, Indian Telegraph Act, Patents
: , : INDIAN PRESS
365 -
and Designs’ Act, Trade Marks Act, Contempt of Courts Act of 1052,
Press (Objectionable Matter) Act of 1951, Delivery of Books (Public
Libraries) Act of 195U etc. etc.
Press Council — bill which seeks to implement the recommen-
dation of the Press Commission for establishment of a Press Council
was introduced in Parliament in Dec. 1956. The Council could safe-
guard the liberty of the Press, evolve and maintain standards of
journalistic ethics, keep under review developments tending towards
monopoly and concentrations of control and promote research and
provide common services for the Press.
INDIAN NEWSPAPER CIRCULATION— The daily Press
in India comprises more than 330 newspapers with a total
circulation of nearly 26 lakhs. Capital invested in the news-
paper industry is estimated at about Rs. 7 crores and capital
raised in the form of loans is about Rs. 6 crores. The annual re-
venue of the daily Press is about Rs.ll crores, of which Rs. 6 crores
come from advertisments. Salaries and wages paid in the industry
amount to over Rs. 4 crores, of which about Rs. 85 lakhs to journa-
lists. More than half the circulation of the paper is however con-
centrated in the major towns and capitals of States and the penetra-
tion into rural areas is very small. Even the production of news-
papers is primarily confined to the metropolitan towns and major
cities. Of the total, nearly 90 newspapers are published from four
cities, Delhi, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
Regarding advertising, nearly Rs. 6 crores worth of advertising
was available annually for the press in India, but only a few papers,
specially English enjoyed monopoly of these advertisements.
India’s low literacy and its linguistic multiplicity make circu-
lation figures look dwarfish besides those of more advanced countries.
But in power and influence the press in India stands unrivalled in
the East.
NEW DEVELOPMENT — The most notable event in the Indian
journalism in 1948 was the formation of the Press Trust of India
Ltd. — an organisation to take over the supply of news to and from
India. The Press Trust is a non-profit-making concern and its
membership is open to newspapers in India. As a result of the
successful negotiations with Reuters, the Indian Press has gained
full control over its own internal news supply.
It is encouraging to note, on the production side, get-up, display,
news coverage and other technical details have made progg'ess and
can now compare favourably with England and America. Many
newspapers are now expanding and modernising their _ technical
equipment. Another interesting development is the distribution of
papers by air to centres which could be reached more quickly by
plane.
, Further important development in the Indian journalism is the
growth of chain newspapers with tendency to create monopolies.
The growth is being viewed with some amount^ of suspicion rather
than with favour. There are obvious dangers arising out of the con-
trol of a number of newspapers by a person or a group of persons
S66
hinbustan yeae-book
-where a few can afford to dictate the news and views at their com-
mand. The concentration of control in the hands of few magnates
is liable to make the working journalists mere mouth-pieces of their
masters. The Press Commission also recommends that every paper
should be constituted as separate unit. The Press Commission had
shown that five persons controlled 31 per cent of the circulation and
29 dailies and that 15 other controlled 50.1 per cent of the circula-
tion and perhaps 54 dailies.
Another happy growth is the movement on the part of ]ouma-
lists to improve their economic and professional conditions through
the starting of Journalist Associations and Press Clubs.
It is also gratifying that many features of joirmalistically ad-
vanced countries are being gradually introduced in this coimtry, such
as literarj-, typewriting bureaus, literary agents, press-cutting com-
panies and translation bureaus. The scope of free-lance writer has
broadened to a considerable extent.
Another important advancement is the establishment of Indian
Audit Bureau of Circulations, whose creation provides an impartial
and authentic agency for auditing and circulation of newspapers as
prevalent in U.S.A. and England.
INDIAN NEWS AGENCIES — So far as the Indian news is
concerned. Associated Pi'css of India started by the late Mr. K, C,
Roy was the pioneer in the field. Afterwards it became a Reuter-
subsidiary company. But in August 1947 Indian and Eastern News-
paper Society and Reuter came to a settlement by which a successor
news agency was formed called Press Tntst of India in place of
Associated Press of India which now runs as a national news agency.
The Press Trust of India entered Reuter’s world set up as a partner
paying for its qualifying shares with a seat on Reuter’s Board and
a voice in its organisational control. P.T.I. is represented in Reuters
by a Trustee and a Director and is a party to the Reuter Trust.
P.T.I. is a public non-profit-sharing company.
United Press of India is an important Indian News Agency
which was started on September 1, 1933. It has now 20 offices in-
cluding one each in London, New York, Rangoon, Colombo and large
number of subscribers. It has net-work of correspondents all over
the country. It has also established teleprinter connection between
DePJif-Bombay-Calcutta and other news centres.
A’car and Far East News (Asio) was started on April 31. 1952.
NAFEN issues news bulletins in English and in almost all Indian
languages from its four centres.
Another ipiportant news agency is DMman Press of India
started in 1935 .which has its head-quarters in Ludhiana. It supplies
news, newsphotos and features from all over the world to more than
100 dailies and. weeklies in India. Another newlv-started news
agency is the Hindustan Saviacliar Ltd.', which commenced its work
in 1948. Agency; now supplies news reports in English, Hindi,
Marathi and Guje.’-ati.
Free Press of India was founded in 1923 but was suspended in
1935. The Agency , has again commenced business in 1945. But its
INDIAN PRESS
367
news service is mainly confined to Free Press group of papers at
Bombay.
Foreign Agencies — The Forei^ News Agencies comprise —
Reuters, Associated Press of America, Agence France Pressee, Toss
News Agency, Central News Agency and others. Some Foreign News
Agencies supply world news to Indian papers and send Indian news
to their clients abroad. In addition to those, there are press corres-
pondents for individual papers.
PRESS COMMISSION’S REPORT— The Indian Press Commis-
sion appointed by the Government of India on September 23, 1952,
under the chairmanship of Mr. Justice Rajadhyaksha issued its report
on the 26th July, 1954. The main recommendations of the Report
are as follow —
(1) All India Press-Council should be set up to ensure a high
standard of journalism and to censure persons guilty of unethical con-
duct, principally composed of people connected with the industry.
It should have 25 members excluding the Chairman who must be the
Judge of a High Court nominated by the Chief Justice of India. At
least 13 members of the Council should be working journalists, in-
cluding working editor, and the remaining should represent news-
paper proprietors, universities, literary bodies, etc. The professional
members should be of at least 10-years’ standing.
(2) Working Journalists — ^The definition of the word
“employee” in the Industrial Disputes Act should be extended to in-
clude within its purview working journalists as well as employees
on the managerial side. Alternatively a provision may be made in
the proposed Newspapers and Periodicals Act making the new indus-
trial relations legislation applicable to newspaper employees. Pro-
visions regarding notice period, bonus, minimum wages, leave, pro-
vident fund and gratuity should also be embodied in tbe same legis-
lation. Journalists should be given a minimum basic wage of Rs. 125
per month and dearness allowance. They should be entitled to pro-
vident fund, different kinds of leave and a gratuity on the basis of
15 day’s pay for every year of service.
(3) The publication of newspapers and periodicals should be
made the responsibility of the Centre.
(4) A State Trading Corporation should be set up to import
all newsprint. It should take over the entire output of Indian mills
also and sell it along with imported newsprint at equated price.
(5) A price page schedule for newspapers should be introduced
and advertisement should not cover more than 40 p.c. of the space
in a newspaper.
(6) The management of the news agencies, namely the P.T.I.
and U.P.I.- should be organised under a Board of Trustees. In ad-
dition, the P.T.I. should be managed as a public corporation and its
Chairman should be appointed by the Chief Justice of India. In both
the agencies, the Boards of Trustees shall have a representative of
the employees.
(7) The tendency towards the concentration in the ownership
of the newspapers is an unhealthy trend and should be discouraged.
368
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
(8) Wlienever possible, every paper should be constituted as a
separate unit so that its profits and losses can be definitely ascertain-
ed. In the case of multiple editions, separate cost accounts should
be kept in respect of each.
(9) Appointment of a Press Registrar who should be respon-
sible for the compilation of facts and figures relating to the news-
paper industry. It should be made incumbent to each newspaper and
periodical to file certain retams with the Registrar.
Govrnment acceptance of some of the Proposals— -The Minister
of Information and Broadcasting announced in the Rajya Sabha the
Governments’ conclusions on some of the recommendations of the
Press Commission —
1. The Government accepted in principle the proposal for price-
page control of newspapers.
2. The Government were very sympathetic and agreeable to the
suggestion for a Press Council, but its structure, powers and other
matters were still being worked out.
3. A bill will be passed dealing with the service conditions of
journalists and it would contain a provision about minimum wages.
4. As regards news agencies, the Government would not like to
do anything which could be construed as directly or indirectly putting
pressure on the agencies. Government were interested in seeing that
the news agencies were run better and reconstruct themselves on the
right lines.
NEWSPAPER ASSOCIATIONS — ^There are at present four
All-India main bodies in India which seek to promote the welfare of
Indian newspapers and better understanding and appreciation of
each other’s difficulties — (1) Indian and Eastern Newspaper Society
started in February 1939, the objects of which are as follows: (a) to
act as a central organisation of the Press of India, Burma and Ceylon,
ib) to promote and safeguard the business interests of members as
affected by the action of Legislatures, Governments, the Law Courts,
municipal and local bodies and associations or organisations, etc., (c)
to collect information upon ail topics having a practical interest for
members and to communicate the same to them, (d) to promote co-
operation in all matters affecting the common interests of members,
(e) to hold periodical conferences of its members to discuss and
determine act on matters of common interests, (/) to make rules to
govern the conduct of its members in specified matters, to provide
penalties for the infringement thereof, and to provide means of deter-
mining whether there has been such infringement, (p) to maintain
a permanent secretariat in India which should watch over the inte-
rests of members and should permit of a constant interchange of
information and views, (h) to do all such other things as may be
conductive to the attainment of the aforesaid objects.
(2) All-India Ncivspaper Editors’ Conference was started in
1940. Its constitution is as follows : (a) to preserve the high tradi-
tions^ and standard of journalism, (&) to serve and safeguard
the interests of the press in regard to the publication of news and
fair comment, (c) to secure all facilities and privileges to tbe press
INDIAN PRESS
369
for the due discharge of its responsibilities, (d) to represent the
press in India in its relations rTith public and public institutions and
particularly in its relations to Government, to set up Committees
who would act as liaison between the Government and the press as a
whole, (c) to establish and develop contacts with Associations with
similar objects in other countries. The A.I.N.E.C. is primarily con-
cerned with the editorial side of the newspapers while Indian and
Eastern Newspaper Society and Indian Language Newspapers’ Asso-
ciation are concerned with business aspects of the newspaper
industry.
Another Association has also been started known as (3) Indian
Languages Newspapers’ Association (established in 1941) for the
welfare of newspapers in Indian languages. It is the only organi-
sation in India representing the interests of small newspapers,
periodicals and magazines. About 80 newspapers and periodicals
are members of this Association.
(4) Indian Federation of Working Journalists came into being
on October, 1950. At present there are 22 units afBliated to the
Federation. It is the organisation of the employees.
Commonwealth Press Union — This Union was originally known
as Empire Press Union. It is a body of newspaper proprietors from
Commonwealth countries with headquarters in London and Sections
in the Commonwealth countries. Its aims are to promote the welfare
of the Commonwealth Press by all possible and legitimate means, to
defend the privileges and freedom of the Press and to promote con-
ferences in various Commonwealth countries.
BOOKS IN INDIA — Export and Import of Books — The free ex-
change of knowledge between India and countries in different parts
of the world is reflected in the figures of books, magazines and
periodicals imported into India from those countries and exported
from India to those countries.
In 1954, India imported books and periodicals valued at
Es. 81,71,000. India also imported during 1954 a sizable number of
books and periodicals from China valued at Rs. 1,64,000. During the
same year India exported books worth Rs. 63.84 lakhs.
There is no duty either on the import or export of books. The
above figures do not include books and peridicals imported or export-
ed through Post Offices or those imported as personal baggage. It
is believed that substantial import and export of books and periodi-
cals goes on through the postal services.
INFORMATION AND PUBLICITY OF THE CENTRAL AND
STATE GOVERNMENTS — The Indian Government Publicity work is
carried out chiefly through the following — (1) All India Radio, (2)
Press Information Bureau, (3) Publications Division. Every Ministry
has a information officer attached to it. The whole service is Rouped
together under a Ministry known^ as Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting. Under the Information and Broadcasting Department,
Press Information Bureau, the Publications Division, the Films
Division and the Advertising Consultants Branch, All India Radio,
Research and Reference Division, Film Board of Censors, Exhibition
Division and mobile units.
24
370
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
There is not only Press Information Bnrean under the Informa-
mation Officers attached to each Central Ministry, Public Relations
Officers, or Press Attaches attached to Indian Embassies and con-
sular establishments abroad and Public Relations Officers for Rail-
ways and other governmental agencies. There are also Information
Ministers in the States controlling information departments under
Directors of Publicity.
The Films Division of the Ministry is the organisation for the
production and distribution of documentary and publicity films and
news reels. Documentaries and news reels produced by the Division
are regularly exhibited in the cinema houses and are shown in rural
areas through mobile vans.
Publications Division of the Government of India — The Publica-
tions Division is responsible for the production, sale, and distribu-
tion of popular pamphlets, books, magazines on matters of national
importance. This Division of the Government of India produces and
distributes English, Hindi, Urdu and Arabic magazines and a large
number of pamphlets in English and Hindi on subjects of national
importance. The publications of this Dhnsion are meant for both
internal and external publicity.
INFORMATION SERVICES
Press Information Bureau, Government of India — The function
of the Press Information Bureau is to provide information services
for Indian and world press on the activities of the Government of
India. The Bureau also acts as a liaison between Indian and foreign
press correspondents and the Government. The Bureau provides
news backgrounds, photographs, features and reference services in
English and twelve Indian languages. There is an secreditation
committee for the correspondents of various newspapers of India
and abroad.
Bureau's photographic library has 34,000 photographs classified
under 300 headings. The Bureau's news and photographs are avail-
able to the Indian and foreign Press. They are distributed regularly
27 English and_ 38 Indian language newspapers and periodicals,
43 official agencies and 5 foreign news and photo agencies. In addi-
tion, 49 weeklies and other periodicals receive photographs on
subjects of special interests to them.
The Defence Wing of the Bureau handles publicity for the
Armed Forces. It produces two service journals, Faziji Akhbar,
a weekly and Jawan, a bi-weekly in six and eight languages respec-
tively. It also organises daily Forces Programmes and other military
broadcasts from AIR. Its headquarters is at Delhi.
There are to-day four regional offices of the Bureau in Calcutta,
Bombay, Jladras and Jullundur, Bangalore and Lucknow, which
handle publicity for the Government of India offices in the area and
distribute all the services of the Bureau to the regional newspapers.
Mobile units under the Press Information Bureau has been
formed to publicise the Five-Year Plan among the rural population
INDIAN PRESS
371
through mobile publicity vans fitted with audio-visual aids films,
public address system, radio and generator to work the equipments.
PUBLICATIONS DIVISION — ^This Division of the Government
of India is responsible for the production, sale and distribution of
popular pamphlets, books, magazines etc., 'on matters of national
importance. Since independence numerous pamphelts in various
languages have been issued by this Division. It also publishes
magazines for external publicity. The subjects cover various as-
pects of governmental activity and the publications are intended to
serve the needs of the readers at home and abroad. The Division
also advises the various Ministries on the preparation and produc-
tion of publicity literature. The following are the periodicals pub-
lished by the Division — (1) A. 1. R. Seleetioiis, (2) Prasarika. These
two contain important radio talks. (3) Social Welfare, monthly
Journal of the Central Social Welfare Board ; (4) India — A Reference
Annual (yearly) ; (5) March of India — an English bi-monthly for
external publicity ; (6) Kashmir — An English monthly on Kashmir ;
(7) Ajkal, a monthly published in Hindi and Urdu which seeks to
promote better understanding between the various cutural regions
of the country ; (8) Bal Bharati, a Hindi monthly journal for
children and (9) Kurukshetra, the monthly journal for Community
Projects Administration.
ADVERTISING CONSULTANT’S BRANCH— This branch of
the Government of India is responsible for the production and re-
lease of all display advertisements of the Government of India except
the Railways. The media used are the press, posters, folders, calen-
dars, blotters, leaflets, hoardings and cinema slides.
RESEARCH AND REFERENCE DIVISION— The main func-
tions of this Division are — (1) to undertake basic research on matters
of publicity, (2) to build up an indexed reference compendium of cur-
rent events, (3) to compile a Year Book to give a comprehensive
picture of the activities of the Central and State Governments. This
Division locates and supplies the Ministry of Information and Board-
casting and its various media units with general background mate-
rial for publicity as well as an special topics of current interest.
FILMS DIVISION — Films Division of the Ministry of Informa-
tion and Broadcasting with its headquarters at 91, Walkeshyar Road,
Bombay has following sections — Documentary, Neiusreel and Distri-
bution. This Division is the organisation for the production and
distribution of documentary films and newsreels, Tlie head of the
organisation is known as the Chief Producer. He is assisted by an
Administrative and Publicity Section and a number of technical
experts.
The Films Division produces, on an average one newsreel a week
and about 42 documentaries a year. All the films for internal circu-
lations are produced in five languages — ^Hindi, Bengali, Tamil,
Telugue and English. By arrangements with some foreign newsreel
companies, facilities have been made available for the exhibition
of important Indian newsreels aboard. The distribution of films
372
HINBUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
is carried out by five branch centres at Bombay, Calcutta, Nagpur,
Lucknovr and Madras.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA TOURIST INFORMATION
OFFICES — The Government of India have regional Tourist offices
in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Delhi. Tourist Information Offices
are already functioning in Srinagar, Agra and Banaras. New
Tourist Information offices have just opened at Simla, Ootacamund,
Bangalore and Aurangabad. The functions of the Tourist Informa-
tion Offices are to give information to Indian and Foreign tourists
regarding tourist amenities, help them in planning itineraries, and
circulate tourist publicity materials with a view to promoting tourism.
These offices will also help in the development of tourist facilities
in their respective areas.
FOREIGN INFORMATION SERVICES
U. N. Information Centre — Theatre Communication Building,
Queen’s Way, New Delhi, disseminates information in the activities
of. the United Nations to Indian People.
U. S. Information Services — Offices at New Delhi, Bombay,
Calcutta, Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Trivandrum.
British Information Services — Office New Delhi ; Branches at
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
F. A. O. Information Centre — has been established for dissemina-
tion of useful information" resulting from the work of the Food and
Agticulture Organisation of United Nations, Theatre Communication
Building, New Delhi. It covers Ceylon, India, Indonesia and Nepal
_ W. H. O.. Public Information Unit — The office for South-East
Asia is at Patiala House, Hardinge Avenue, New Delhi It covers the
area of Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia and Thailand. The unit issues press
releases, pamphlets, features, photographs, etc., concerning the
activities of W. H. 0.
Dominion of Canada — 4 Aurangzeb Road, New DelM Australia —
Australian High Commission, Connaught Place, New Delhi.
EWPORTAOT INDIAN NEWSPAPERS
Ti’EST BENGAL
Dailies
Statesmav (Eng.) : Chowringhee
Square, Calcutta.
Amrita Bazar Patrika (Eng.)i
14, Ananda Chatteijee Lane,
Calcutta.
Hindustan Standard (Eng.) : 8,
Sooterkin St., Calcutta.
Ananda Bazar Patrika (Beng.) :
8, Sooterkin St., Calcutta.
Basumati (Bengali) : 166, Bow-
bazar Street, Calcutta.
Free-Lance (Eng.) : 119, Dhar-
matala Street, Calcutta.
Jugantar (Bengali) : 2, Ananda
Ghatterjee Lane, Calcutta.
Lokmanya (Hindi) : 94/3, Lower
Chitpnr Ed. Calcutta-7.
Rozana Hind (Urdu) : 10, Pol-
lock St., Calcutta,
Desk Darpan (Punjabi): 82-A,
Ashutosh Mukherjee Ed., Cal,
Loka-Sevak (Bengali) : 86-A,
Lower Circular Eoad, Calcutta.
INDIAN PRESS
373
Janasevak {Bengali) : ISA, Hari-
taki Bagan Lane, Calcutta-6.
Viswamitra {Hindi) : 74, Dhar-
matala Street, Calcutta.
Sanmarg {Hindi) : 160, Chitta-
ranjan Avenue, Calcutta-7.
Periodicals
Basumati {Bengali Monthly) :
166, Bowbazar Street, Calcutta.
Bharatvarsa {Bengali Monthly)'.
203-1, Cornwallis St., Calcutta.
Prabasi {Bengali Monthly) :
120/2, Upper Circular Road,
Calcutta.
Betar Jagat {Radio Bengali
Fortnightly) : 1, Garstin Place,
Calcutta.
Sachitra-Bharat {Bengali Week-
ly) : 86, Dhamiatala St., Cal.
Sanibarer Chiti {Bengali Mon-
thly) : 57, Indra Biswas Road,
Calcutta.
Mahila {Bengali Monthly) :
123/1, Upper Circular Road,
Calcutta.
Mattchak {Children’s Bengali
Monthly) : 14, Bankim Chatter-
jee St., Calcutta — 12.
Modem Review {Eng.Monthly) ;
120/2, Upper Circular Road, Cal-
cutta.
Newmans’ Indian Bradshato :
{English Monthly) ; 3, Old
Court House St., Calcutta.
Capital {English Financial
weekly) : 4, Lyons Range, Cal.
Desk {Bengali Weekly) : 8, Soo-
terkin St., Calcutta-1.
Ulto Rath (Bengali monthly) :
Cornwallis Street, Calcutta.
Indian Fhtanee {English Finan-
cial Weekly) : 116, Lower Cir-
cular Road, Calcutta.
Hindustan Year-Book {English
Annual) : 14, Bankim Chatter-
jee St., Calcutta-12.
ASSAM
Dailies
Assam Tribune {Eng.) : Gauhati.
Natnn Asamiya {Assamese) :
Gauhati.
Dainik Santidoot {Assamese) :
Pandu (Assam).
Periodicals
Assam Bani {Assamese Weekly ) :
Gauhati.
Nabayug {Bengali Weekly)'.
Karimganj.
Janasakti ( Bengali Weekly) :
Silchar.
Assam Review and Tea News
{English Monthly) : Calcutta.
Asamiya {Assamese Weekly) :
Gauhati.
Janmabhumi (do) : Jorhat.
Ramdhemi {Assamese Monthly) :
Gauhati.
Awahan {Assamese Monthly) ;
Gauhati.
Bihlangani (do) : Nawgong.
Bordoichilla (do) : Gauhati.
BIHAR
Dalies
Indian Nation {English) : Patna.
Searchlight {English) : Patna.
Viswamitra {Hindi) : Patna.
Navarashtra {Hindi) : Rajendra
Peth, Patna.
Aryavarta {Hindi) : Patna.
Pradeep {Hindi) : Patna.
Rashtravani {Hindi) : Patna.
Sathi {Urdti) : Patna.
Periodicals
Behar Herald {Eng. Weekly) :
Patna.
Navashakti {Hindi Weekly) :
Patna-Gaya Road, Patna.
Joytsna {Hindi Monthly) : Patna.
Sentinel {Eng. Weekly)'. Ranchi.
Spark {Eng. Weekly) : Kadam
Kuan, Patna.
Hunkar {Hindi Weekly) : Patna.
Sangam {Urdu Weekly) : Di-
napur Cantt.
Kahaniyan {Hindi Monthly) :
Patna 3.
Avantika {Hindi Monthly) :
Patna.
Hindustan Review {Eng. Month-
ly): Patna.
S74
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
BOSIBAT
Dailies
Times of India {English) : Horn-
by Road, Bombay.
Indian Express {Eng.) : Colaba,
Bombay-5.
Bombay Chronicle {Eng.) : Parsi
Bazar St., Bombay.
Evening News of India {Eng.) :
Hornby Road, Bombay.
Free Press Journal {English) :
21, Dalai Street. Fort, Bombay.
Free Press Bulletin : {Eng.) 21.
Dalai Street. Fort, Bombay.
Bombay Smfinel {Eng.) : Parsi
Bazar, Bombay.
Poona Daily News {Eng.) :
Poona.
Hitavada {Eng.) : Nagrpur.
Nagpur Times {Eng.) : Nagpur.
Bombay Samachar {Gujarati) :
Parsi Bazar St. Bombay.
Chitra {Marathi) : Bombay.
Jame-e-Jamshed {(hijarati) :
Ballard House, Fort, Bombay.
Janmabhoomi {Gujarati) : Gho-
ga Street, Bombay.
Lokamanya {Marathi) : Gboga
St., Fort Bombay.
Daily Sakai {Marathi) : 595,
Budhtrar Peth, Poona.
Lokasatta {Marathi) : Sassoon
Dock, Colaba, Bombay.
Navabharat Times {Hindi) :
Hornby Road, Bombay.
Navasakti {Marathi) : 21, Dalai
Street, Bombay, Fort.
Samyukta Karnataka {Kanna-
da) : Kappikar Road, Hubli.
Sandesh {Gujarati) ; Abmeda-
bad.
Sandhyakal {Marathi) : 13, She-
niwadi, Bombay-
Nava Ytig {Kannada) : Hubli,
Kamatak.
Vishwamitra {Hindi) : Nobel
Chambers, Parsi Bazar Street.
Vande Mataram {Gujarati) :
Frere Road, Fort, Bombay.
Janasatta {Gujarati) : Rerdi
Bazar, Abmedabad.
Prajatantra {Gujarati) : Frere
Road, Bombay.
Periodicals
Crossroads {English Weekly) :
Bombay.
Bharat Jyoti {Eng. Weekly) :
21, Dalai St., Fort, Bombay.
Atom {English Weekly) : Taj
Building, Hornby Road.
March {Eng. Weekly) : Parsi
Bazar St., Bombay.
Blitz {Eng. Weekly) : T7/17H,
Sasoon Dock, Colaba, Bombay.
Bombay Chronicle {Eng. Week-
ly) : Elpbinstone Circle, Bom-
bay.
Filmfare {Eng. Cinema ircrA'-
ly) : Hornby Road, Bombay.
Screen {Eng. Cinema Weekly) :
Sasoon Dock, Cilaba, Bombay.
Eve’s Weekly {English): Apollo
St., Bombay.
Fihnindia {Eng. Monthly) ; 55,
Phirozsah Road.
Aryan Path {Eng. Monthly) :
Raopura, Baroda.
Onlooker {Eng. fortnightly) :
Sir P. 31. Road, Bombay-1.
Sound {Eng. Monthly) : Sir
P. M. Road, Bombay-1.
Sunday Standard {Eng. TTcc/.-
ly) : Colaba, Bombay-1.
Illustrated Weekly of Dtdia
{Eng. Weekly) : Hornby Road,
Bombay.
Labour Gazette {English Week-
ly) : Labour Office, Secretariat,
Fort.
Maharatta {Eng. Weekly) : 568,
Narayan Peth, Poona.
Dharma Yug {Hindi Weekly) :
Hornby Road, Bombay.
Karmavecr {Kannada Weekly) :
Kappikar Road, Hubli.
Kesari {Marathi tri-Wcekly) :
568, Narayan Petb, Poona.
Pravasi {Gujarati Weekly) :
11/12. Ghoga St., Fort, Bom-
bay-1.
Prapancha {Kannada Weekly) :
Hubli.
INDIAN PRESS
375
Sunday Sakai (.Marathi Week- Ananda Vikatan {Tamil Week-
ly) : 595, Budhv?ar Peth, ly) : Mount Road, Madras.
Poona-2. Kalaimangal {Tamil Monthly) :
Swaraj (Marathi Weekly) :595, Madras.
Budhwar Peth, Poona-2. Andhra Joy ti {Telegu Monthly) :
Sunday Lokasatta (Marathi Madras.
Weekly) : Colaba, Bonibay-5. Bharati (Telegu Monthly) ; 6 &
Zagniag {(hijarati Weekly) : 7, Thumbu Chetty Street, Mad.
Ahmedabad-l. Andhra Patrika (Weekly Tele-
Bhavan’s Journal (Eng. Fort- gu) :Thunibu Chetty St., Mad-
nightly) : Chowpatty, Bom- ras.
bay -7. S^oadeshamitran (Tamil weekly):
Akhand Anand ((Jujarati month- Madras.
ly) : Ahmedabad. Tamil Mani (Tamil Weekly) : G.
Navaneet (Hindi monhtly) :341 T., Madras.
Tardeo Road, Bombay-7.
MADRAS AND ANDHRA
Dailies
Hindu (Eng.) : iMount Road,
Madras-2.
Indian Express (Eng.) : Mount
Road, Madras.
The Mail (Eng.) : 201, Mount
Ed., Madras.
Andhra Prava (Telegu) : Mount
Road, Madras.
Andhra Patrika (Telegu) : 7,
Thambu Chetty St., Madras.
Nava India (Tamil Daily) ;
Coimbatore.
Dhinaniani Kadir (Tamil) : Mt.
Road, Madras.
Baharat Devd (Tamil) : 2-16,
Mount Road, Madras.
Janmabhoomi (Telegu) : Bijaya
wada.
Dinasari (Tamil) : Park Town,
Madras.
Mathmbhumi (Malayalam) : Ko-
zhikode.
Daily Thanthi (Tamil Daily) :
Madras.
Sioadcsmitran ( Tamil): Madras.
Periodicals
Sport & Pastime (Eng. Week-
ly) : Mount Road, Madras.^
Sunday Standard (Eng. Week-
ly): Mount Rd., Madras-2.
Kaliki (Tamil Weekly) ; Kil-
pauk, Madras.
Indian Review (Eng. Monthly) :
Madras.
My Magazine of India (Eng.
Fortnightly) : 32, Broadway,
Madras.
Chandmama (Monthly in 8 lan-
gjtagcs) : Chandmama Build-
ings, Madras-26.
Free India (English Weekly):
32, General Patters St., Madras.
Sunday Times (English Week-
ly) : 69, Peter’s Road, Madras.
ORISSA
Dailies
Eastern Times (Eng.): Cuttack.
Matmbhumi (Oriya) : Cuttack.
Samaj (Oriya) : Cuttack.
Prajatantra (Oriya) : Cuttack.
DELHI
Dailies
Hindustan Times (English) :
Connaught Circus, New Delhi.
Hindustan Times Evening News
(Eng.) : Connaught Circus, New
Delhi.
Statesman (English) : Delhi.
Indian Express, Delhi.
Hindusthan Standard (Eng-
lish), Qutub Ed., Delhi.
Saptahik Hindustan (Hindi) ;
Cannaught Circus, New Delhi.
Times of India (English) ; 10,
Daryaganj, Delhi.
376
HINDUSTA2? TEAK-BOOK
Al Jamiat {Urdu.) : Gali Qasim- ‘Weeklies
jan. Delhi. " Hrnd {nindi)z Kotah.
Hindustan- {Hindi) : Connaaght Lalkar (Hindi) : Tripola Basar,
Circus, New DelhL Jodhpur.
Daily Pratap (Urdu)'. 19, Punch Lokamat (Hindi) ; Bikaner.
Kuin !^ad. New DelhL Miran {Hindi) : Aimir.
Daily Milap {Urdu) : New Delhi
Daily Pratap (Urdu) : Del^
Vir Bharat (Urdu) ; DelhL
TFafan (Urdu) : DelhL
Daily Tej (Urdu) : Delhi.
Daily Hind (Urdu) : Delhi.
Hindustan (Hindi) : 40, Con-
naught Circus, New DelhL
Navabharat Times (Hindi) : 10,
Daryaganj, Delhi.
Vishwamitra (Hindi) : DelhL
Periodicals.
Caravan (English Monthly) :
64, King’s Way, New Delhi.
Swiday Standard (Eng, Week-
ly) : Mori Gate, Delhi.
March of India (Eng. monthly)
Govt, of India Publication : old
Secretariat, DeIhi-8.
Indian Listener (Eng. Radio
Fortnightly) : 52, Queensway,
New DelhL
Khilauna (Urdu Monthly) : New
Delhi.
Shama (Urdu Montlhy) : New
Delhi.
Sarita (Hindi Monthly) : 64,
Queensway, New Delhi.
ShanIcaPs Weekly (English) ;
Odeon Building, New DelhL
Thought {Eng. Weekly) : 35.
Faiz Bazar, DelhL
RAJASTHAN
Dailies
Rajasthan Chronicle (Eng. Dai-
ly) : Jaipur.
Lokvani (Hindi Daily) : Chauria
Rasta, Jaipur.
Rashtradoot (Hindi Daily) ; Ka
Rasta, Jaipur.
Eai-ajyoti (Hindi Daily) : Kai-
sergani, Ajmer.
Navajyoti {Hiirdi) : Ajmir.
UTTAR PRADESH
Dailies
Amrita Bazar Patrika (Eng-
lish) z 10, Edmondstone Road
Allahabad.
.4-mrita Patrika {Hindi) z 10,
Edmondstone Road, Allahabad.
Leader (English) : Allahabad.
National Herald (English) z
Lucknow.
Pioneer (English) z Lucknow.
Telegraph (English) z Kanpur.
Pratap (Hindi) z Kanpur,
Sainik (Hindi) : -Agra.
Sansar (Hindi) : Banaras.
Aj (Hindi) z Banaras.
Navajivan (Hindi^z Lucknow.
Quami-Amas (Urdu) z Lucfcoow.
Bharat (Hindi) z Leader Build-
ing, Allahabad.
Jagaran (Hindi) z Kanpur, Rewa
and JhansL
Siratantra Bharat (Hindi) z Luc-
know.
Ujala (Hindzistani) z Agro-
Veer Bharat (Hindi) z Kanpur.
Periodicals
.4r;t3? {Hindi Monthly) z Moroda-
bad.
Sanmarg (Hindi) z Banaras.
Sicatonfro (Hindi) : Kanpur.
Manohar Kahaniyan {Hindi
Monthly) z .Allahabad.
Sarasjcati (Hindi Monthly) z
.Allahabad.
Maya (Hindi Monthly) z 164,
Muthiaganj, .Allahabad.
KASHMIR
Khidmat (Urdu Daily) : Sri-
nagar, Kashmir.
INDIAN PRESS
377
Chand (.Urdu Weekly} ; Jammu,
Kashmir.
PUNJAB
Dailies
Tribune (Eng.) : Ambala Gantt.
Daily Pratap (Urdu Daily) : Si-
multaneously from Delhi &
Jullundar..
Daily Milap (Urdu Daily): Si-
multaneously from Delhi &
Jullundar.
Varatman (Punjabi Daily) : Am-
ritsar.
A jit (Urdu) ; Amritsar, Delhi
Jullundar.
Akali Patrika (Punjabi): Jul-
lundar.
Hind Santachar (Urdu) : Jul-
lundar.
Prahhat (Urdu) : Jullundar.
Khalsa-Sevak (Punjabi) : Am-
ritsar.
KERALA
Dailies
Deenabandhu (M alay alam
Daily) : Emakulam.
Malayan (Malayalam) : Trivan-
drum.
Deshabandhu (M alay alam) :
Kottayam.
Express (Malayalam) : Trichur.
Kerala Bhasanam (Anglo-Mal.):
Kottayam.
Malayala Rajam (Malayalam):
Quilon.
Kerala Kaumudi (do) : Trivan-
drum.
Deepika (do) : Kottayam.
Prabhatham (do) : Quilon.
Malayala-Manorama (do) : Ko-
ttayam.
Weeklies
Malaya Rajam (Malayalam) :
Quilon.
Janasbakti (Malayalam) : Cochin.
Kerala Patrika (Malayalan) :
Emalulam.
MYSORE
Dailies
Deccan Herald (Eng.) : 16, Ma-
hatma Gandhi Rd., Bangalore.
Deshabandhu (Kanarese) : Dod-
danna Hall Buildings, Fort,
Bangalore.
Janavani (Kannada) : Basavan-
gudi, Bangalore-4.
Prajavani (Kannada) : 16, Ma-
hatma Gandhi Rd., Bangalore.
Weeklies
Chitra Gupta (Kannada Week-
ly): Bangalore.
Prajamata (Kannada Weekly} :
Bangalore.
Prajamata (Telugu Weekly) :
Bangalore.
PRESS ASSOCIATIONS
Bombay Union of Journalists,
Bombay.
Ind. Joiimalists’ Association,
249 B, Bowbazar Street, Cal.
Ahmedabad Journalists’ Asso-
ciation, Ahmedabad.
Southejm India Journalist’ Fe-
deration, Sri Rama Buildings,
5-6, Mount Road, Madras_-2._
Asso?n Journalists’ Association,
Gauhati.
Indian Newspapers’ .Co-opera^
live Society Ltd., Janmabhoomi
Bhavan, Ghoga Street, Fort,
Bombay.
Kerala Neiospaper Editors’
Association.
Marathi Journalists’ Conference,
Poona.
U. P. Journalists’ Union, Luck-
now.
Delhi Union of Journalists, Delhi.
MF. Union of Journalists, Nag-
pur.
Federation of Indian Working
Journalists.
Bihar Journalists’ Association,
Patna.
The Press Club (Reporters’
Club), Calcutta.
378
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Foreign Correspondents' Associa- Press Owners’ Association, Gal-
tion, New Delhi. cutta. _
Press Association, New Delhi. Tra-Cochin Joumalsits’ Associa-
Press Owners' Association, Bom- tion.
hay.
COMMERCIAL PAPERS
A.I.C.C. Economic Review (Eng.
Fortnightly') : Jantar Mantar
Rd., New Delhi.
Capital (Eng. Weekly) : Mission
Rd., Calcuto.
Commerce (Eng. Weekly) : Fort,
Bombay-1.
Eastern Economist [Eng. Week-
ly) : 52, Queen’s Way, New
Delhi.
Indian Finance (Eng. Weekly) :
116-A, Lower Circular Rd., Cal-
cutta-14.
Indian Trade Journal (Eng.
Weekly) : 1, Council House
Street, Calcutta-1.
Industrial India (Eng. Month-
ly) : Sir P. M. Road, Bombay-1.
Journal of Industry & Trade
(Enf/. Monthly) : Govt, of
India, New Delhi.
Journal of the Indian Merchants’
Chamb er (Anglo-Gujrati
Monthly) : Bockbay Reclama-
tion, Bombay-1.
JOURNALISM COURSES IN INDIA
1. Journalism Department of 5. Department of Journalism,
the Punjab University. Hilsop College, Nagpur — Di-
2. University of Madras — Post- ploma and Certificate Course.
Graduate Diploma Course in 6. “Hindu” of Madras scholar-
Joumalism. ship for journalism — one
3. Cal. University — ^two-year di- candidate is taken each year
ploma course. for all-round training.
University of Mysore — Jour- 7. Homiman College of Jour-
nalism course. nalism, Bombay.
INDIAN NEWS AGENCIES
Press Trust of India (P.T.I.) Rao’s Press Features, Bangalore.
Bombay. Hindustan Samachar, 29, Ghoga
United Press of India, 34, Ganesh St., Bombay.
Chandra Avenue, Calcutta-13. Press Neros Features, New
Dhiman Press of India, Delhi.
Ludhiana, (Punjab). Associated News Service, Troop
Bazar, Hyderabad.
FOREIGN NEWS AGENCIES IN INDIA
British — ^Reuters, Associated — United Press of America.
Press. International News Service —
France — ^Agence France Presse. United Press Associations Ltd.
U.SE.R. — Tass. China — ^Hsin Hua (New China
U. S. A. — ^Associated Press of News Agency, Peking).
America. . .
INDIAN PRESS
379
Japan — Kyodo News Agency Afganistan — ^Bakhtar (Kabul).
(Tokiyo) ; Jiji News Agency NAFEN — Near and Far East
(Tokiyo). News (Asia) Ltd. — 1, Fancy
Pakistan — ^Associated Press of Lane, Calcutta.
Pakistan ; United Press of
Pakistan.
LANGUAGE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF PERIODICALS
(As on Jan. 1, 1953 (Press Commission's Report)
Assamese
Weeklies
27
Monthlies
11
Other
periodicals
32
Bengali
235
300
211
Gujarati
154
60
88
Gurumukhi
35
52
6
Hindi
705
777
297
Kannada
96
33
20
Malayalam
54
105
19
Marathi
168
49
80
Oriya
16
32
6
Sanskrit
3
8
—
Tamil
161
249
92
Telugu
103
162
62
Urdu
391
317
79
English
299
465
439
Bilingual or Multilingual
161
252
424
Sindhi and Other Languages
89
39
19
2,666
2,911
1,874
STATE-WTSE DISTRIBUTION OF NEWSPAPERS
Total no. of Total no. of Total no. of
daily newspaper daily nezospaper daily nezospaper
Assam
.. 2
U. P.
49
Saurashtra
. . 3
Bihar
.. 9
West Bengal
26
Tra.-Cochin
.. 19
Bombay
.. 69
Hyderabad
17
Ajmer
.. 6
M. P.
.. 11
Madhya Bharat
9
Bhopal
. . 3
Madras
.. 25
Mysore
25
Delhi
.. 19
Orissa
.. 4
PEPSU
2
Kutch
. . 3
Punjab
.. 21
Rajasthan
6
Manipur
.. 2
330
(Press Comznission’s Report).
380
HINDUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
FEINTING PRESSES & NEWSPAPERS AND BOOKS
PUBLISHED IN INDLA
Newspaper
Printing
Periodicals
English
Ind.
Press
hooks language hooks
1941-42
8,218
4,397
2,278
9,944
1942-43
7,873
4,311
1,635
6,927
1943-44
5,846
3,584
■ 1,728
5,072
1944-45
6,025
3,585
2,117
6,184
1945-46
6,712
3,290
2,031
6,448
1946-47
6,640
3,339
1,627
6,455
1947-48
6,118
4,114
1,704
4,731
1948-49
9,533
6,071
1,805
7,335
1949-50
10,655
6,592
1,950
8,934
1950-51
11,737
7,047
2,312
10,377
t “A” States,
1950-51.
Assam
74
18
O
5
Bihar
386
151
43
160
Bombay
2,180
1,322
403
1,690
M.P.
309
174
7
152
Madras
2,415
1,036
538
2,326
Orissa
140
no
11
615
Punjab
361
336
59
194
UE.
1,344
954
278
1,898
West Bengal
2,131
1,769
603
1,363
(.Statistical Abstract of India, 1951-52).
LABOUR IN INDIA
LABOUR REFORM IN INDIA — ^Indian Government’s effort to
afford protection to labour had a strange origin. Legislation prior
to 1818 attempted merely to regulate conditions of labour so as to
help the employers and to ensure that they had a docile labour force
at their disposal. The Factory Acts of 1818 and 1891 were passed
chiefly because of the anxiety caused to Lancashire by the growing
cotton industry of Bombay.
For 20 years after 1891, there was no further advance. In 1911,
new Factories Act was passed restricting the hours of work in textile
factories to 12.
The period after "World War I was an era of progressive labour
legislation. The Trade Union movement was bom and India’s asso-
ciation with I.L.O. supplied a powerful urge in favour of humane
condition in mines, factories and mUls. In 1922 the Indian Factories
Act was amended so as to embrace many more factories and work-
ing hours were reduced to a maximum of 11 hours per day. The
Mines Act was similarly amended in 1923 providing for limitation
of hours to 60 per week above ground and to 24 per week below
ground. It also prohibited employment in mines persons under 13
years of age. A Workman’s Compensation Act providing for acci-
dents sustained or disease contracted by workmen was also passed
in 1923. Government’s anxiety to preserve industrial peace led also
to the enactment of Indian Trade Union Act, 1926 as well as Trade
Disputes Act, 1929.
The post-war depression and the resultant industrial unrest
paved the way for Government taking a deeper interest in labour
problem. A Royal Commision on Labour in India was appointed in
1929 under the presidency of Rt. Hon. J. H. Whitley.
Between 1931 and the advent a provincial autonomy in 1937, the
Central Government effected a number of reforms revising or enact-
ing legislation regarding factory works, miners, plantation labour,
railway-men, maritime workers, dock labourers, etc., in the light of
the recommendation of Royal Commission on Labour. Perhaps the
most advanced social legislation of this period was the enactment
of the Payment of Wages Act in 1936.
Quickened interest in labour reform was shown by new auto-
nomous Provincial Governments which came into being in 1937 and
which instituted a number of enquiries and enacted a series of legis-
lative measures for amelioration of the working classes. But when
the Congress Governments resigned in 1939, there was an end
to this progress in the provinces. War years 1939 — 45 were a re-
markable expansion of Indian industries and unparalled rise in em-
ployment. At the same time, industrial relations were subjected to
increasing strain. There were numerous struggles in respect of
wages, dearness allowance, bonus and sharing of war profits. Direct
action was resorted to by workeis all over the country. Inflation
382
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and scarcity of foodstuffs, cloth and other consumer goods, the bleak
prospect of unemployment owing to demobilization and retrench-
ment helped to strain the feelings between employers and employed.
Added to these, is the new-born political consciousness among the
workers.
With the advent of new bom independence, the labour im-
rest was greatly intensified and the National Goveminent began
to overhaid the entire machinery of labour, so as to stabilize indus-'
trial tranquility. The Government’s statement on industrial policy
made in Parliament on April 8, 1948, recognised “the proper role of
labom- in industry and the need to secure for labour for wages and
working conditions.” It urged that “Labour for its part must give
equal recognition to its duty in contributing to the increase in the
national income without which a permanent rise in the standard of
living cannot be achieved.”
Labour Administration and Labour Legislation — ^The respon-
sibility for enacting and enforcing labour legislation is shared bet-
ween the Central and State Governments. Under the Indian Consti-
tution the following subjects may be legislatc-d, concurrently by the
Central and State legislatures — (1) Trade Union ; industrial and
labour disputes, (2) Social Security and social insurance ; emplojr-
ment and unemployment, (3) welfare of labour including condition's
of work, provident funds, employers’ liability, workmen’s compensa-
tion, invalidity and old-age pensions, maternity benefits, (4) voca-
tional and technical training of labour, (5) Relief and rehabilitation
of refugees.
The following subjects fall exclusively under the jurisdiction of
the Union and the States —
Union List — (1) Reflation of labour and safety in mine's
and oilfields. (2) Industrial disputes concerning Union employees.
State List — (1) Relief of disabled and unemployable.
The administration of labour legislation is mainly the responsi-
bility of the State Governments, except in Central undertakings; such
as railways, mines, ports and oilfields and Central and State Govern-
ments have independent administrative macWnery for the ' en-
forcement of laws and the promotion of labour welfare. In recent
years, the Central Government has endeavoured to secure greater
uniformity in the standards laid down and in the efiiciency of the
enforcement machinery by close consultation with the State Govern-
ments and by means of regidar Tripartite Labour Conferences. As
the result, the tendency has been for the Central Government to
enact labour legislation by agreement and for State Governments
confine their activities to its implementation and enforcement.
LABOUR LAWS
The Labom- Legislation can be divided into following heads : —
(1) Factories, (2) Mines, (3) Plantations, (4) Transport, (6) Legis-
lation relating to workers in shops and commercial establishments,
(6) Safety and Welfare, (7) Wages, (8) Social Security, (9) Indtts-
tnal relatioiis, (10) Miscellaneous.
LABOUR IN INDIA
383
1. Factories — All the Factories Acts from 1881 to 1947 have
been annulled and a new act called the Indian Factories Act of 1948
has been passed. The main provisions of the Act are as follows : —
(1) It covers all industrial establishments employing 10 or more
workers where power is used and 20 or more workers where power
is not used. (2) It does away with the distinction between seasonal
and perennial factories. (3) Elaborate provision have now been
made which specify in clear and precise terms the requirements in
regard to health, safety and welfare. (4) The minimum age for em-
ployment of children has been fixed at 14 and the upper age-limits
of the adolescents have been raised from 17 to 18. (6) The
hours of works for adults have been fixed at 48 hours a week and
9 hours a day. The spreadover has been fixed at lOS hours in a
day. (6) For children and adolescents, the hours of work are 4J
hours a day and the spreadover has been fixed at 6 hours. (7) No
adult worker is allowed to work more than 5 hours unless he has had
an interval for rest of at least half-an-hour. (8) Employment of
children and women between 7 p.m. and 6 a.m. is prohibited. (9) For
overtime work the Act provides that employees shall be paid twice
their normal rates of wages. (10) Besides weekly holidays, every
worker is entitled to leave with wages after 12 months’ continuous
service at the following rate — Adult : one day for every 20 days of
work, subject to a minimum of 10 days. Children : one day for every
16 days of work, subject to a minimum of 14 days.
2. Mines — It was in the year 1901 that first Indian Mines Act
was passed. Since 1935 further change in the Act was made by the
amending Acts of 1936, 1937, 1940 and 1946. In 1952 Indian Mines
Act has been passed which consolidates the existing law and brings
it in tune with the provisions of the Factories Act of 1948. (o) The
Act applies to all mines. A mine has been defined as “any excava-
tion where operation for the purpose of searching for or obtaining
minerals has been or is being carried on.” (6) Hours of work for
persons employed on the surface fixed. The daily hours of work
and spreadover for person below ground have been fixed, (c) The
weekly hours of work for all employees are also fixed, (d) No
person is allowed to work in a mine for more than 6 days in a week,
(c) The Act prohibits the employment of children below the age of
15 and no person below the age of 17 shall be allowed to work under-
ground unless he has been certified to be medically fit. The other
principal enactments in this sphere since 1934 are : Coal Mines
Safety (.Starving) Act, 1939 ; Mines Maternity Benefit Act, 19il ;
Mica Mines Labour Welfare Fund Act, 19i6 ; Coal Mines Labour
Welfare Fund Act, 19i7 and Coal Mines Provident Fund and Bonus
Schemes Act, 19iS. Coalmines Bonus Scheme came into operation
in 1947. Under this Scheme the worker, by virtue of a minimum
qualifying rate of attendence is entitled to receive a third of his
basic earnings as bonus.
3. Plantations — ^The first legislation regarding plantation
labour is the Tea Districts Emigrant Labour Act XXI of 1932. The
Act deals mainly with the recruitment of workers for the gardens in
Assam. The main provisions are — (a) Every emigrant labourer and
384
HI^^}USTAN YEAR-BOOK
his family have a right of repatriation at the cost of the employer
after the expiry of three years. (2) Provincial Governments are
empowered to declare any area to be controlled emigration area. (3)
Appointment of a Controller of Emigrant Labour. (4_) No children
below 16 years can proceed to Assam unless accompanied by parents
or relatives or in case of married woman unless accompanied by
her husband. Plantation Labour Act of 1951 fixes a 54-hour
week for adults and 40-hour week for adolescents and children and
prohibits employment of children under 12 and night work for women
and children between 7 p.m. to 6 a.m. It also provides for regula-
tions relating to matters like leave facilities, health and welfare,
housing accommodation, sickness and maternity benefits.
4. Transport — Chapter VI, VI (a) of the Indian Railways Act,
1890 as amended in 1930 deals with the question of hours of work
and periods of rest of almost all railway employees except those
covered by the Factories Act and the Mines Act. Workers covered
by the Indian Railways Act are classified into two categories namely
continuous workers and essentially intermittant workers. _ The ad-
ministration of the Act since 1946 has been the responsibility of the
Chief Labour Commissioner (Central) and the Re^onal Lahom
Commissioners of the three zones into which the Dominion of India
has been divided. The other important act regarding transport is
Indian Merchant Shipping Act of 1923. The conditions of employ-
ment of Indian seamen are regulated by the provision of the Indian
Merchant Shipping Act. The Indian Dock Labourers’ Act, 1934 en-
forced only in 1948 lays down safety and protective provisions and
implements generally the I. L. O. Convention concerning the protec-
tion of dock workers against accidents.
Another important Act is the Dock Workers’ (Regulation of Em-
ployment) Act of 1949. This provides for the decasualisation of
dock workers and regulates, inter alia, terms of employment, remu-
neration, training and welfare, adequate health and safety measures
to docks, minimum pay for days on which work may not be available.
5. Legislation Relating to Workers in Shops and Commercial
Establishments — Granting of protection to workers in shops and
commercial establishments was first taken by the Government of
Bombay which passed an Act in 1939. Other States such as
Bengal and Punjab followed suit and passed similar Acts in 1940.
The Punjab Act was extended to Delhi in 1942. During 1947 acts
on the subject were passed by three more provinces, namely Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Madras. In Assam a Shops and Estab-
lishments Act was passed in 1948. Apart from these provincial
Acts there is a Central Act known as Weekly Holidays Act, 1942.
This Act is permissive in character and provides for the grant of
weekly holidays to shopworkers in those provinces which have no
legislation on the subject. All the above Acts fix the daily and
weekly hours of work. The Acts also fix the holidays and leave.
With the exception of Bengal Act, all other Acts have placed restric-
tions on the employment of children and have made special provi-
A ^ hours of work, rest, intervals etc., of young persons.
All the Acts contain provisions for regrulating the payment of wages.
LABOUR IN INDIA
385
6. Safety and Labour Welfare — (1) In Factories Act, 1948,
the Mines Act, 1952 and the Plantation Labour Act; 1951
provisions have been made under the relevant sections for canteens,
creches, rest shelters, washinfr facilities, medical aid for the appoint-
ment of labour officers. t2) Indian Bock Labourer’s Act, 1934 came
into force in 1948. The Act is concerned with the protection against
accidents of workers employed in loading and imloading of ships. (3)
The Coal Mines Safety (Stovnng) Act of 1939 provides for the crea-
tion of a fund to assist stowing measures. According to the Act the
expenses of the Fund are to be met by an excise duty and its adminis-
tration is entrusted to a Coal Mines Stowing Board. The Act em-
powers Chief Inspector and Inspectors of Mines to require the owner,
agent or manager to take necessary protective measures. (4) In order
to put the organisation on a sound footing, the Government of
India passed in 1947 the Coal Mines Labour Welfare Fund Act, 1947
which provides for the setting up of a Fund to be called the Coal
Mines Labour Housing and General Welfare Fund which will main-
tain two accounts, namely the Housing Account and General Wel-
fare Account. The fund is administered by the Central Government.
The Coal Mines Labour Welfare Commissioner is the execu-
tive head of the administrative set up. (5) Mica Mines Labour
Welfare Fund, 1946 provides for the raising of a Fund by the levy
of an ad valorem custom duty on all mica exported from the Indian
Dominion for the construction of hospitals, mobile medical units,
maternity and child welfare centres, the provision for technical edu-
cation for miners’ children etc. etc.
The Welfare Schemes so far carried out os follows — (1) cons-
truction of pithead baths in coal mines, (2) welfare centres for
women where lessons in knitting, sewing, spinning, domestic economy
etc., are imparted, (3) creches have been provided in some coal
mines, (4) Regional hospitals with maternity centres have been
started in some cases, (5) multipurpose welfare centres providing
educational, recreational and other welfare activities for men, women
and children have been opened in various coal fields.
Attempts are being made to persuade private employers to start
welfare trust funds for the benefit of their employees. Such funds
are to be created on a voluntary basis in the first instance, failing
which lav.'s would be enacted to make them compulsory. Individual
employers such as Tatas, Indian Jute Mills Association, Indian Tea
Association, Textile Labour Association have private laljour welfare
schemes.
Industrial Housing Scheme was finalised by the Government of
India in September 1952. Under the scheme, the Central Government
contributes initially the entire cost — 50 per cent as outright subsidy
to the State Governments and 50 per cent in the form of loans to be
repaid in 25 years,
7. Wages — ^Prior to 1936 there was no law in the country
with the exception of the Employers and Workman (Disputes) Act
of 1860 to regulate the payment of wages to v/orkers. Largely as
a result of the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Labour
in India, the Payment of V/ages Act (IV of 1936) was passed in 1936.
25
386
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The Act ensures the regular payment of, and authorises certain de--
ductions from the wages of workers receiving Rs. 200 per month or
less. The Government is authorised to extend the Act to any
industrial establishment and appoint inspectors. The Act has been
extended to the railways, mines, factories, plantations, certain cate-
gories of transport service in some States and other establishments.
Minimum wages have been fixed in various States for certain
employments according to Minimum Wages Act of 1948. Accor-
ding to the Minimum Wages (Amendment) Act of 1954 all States
were required to fix minimum wages for certain employments by
December 31, 1954.
Fair Wages Act of 1950 has been passed to _ fix fair wages
for workers employed in the first instance in factories and
mines. The fair wages will, so long as the cost of living index
number exceed a slab of 185 to 200 (the cost of living index munber
of 1939 being taken as 100), consist of a basic rate and a cost of
living allowance. The latter is to be adjusted according to such gra-
duated scales as may be prescribed by the appropriate State Govern-
ment. The employer shall in no circumstances pay his employees
a wages less than the minimum wage prescribed therein, irrespective
of the capacity of the industries or the unit.
8. Social Security — ^The important Social Security Acts
are Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923, Provident Fund Acf,1952,
Coal-Mines Provident and Bonus Scheme Act, 1948, Mines Maternity
Benifits Act, 1941 and Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948. The
Workmen’s Compensation Act provides for the payment of compen-
sation for injuries received during employment, occupational de-
seases and deaths resulting from such injuries and diseases.
With a view to providing long-term security through establish-
ment of compulsory provident funds for industrial workers. Em-
ployee’s Provident Fund Act of 1952 was passed (amended in 1953),
which provides for the compulsory provident fund for em-
ployees in industrial establishments, such as, electrical, mecha-
nical and general engineering products, iron and steel,
paper and textiles — employing 60 or more persons. Industries run
by Government and local authorities and those with less than three
years’ existence are outside the scope of the Act, The employers’
contribution to the Fund has been fixed at 6} p.c. of the basic wage
and dearness allowances payable to the employees. Employees are
required to contribute the same amount as contributed by employers.
Coal Mines Provident Fund and Bonus Schemes Act of 1948
empowers the Central Government to frame a Provident Fund
Scheme and a Bonus Scheme for employees in coal mines. The Act
lays down that the amount of Provident B\ind standing to the credit
of any member shall not be assigned or charged or shall not be
liable to attachment. _ Coal Mines Bonus Scheme entitles every em-
ployee in the coal mines, subject to certain conditions, to a bonus
under the scheme.
'The only Central Act regarding maternity welfare is the Mines
Maternity Benefit Act of 1941. It applies to women employed in
mines covered by the Indian Mines Act.
LABOUR IN INDIA
387
The Maternity Benefit Acts have been passed in almost all the
States. The main principles in all Maternity Benefit legislation are
the same ; provision for the payment of a cash benefit to women
for specified periods before and after childbirth, a compulsory period
of rest after delivery and also before delivery if notice is given. All
Acts specify a qualifying period for the earning of the benefit, this
varies from six months to a year.
The most important of social security act is the Employees’
State Insurance Act of 1948. The Act applies to all perennial
factories using power and employing 20 or more persons. It covers
labourers employed directly or indirectly and also clerical staff ; it
does not apply to a person whose total remuneration exceeds Rs. 400
per month. It excludes armed forces personnel.
The scheme is administered by the Employees’ State Insurance
Corporation. It is composed of 38 members representing the
employees and employers, the Central and State Governments, the
medical profession and Parliament. Of these, 13 members form a
standing committee which is in charge of general administration.
A Medical Benefit Council, consisting of 28 members, advises the
Corporation on medical benefits. The executive head of the Cor-
poration is a Director-General who is assisted by four principal
officers. He functions through a net work of regional and local
offices. The Regional Advisory Boards include representatives of
the employees and employers and the State Governments.
Finance ; — ^The Employees’ State Insurance scheme is financed
out of contributions from employers and grants and donations from
the Central and State Governments. The employees’ contributions
vary from As. 2 to Rs. 1-4 per week, which amount to 2 to 2.5 per
cent of their average wages. It is only in these regions, where the
scheme has been implemented and where the employees are entitled
to various benefits under the Act, that they contribute towards the
finances for the scheme.
The benefits provided under the Act are — (1) Sickness Benefit,
(2) Maternity Benefit, (3) Disablement Benefit, (4) Dependents’
Benefit and (6) Medical Benefit.
Medical Benefit : — Medical care and treatment is provided free
of charge to insured persons during their sickness. Medicines too are
free.
Sickness Benefit : — An insured person is entitled to the siclaiess
cash benefit if he has made_ not less than 2 /3rd of the required
number of contributions in a stipulated period — generally six months.
The benefit amounts roughly to 7/12th of a worker's average wages.
Maternity Benefit : — ^Maternity benefit is payable to women
employees for 12 weeks, of which not more than six can precede
the expected date of confinement. The payment is at the rate of
As. 12 a day or at the rate of the siclmess benefit, whichever is
higher.
Disablement Benefit ; — ^Insured persons receive periodical pay-
ments for disablement from injury during employment. For tempo-
rary disablement, these amount to about half the average wages for
the period of disablement. For the permanently disabled, on the
388
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
other hand, instead of a lump sum as given under the Workmens’
Compensation Act, the insured persons are eititled to pension for life
in accordance ■with the proportionate loss in their earning capacity.
Dependents’ Benefit : — is payable to the dependents of insured
persons dying as a result of emplosrment injury. Dependents’ benefits
are payable to the insured persons’ "wives and children at the follow-
ing rates — 3/5ths of the full rate to the widow for life as long as
she does not remarry ; 2/5ths of the full rate to each legitimate or
adopted son up to the age of fifteen and 2/5ths of the full rate to
each legitimate unmarried daughter up to the age of fifteen.
Progress of the Insurance : — ^The total number of workers
covered under the Employees’ State Insurance scheme is approxi-
mately six lakhs. It was first enforced in the Kanpur area and Delhi
State in 1953. It also came into operation in some industrial town
of Punjab, i.e. Amiitsar, Ambala, Jullundur, Ludhiana, Abdullapur-
Jagadhari, Batala and Bhivani in 1953. It was extended to Nagpur
and greater Bombay in 1954 and in Coimbatore, Indore, Gwalior,
Ujjain and Ratgam on Jan. 1955.
9. Industrial Relations — The main Act regarding the
industrial relations is the Indian Trade Union Act of 1926. The main
provisions of the Act are (a) Any seven members of a trade can apply
for registration and can be granted a certificate. At least half of the
total number of its office-bearers must be persons actually engaged
in the industry to which the Union belongs. (6) OSicers and mem-
bers of a registered trade union are given protection against criminal
proceedings in respect of any agreement for the purpose of further-
ance of any legal object of the union, (c) Registered trade unions
are required to submit annual returns to the employers. The Trade
Union Act has been amended in 1951, the main provisions of it relate
to the recognition of trade union, compulsory recognition of them
on the fulfilment of certain conditions, establishment of labour
courts, right of the trade unions to negotiate with employers. The
second important Act under the industrial relations is the Industrial
Employment (Standing Orders) Act of 1946. This Act extends to
the whole of India and applies to all industrial establishments
employing 100 or more persons. Under the Act every employer is
required to submit to the certifying officer, five copies of the draft
standing orders which he proposes to adopt along with the prescribed
particulars regarding the workmen employed and the name of the
trade union to v/hich they belong.
The most important in this category is the Industrial Disputes
Act, 1947 which came into force on 1st April, 1947 and extends to the
v/hole of India. The Act provides for the following authorities and
procedure for bringing about conciliation or settlement of disputes.
(1) Tror7;s Committees — ^These point committees of employers
and_ workers giving equal representation to both the parties, are set
up in industrial establishments employing one hundred or more work-
men. The duty of the Committee is to promote measures for secur-
ing and preserving unity and good relations between employers and
workmen.
LABOUR IN INDIA
389
(2) Conciliation Officers — These ofBcers are appointed to medi-
ate in and promote the settlement of industrial disputes.
(3) Boards of Conciliation — ^The Boards have practically the
same aim as the Conciliation Officers i.e., to promote settlement of in-
dustrial disputes but are set up by the appropriate Government as
occasion arises or after the Concilliation Ofiicers have failed to bring
abopt a settlement.
(4) Courts of Enquiry — ^The Courts of Enquiry are set up as
the occasion arises for enquiring into any matter connected vath
or relevant to an industrial dispute. They may consist of only one
independent person or of a number of independent persons with a
Chairman.
(5) Industrial Tribunals — ^These are constituted by the appro-
priate Government for adjudication of industrial disputes and consist
of such number of members as the Government may consider appro-
priate.
If any industrial dispute exists or is apprehended, the appro-
priate Government may refer the dispute to a Board for settlement
or to a Court of Enquiry for investigation of any matter or to a
Tribunal for adjudication. In two cases, the Government shall so
refer the dispute (i) if the dispute concerns a public utility service
and notice of strike has been given and (ii) where the parties to an
industrial dispute representing the majority of each party apply for
reference of the dispute to a Board, Coiurt or Tribunal. After the
dispute has been referred to a Board or Tribunal, the Government
may order the discontinuance of any strike or lockout in connection
with such dispute.
Any strike or lockout in a public utility service is illegal, if it
is commenced or declared without ^ving the employer or employee
a notice of strike or lockout within six weeks before str&ing or
declaring a lockout. Any strike or lockout is illegal if it is comm-
enced or declared during the pendency of (1) conciliation proceedings
before a Board and seven days after the conclusion of such procee-
dings, (2) Proceedings before a Tribunal and two months after the
conclusion of such proceedings or (3) during any period in which a
settlement or award is in operation in respect of any of the matters
covered by the settlement or award.
The working of Industrial Disputes Act revealed that piece-meal
adjudication in disputes relating to concerns having branches in
more than one State by Tribunals appointed by State Governments
created considerable difficulties for the . employers. Lack of unifor-
mity in awards in such disputes created discontent among the em-
ployees. This become specially apparent, in the case of banking and
insurance companies. To remedy this defect. Industrial Disputes
(Banking and Insurance Companies) Ordinance, 1949 was promulga-
ted. The ordinance prohibits State Governments from referring any
industrial dispute concerning banking and insurance companies which
have their branches or other establishments in more than one State
for adjudication, enquire or settlement and provides abatement of
proceedings relating to such disputes pending before State tribunals.
Under the ordinance the Central Government constituted an Indus-
390
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
trial Tribunal in June 1949 for adjudication of industrial disputes
in banking companies. The ordinance has since been replaced by
an Act.
To safeguard the interest of -worker -who is exposed to the
risk of suddenly losing his job through retrenchment InditstriaT .
Disputes (Amendment) Act 1953, -was passed -which lays do-wn
that no -worker who has rendered a year’s continuous service or more,
may be retrenched -without being given a month’s notice (or being
paid a month’s wages in lieu of) as well as compensation for
loosing his job.
In June 1949 Governor-General promulgated another Ordinance
called Industrial Tribunal Payment of Bonus (National Savings
Cirtificates) Ordinance, 1949 — The Ordinance declares that notwith-
standing anything contained in Payment of Wages Act or other acts,
it shall be la-wful for any industrial tribunals to direct that any
award that may be payable under the award shall, to the extent of
any part thereof not exceeding one-half of the amount of bonus in
any case be paid in the form of P.O. National Sa-vings Certificate.
The divergent and sometimes conflicting decisions given by the
various Tribunals set up in different States under the Industrial
Disputes Act of 1947 created serious anomalies leading to discontent
and bitterness among parties to industrial disputes. To meet this
situation, the Government of India enacted the Industrial Disputes
(Appellate Tribunal) Act, 1950, for setting up Appellate Tribunals
to hear appeals from awards or decisions of Industrial Tribunals,
Industrial Clourts, Wage Boards and other statutory bodies set up
by the Central or State Governments. Headquarters of the Tribunal
is Bombay and its three branches are working at Bombay, Calcutta
and Lucknow. Industrial Disputes (Amendment and Miscellaneous
Act of 1956 has been passed which gives power to the Government
to modify an industrial award.
10. Miscellaneous — (1) The Children (Pledging of Labmir)
Act II of 1933 lays do-wn that any agreement to pledge the labour
of a child below fifteen years by the parent in return of any payment
or benefit -will be null and void and the parent is liable to be fined
upto Rs. 50 and the employer upto Rs. 200. (2) The Employment
of Children Act XXVI of 1938 prohibits the emplosment of children
below the age of 15 in any occupation connected -with the transport
of passengers, goods or mails by railway or in any occupation invol-
-ving the handling of goods within the limits of any port regulated
by the Indian Ports Act, 1908. No child who has not completed his
12th year can be employed in any of the scheduled occupations i.e.,
bidi_ making, carpet making, cement manufacture, cloth printing,
dyeing and wea-ving, manufacture of matches, explosives and fire-
works, mica cutting and spliting, shellac manufacture, soap manufac-
ture, tanning and wool cleaning. (3) The paucity of well-co-ordina-
ted labour statistics in India has been the subject of adverse com-
ment for a long time. So the Industrial Statistics Act of 1942 was
passed. The Act empowers the State Governments to collect
statistics on (a) any matter relating to factories and (b) price of
commodities, attendance, living conditions, indebtedness, rents of
LABOUR IN INDIA
391
dwelling houses, wages and other earning and provident and other
funds, benefits and amenities, hours of work, employment and un-
employment, industrial and labour disputes. The Act empowers
the Statistics Authority to call for required returns and examine the
relevant records etc. and penalties have been provided for non-
submission. (4) Legislation relating to indebtedness has been en-
acted from time to time to deal with problems incidental to the
indebtedness of industrial workers. The prominent of these are as
follows — (a) C. P. Code of 1908 was amended in 1937 to provide for
the exemption of attachments of salaries of all workers getting less
than Rs. 100 per month and in the case of Government employees
the first Rs. 100 and the moity of the remainder. It also limits the
period of continuous attachment and provides that if a worker’s
salary has been attached for a period of 24 months, it should remain
immune from liability of further attachment for a period of one
year. (6) C. P. Code of 1908 was again amended in 1936 to prevent
imprisonment of debtors, (c) Punjab Government has an Act
known as Punjab Relief of Indebtedness Act of 1936. (d) C. P.
Government passed an Act known as the Adjiistment and Liquida-
tion of Industrial Workers’ Debt Act of 1936. (6/ Bengal Govern-
ment passed an Act known as Bengal Workmen’s Protection Act of
1934 which provides that any person loitering at or near any factory,
workshop etc. with a view to recovering debts from persons employed
would be liable to fine or imprisonment. (/) M. P. Government passed
an Act called C. P. Protection of Debtor’s Act, which is more or less
on the lines of Bengal Act. (g) Madras Government passed a
similar legislation in 1941. (h) Bihar Workmen’s Protection Act
was passed in 1948 to protect certain classes of workmen from the
molestation and intimaidation by their creditors.
LABOUR ADMINISTRATION
The administration of labour laws is a divided responsibility.
The Central Government, through its various offices, administers
labour laws applying to mines, railways and other Central undertak-
ings. The rest of the labour laws are administered by the State
Governments through their own organisations.
Ministry of Labour — Ministry of Labour of the Government
of India as now constituted consists of the main Ministry (Sec-
retariat). It is the central administration machinery for the formation
of labour policy, for the enforcement of labour laws and for the promo-
tion of labour welfare. It co-ordinates the activities of Governments
in the labour sphere. It also forms the Secretariat for the Tripartite
Labour Conference and Committees connected with particular indus-
tries and is the channel for India’s participation in the activities of
the International Labour Organisation. The rest of the labour laws
are administered by the State Governments through their own orga-
nisations.
392
HINDDSTAK YEAE-BOOK
The folio-wing are the Central Orga-nisations.
(1) Director-General, Employees' State Insurance Corporation,
New Delhi,
(2) Office of Director, Labour Bureau, Simla — The Bureau
■was set up in October, 1946 and has been responsible
for (1) collection of labour statis-tics, (2)_ maintenance
of cost of Imng index numbers, (3) keeping up-to-date
the factual da-ta relating to working conditions collected by the
Labour Investigation Committee, (4) conducting research into speci-
fic problems -with a -view to furnishing data required for the forma-
tion of policy, (5) editing the monthly Indian Labour Gazette, (6)
compiling Labour Code of various legislative enactments and the
statutory rules thereunder and a Labour Year Book.
(3) Office of the Chief Labour Commissioner, New Delhi — ^The
organisation deals -with (1) conciliation, (2) examina-tion of welfare
measures and advice to the employees and Government in connection
therewith, (3) operation of labour laws to the extent of Central res-
ponsibility, (4) to organise and set up canteens in all Government
undertakings, besides offering advice to State Governments, States
and Administrations.
(4) Office of the Coal Mines Welfare Commissioner, Dhanbad.
■ — ^The Commissioner deals with (■£) the administration of Coal Mines
Labour "Welfare Fund Act, 1947 and (n) the administration of the
Mica Mines Labour Fund Act, 1946.
(5) O^e of the Chief Inspector of Mines, Dhanbad — ^The acti-
vittes of this Department are (i) enforcement of the Indian Mines
Act, Hi) inspection of mines, (in) investiga-tion of accidents,
(iv\ inspection of electrical installations and machinery, (v) technical
advice to mine o-wners, (vi) prosecutions, (vii) collection of statistics
and (vizi) enforcement of the Mines Maternity Benefit Act, 1941.
(6) Office of the Chief Adviser of Factories, New Delhi — This
office deals -with (i) technical service on all matters relating to design
of factories and working conditions, (ii)administiation of the Ind.
Dock Labourer’s Act, 1934 and the Indian Dock Labourer’s Regu-
lations, (Hi) Factory Administration including -training of Factory
Inspectors, (izj) Information Service, (v) preparation of posters,
sketches and pictures on industrial safety, health and welfare.
(7) Office of the Controller of Emigrants Laboxir, Shillong ^ —
The office deals rvith (a) interpretation of the Tea Districts Emig-
rant Labour Act, 1932 and the Rules, (6) recruitment, repatriation
of labour and inspection of tea gardens and depots, (c) compensation
cases relating to persons belonging to provincial Civil Labour units
and State Labour units who worked on Defence projects.
(8) Offices of the Welfare Commissioners, Mica Mines Labotcr
Welfare Fund, Dhanbad and Nellore.
(9) Office of the Provident Furtd Commissioner, Dhanbad —
The organisation was set up in 1948 for (a) administration of Coal
Mines Bonus Scheme, (6) administration of Coal Mines Provident
LABOUR IN INDIA 393
Fund Scheme which has been formed under Coal Mines Provident
Fund and Bonus Schemes Act, 1948.
TRADE UNIONISM IN INDIA — The trade union movement in
India was bom with the formation of strike committees after the
end of World War I, when there was an outburst of industrial strife.
The first attempt at trade union organisation, with regular member-
ship of workers in an industrial centre, was made when Mr, B. P,
Wadia founded the Madras Labour Union in 1918. It did excellent
work in redressing the grievances of workers, but in 1921 the law was
made oise of against it by employers who obtained an order from the
High Court retraining the Union leaders. The event focussed the
attention of the public on the need for trade union legislation which
did not exist then in the country.
The year 1920 saw the establishment of the All-India Trade
Union Congress as a central organisation of labour. The main
impetus to its founding was the association of India with the Inter-
national Labour Organisation. The misgiving that ‘yes-men’ would
be nominated as worker’s representatives on the Indian delegation,
is said to have moved labour leaders to form the All-India Trade
Union Congress.
The growth of a healthy trade union movement in India has been
retarded by the tendency of political organisations to use trade union
activity to further their political aims.
The passing of the Indian Trade Union Act of 1926
(also amended in 1947), conferred a legal and corporate status on
registered trade unions and granted them certain immunities in
regard to trade disputes. The Act makes provision for three
matters : — (1) conditions governing the registration of trade
unions, (2) the obligations to which a trade union is subject after
registration and (3) the rights and privileges accorded to registered
unions. The act also allowed the funds of the registered unions to
be spent for the conduct of trade disputes and for the provision of
benefits to its members.
Under the Trade Unions Act of 1926, the registered trade unions
are required to submit annual returns to the Registrars of Trade
Unions. It is, however, not compulsory for all unions to be regis-
tered under the Act.
The trade union movement is divided into four national organisa-
tions. There are thus more than one trade union in the same indus-
try and even in the same unit of indus-^ owing allegiance to differ-
ent and sometimes conflicting ideologies. This has hampered the
growth of genuine trade unionism. The four All India Workers’
Organisations are Indian National Trade Union Congress, All
India Trade Union Congress, Hind Mazdoor Sabha and United Trade
Union Congress. 1. N. T. U. C. is a Congress Organisation,
A. I. T. U. G. is affiliated to the Communist Party, while Hind Maz-
door Sabha is sponsored by the Proja Socialist Party.
The membership of the four All-India organisations are
as follows —
394
HINDUSTAN 'XEAK-BOOK
MEMBERSHIP OF ALL INDIA ORGANISATION
No. of Unions Membership
affiliated
1952
1953
1952
1953
A. N. T. U. C.
913
587
12,68,608
9,19,258
Hind Majdur Sabha
574
220
8,04,494
3,73,459
A. I. T. U. C.
736
334
7,58,314
2,10,914
United Trade Union
Congress
332
154
2,23,292
1,29,242
2,424
1,295
30,54,706
16,32,873
NATIONAL EMPLOY5IENT SERVICE — ^Employment exchanges
which were set up in 1945 to resettle demobilised personnel were en-
trusted with the task of finding employment for displaced persons in
1947. The scope of their activities were enlarged later. The exchanges
are run by the Directorate General of Resettlement and Employment
of the Ministry of Labour. The exchanges give priority to the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, retrenched Government servants
and displaced registrants in finding employment. "Whenever possible,
special facilities are provided for women. In 1954 Employment Ex-
changes opened a new section in order to find employment for surplus
and retrenched Class I, Class 11 Gazetted and Commissioned Officers.
Employers, workers and other special interests are associated with
the Employment Exchanges through advisory comnuttees set up at
national, regional and sub-regional levels. The number of Employ-
ment Exchanges was increased to 128 in 1954. Thirty Employment
Exchanges operate mobile sections to help employment seekers in
rural and other areas far away from Exchanges. The Exchanges
have also been helping to promote mobility among employment
seekers.
The Government has drawn up a technical and vocational train-
ing scheme for adult civilians. In addition to the training of crafts-
men, a Central Training Institute is being run at Koni-Bilaspur,
Madhya Pradesh to train instructors and supervisory staff. The
period of training is about six months.
Shiva Rao Committee — A Committee under the chairmanship of
Mr. Shiva Rao was appointed by the Government which recommended
in 1954 for the conversion of the jEmployment Exchange Organisa-
tion into a full-fledged National Employment Service with vastly ex-
tended functions. The new service, except at the Centre, will be
managed by the State Governments in their resjjective areas. The
centre will be responsible for laying down policy and for co-ordina-
tion and supervision of the work of the service. The States will
have to bear only 40 per cent of the cost of the service apart from
the provision of buildings, the balance being covered by a Central
subsidy.
The Government of India have decided that the national
employment service should be maintained on a permanent basis. The
Centre and the States will collaborate in the matter, the former lay-
LABOUR IN INDIA
395
ing down policies and standards and the latter carrying out day to
day administration. Similarly, with regard to the vocational and
technical training also, the Centre will lay down broad policies and
co-ordinate and develop training facilities while the States will be
given the responsibility of administration. It has been decided to
set up an advisory body called National Trades Certificates Board in
order to establish co-ordination between the various training pro-
grammes in the country.
INDIA AND THE I. L. O. — ^India has been an active member of
the I.L.O. from its very inception in 1919. She has been considered
as one of the eight leading industrially important countries in the
■world and as such has been allotted a permanent seat on the Govern-
ing Body of the Organisation. Her contribution to the finances of
I. L. 0. is also considerable, amounting to 5 p.c. of the total revenue
of the Organisation.
The International Labour Conferences have so far ratified 103
conventions of which India has ratified for 19 conventions. In addi-
tion India has incorporated into her national legislation the essen-
tial features of many of the other Conventions (i.e.. Child birth Con-
vention, 1919 and the Minimum Age (Revised) Convention, 193).
India is the member of the following seven Industrial Commi-
ttees of I.L.O. — (1) Textiles, (2) Coal Mining, (3) Iron and Steel,
(4) Metal Trades, (5) Building, Civil Engineering and Public Works,
(6) Inland Transport and (7) Chemicals.
In addition to International Labour Confe:ences and Committees,
India is also participating in ad hoc Conferences convened by I.L.O.
CENTRAL LABOUR INSTITUTE— The foundation stone of the
Central Labour Institute was laid at Kurla near Bombay, on Oct. 7,
1954. The Central Labour Institute aims at affording facilities for
scientific study of the various aspects of industrial development rela-
ting to human factor. It will consist of a museum of industrial
safety, health and welfare, and industrial hygiene laboratory, a train-
ing centre and a library-cum-information centre, a national producti-
vity centre has been set up in Bombay which ■vdll become a part of
the Central Labour Institute. The institute will be built up on a
13 acre plot at Kurla, Bombay. Government of India has made a
capital grant of Rs. 10 lakhs for the construction of main building.
Under the operational agreement between U.S. Government and the
Government of India, $100,000 have been made available for the pur-
chase of plant, equipment and technical publications for the Institute.
Monthly
average
1948
1949
1950
E5IPLOYMENT EXCHANGES
Monthly
registra-
tions
72,399
88,863
100,863
No. placed
in Employ-
ment
21,648
21,401
27,599
No. on re
gister
at the en
of the
period
239,033
274,335
330,743
No. of
vacancies
outstand-
ing
65,131
29,292
28,189
396 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1951
. . 114,613
34,738
328,719
21,776
1952
. . 123,058
29,819
437,671
22,873
1953
. . 117,400
16,464
622,360
20,914
1954
. . 122,125
13,538
609,780
29,295
1955
. . 132,002
14,145
691,958
42,248
(Monthly Abstract of Statistics, Sept. 1956).
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES IN INDIA
No.
Workers
Loss
No.
Workers
Loss
of Dis-
involved
of man-
of Dis-
involved
of man-
piites
days
putes
days
1946
820
747,530
4,064,499
1951
1,071
691,321
3,818,928
1946
1,619
1,961,948
12,717,762
1952
963
809,242
3,382,608
1947
1,811
1,840,784
16,662,666
1953
772
466,607
3,382,608
1948
1,811
1,050,120
7,837,173
1954
840
477,138
3,372,630
1949
920
685,457
6,600,595
1955
1,166
527,767
5,697,848
1950
814
719,883
12,806,704
NEW ERA IN INDIA
As a as result of Calendar Reforms Committee’s Report, the
Government of India has introduced a new era known as Saka era
from March, 1957. The day will be the 1st Chaitra : the year 18791
of the Saka era. Succeeding months will he Vaisakha, Jyaistha,
Ashar, Sravana, Bhadra — each of 31 days and Asvina, Kartika, Agra-
hayana, Pausa, Magha and Phalguna — of 30 days. Chaitra will have
30 days except the leap year when it will have 31.
The Central Government announced the decision to adopt the
new Calendar “for certain official purposes, in conjunction with
Gregorian (current) “Calendar”. It is made clear, however, that
“the Gregorian Calendar should continue to be used as hitherto for
official and like purposes.” The new Calendar is to be recommended
to the State Governments “for progressive use together with the
Gregorian Calendar. From March 22, the date according to the new
Calendar will be published in the Gazette of India and A I R’s open-
ing news broadcasts together with the Gregorian date.
According to the Government Note “there would be no deviation
from the prevailing custom in the observance of holidays. It is not
the intention that the new Calendar should be necessarily followed
for religious purposes”.
NATIONAL DEFENCE
DEFENCE ORGANISATION — ^After the partition of India in
August 1947, when the Armed Forces of India were divided between
the two countries on a communiai-cum-optional basis in the proportion
of one-third of Pakistan and two-thirds of the Union of India, British
troops were completely withdrawn from India on February 28, 1948.
Since then many important changes have been introduced in the de-
fence organisation. Till September 1946, the Commander-in-Chief
was the Supreme Commander and head of all the three services,
besides being a member of the Governor-General’s Executive Council
as Defence Minister. But in the Interim Cabinet a popular re-
presentative assumed charge as Defence Minister, although the Com-
mander-in-Chief continued to remain head of the three Services.
After 15 August, 1947, there was a further fundamental
change. From that date, each Service was placed under its own
Commander-in-Chief. The heads of the three Services were thus
designated Chief of the Army Staff and Commander-in-Chief of the
Army, Chief of the Naval Staff and Commander-in-Chief of the
Navy and Chief of the Air Staff and Commander-in-Chief of
the Air Force. From 1955, the Government of India decided
to redesignate the Commanders-in-Chief of the Army, Navy and
Air Force as Chief of the Army Staff, Chief of the Naval Staff and
Chief of the Air Staff, respectively.
Under the new Constitution, the supreme command of the
Armed Forces of the Indian Republic vests in the President, while the
three Service Headquarters, under the overall control of the Ministry
of Defence, are responsible for their administration and operational
control. All policy decisions are normally taken by the Defence
Committee of the Cabinet. This Defence Committee consists of the
Prime Minister as Chairman and the Ministers for Defence, Home
Affairs, Finance and Transport. All matters of policy are decided
by this Committee. The three Service Chiefs, the Defence Secretary
and the Financial Advisor (Defence) also attend meetings of the
Committee.
In order to ensure effective co-ordination among the three
Services, a netw'ork of committees has been established at different
levels. At the top is the Defence Minister's Committee which deals
rvith the more important inter-Seivices problems. It consists of the
Defence Minister, the three Service Chiefs, the Defence Secretarj'
and the Financial Adviser. The decisions of this Committee are final
and binding on all concerned. When important police issues are in-
volved, this Committee submits its recommendations to the Defence
Committee of the Cabinet.
REORGANISATION PROGRAlilMES— The Defence Ministry of
the Government of India has taken in hand ambitious development
and reorganisation programmes, the most important items of which
are as follows : —
398
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
1. Organisation of a new Army Command.
2. Establishment of a National Academy to train the future
officers of the three Services. The Academy with a new building was
opened early in 1955 at Khadakvasla, near Poona. The annual
intake of cadets will provisionally be 500 and the course of training
for entry into the permanent cadre of commissioned ranks in the three
services will extend over three years.
3. Formation of new training establishments in place of those
lost by partition and also to meet the Rowing needs of India, e.g.,
Staff College. College of Military Engineering and Naval training
establishments.
4. Development of Ordnance & other defence Factories — Efforts
for self-sufficiency in the matter of arms and equipment, which perhaps
is, at present, the Services’ ^eatest need, have continued unabated.
The most important step in this direction was the opening of Machine
Tool Prototype Factory, Ambemath in 1955 for manufacturing
prototypes of weapons and precision-type or specialised machine
tools required mainly by ordnance factories. Another industry
known as the Bharat Electronics Ltd.., designed to turn out wireless
and radar equipments has gone into production at Jalahalli, near
Bangalore.
5. A Defence Service Organisation came into being in 1948
under the Scientific Advisor to the Defence Llinistry. The consti-
tuent units of this body are the Policy Board and the Advisory
Committee which respectively deal with matters of scientific po-
licy and organisation of research in relation to defence requirements.
A Defence Science Service has been instituted, and it includes civilian
scientists engaged in research, development, inspection or teaching
in any of the three Services or in the Defence Ministry. The
organisation has a laboratory situated in the National Physical
Laboratory, Delhi, where research in defence service is carried on.
6. A Defence Production Board has been constituted under the
Ministry of Defence for proper co-ordination of research and de-
velopment with defence production. Apart from being respon-
sible for the efficient running of ordnance factories, the Board
pays special attention to maximum utilisation of the existing capacity
for defence production. Besides ordnance factories which produce
stores for the Defence Services, the other important industries
under the Defence hlinistry are the Hindustan Aircraft Ltd., and the
Bharat Electronics Ltd.
7. Oragnisaiton of Liaison and Procurement office in the U. K.
tmder the High Commissioner of India for all the three services : —
A strong organisation in the U.K. to look after the procurement of
defence stores and equipment from abroad, known as Armed Forces
Liaison and Procurement Organisation, has been created in the High
Commissioner of India’s Office in U.K. The liaison organisation has
three cells, one for each service which always keeps in touch with
Service Ministries of England.
8. _ Modernisation and strengthening of Naval fleet — ^The
first significant step towards the organitation of the Navy
NATIONAL DEFENCE
399
was theaquisition of the 7,000 tons cruiser of the Leander class DelUi
which was followed by the aquisitnon of three “E” class destroyers
Rajput, _ Ranjit and Rama and three Hunt class destroyers
Godavari, Gang a and Gomati. The Navy has now purchased
a colony class cruiser H.M.S. Nigeria, now renamed I.N.S. Mysore
which at present is being refitted and modernised in the U.K. A
suitably phasedout replacement programme has been worked out,
according to which old ships of the Fleet will be replaced by new
and modem ships within a period of six to eight years.
9. Strengthening of Air Force.
10. Military Training for the People — In order to build up a
reserve force to be called into service in a national emergency, a
Territorial Army (now called Lolc Sahayak Sena) and a National
Cadet Corps^ and a National Volunteer Force have been formed.
11. National Cadet Corps — On April 8, 1948, the Indian Parlia-
ment passed the Indian National Cadet Corps Act with the eject of (a)
developing character, comradeship, ideal of sei-vice and leadership
in the youth, (b) giving the youth of the country basic military
training and training in the weapons and equipment of the three Ser-
vices and thus attracting suitable youngmen to join the country’s
Armed Forces, (c) stimulating interest in the defence of the country
and (d) building up a reserve of leaders to enable the Armed Forces
to be expanded rapidly in a national emergency.
The N.C.C. is entirely voluntary, with no liability for service in
the Armed Forces. This is meant for the students in schools and
colleges. Along with the N.C.C., the Auxiliary Cadet Corps has come
into being. The most significant aspect of these two popular youth
organisations has been the expansion of the Girls Division. A junior
wing catering for school girls has been newly raised. The strength
of the N.C.C. at the_ beginning of 1956 was 1,21,450.
12. Indian Territorial Army — On September 1, 1948, was passed
the Indian Territorial Army Act primarily (a) to build up
a reserve force to be called into service in a national emergency, (b)
to be a second line of defence to reinforce the regular Army as and
when the occasion demands, (c) to guard the home front, up keep
the supply and communication lines open, man coastal defences
and assist the civil administration in preserving internal order. The
'Territorial Army will be maintained on a zonal basis in eight zones
and will comprise technical and administrative units pertaining to all
arms and services of the regular Army to form a balanced force by
itself. Every individual joining the Territorial Army will be required
to undergo a period of intensive training for a month or two every
year and a certain number of parades each month. The age-limit of
the Territorial Army was meant for citizens between the ages of
18 and 36. The largest strength of the Territorial Army which had
remained much below the authorised establishment for some years
was raised upto 96 per cent in 1954.
13. National Volunteer Force — ^The Government of India have
decided to form a new volunteer force, known as National Volunteer
Force, which was inaugurated on May 1, 1955, and replaces Auxiliary
Territorial Force started in 1953. In addition to giving elemen-
400
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
tary military training, the N.V.P. or Lok Sahayak Sena conducts
literacy drives among recruits. Five lakhs of people are expected
to be trained under this scheme during next five years.
14. Integration of Indian State Forces — On April 1, 1950,
the Armed Forces of India were completely unified.' The Govern-
ment of India assumed complete financial responsibility for an
overall control of the former Indian State Forces. In the case of
the State Forces of Travancore-Cochin, Mysore and Hyderabad, com-
plete control, administrative as well as operational, has been assumed
by the Indian Army.
15. New Pay & Pension Code — ^The review and rationalisation of
the pay, pension and gratuity benefits for Defence Services personnel
was completed in 1954. The New Pension Code for Armed Forces
personnel, as amplified up-to-date, applies to all permanent regular
commissioned officers (except former King’s Commissioned Officers
and certain other categories), permanent nursing officers and officers
of the branch list, navy and personnel below officer rank on regular
engagements of the Army, Navy & Air Force who were in service
on 1st June, 1953, or who joined service on or after that date,
16. Inter-Service Organisations — The other inter-service orga-
nisations under the Ministry are — the Director-General of Armed
Forces Medical Services, the Directorate of Military Lands and
Cantonments, the Directorate of Military Regulations and Forms, the
Indian Soldiers’, Sailors’ and Airmen’s Board the Joint Cipher
Bureau, the Fire Adviser, the Security Corps, the School of Foreign
Languages, the Defence Services Staff College and the National
Defence Academy.
INDIAN ARMY
The Army Headquarter, like the other two Services headquarters,
is located in Delhi, functions directly under the Chief of the
Army Staff. It is divided into the following main branches : (a)
General Staff Branch, (6) Adjutant-General’s Branch, (c) Quarter-
Master-General’s Branch, (d) Master-General of Ordnance Branch,
(e) Engineer-in-Chief’s Branch and (/) Military Secretary’s Branch.
These branches are further sub-divided into directorates.
The Chief of the General Staff, who is one of the four Principal.
Staff Officers (holding the rank of Major-General) at Army Head-
Quarter, deals with military operations and intelligence, staff duties,
training, artillery, signals, weapons and equipment, sur\’ey and the
Territorial Army.
The Adjutant-General, who is another P.S.O. deals with all
matters concerning man-power, such as pay and pensions, discipline
and terms and conditions of service. The Director of Medical
Services, who is responsible for the administration of the Army
kledical Corps, the Army Dental Corps and the Nursing Services is
under the A. G.’s Branch. The A. G. is also assisted by the
Judge Advocate-General in matters affecting military law and inter-
national law in its military aspects.
The third P.S.O. is the Quartermaster-General, who controls
NATIONAL DEFENCE
401
all rail and sea movement, both of personnel and stores within and
outside the country. He also deals with the quartering problems
of the Army as well as labour, canteen, fire and postal services.
There are three Directorates under him, namely. Quartering, Supply
and Transport and Remounts, Veterinary and Farms.
The Master-General of Ordinance, who is the fourth P.S.O. is
responsible for the storage, care and preservation and issue of all
kinds of equipment for the troops. The Directorate of Electrical and
Mechanical Engineering is also under M.G.O.
The Engineer-in-Chief is the head of the Corps of Engineers and
of the Military Engineering Service. The Engineer-in-Chief’s
Branch gives technical advice on all engineering matters to the three
Service Headquarters. The Military Secretary handles confidential
reports of officers and maintains their personal records. The M. S.
Branch is also responsible for posting and transfers, 'promotion and
retirement of officers and the grant of honorary ranks and all types
of commissions.
The Army is organised into three commands — Eastern, Western
and Southern — each being under a General Officer Commanding-in-
Chief of the rank of Lieutenant-General. The Commands are divided
into areas/ each under a G.O.C. of the rank of Major-General. The
areas, in their turn are sub-divided into sub-areas each under the
command of a Brigadier.
The Ai-my consists of various arms and services. They are :
Infantry, Ai-tillery, Armoured Corps, Corps of Engineers, Corps of
Signals, Seiwice Corps, Medical Corps, Dental Corps, Corps of Elec-
trical and Mechanical Engineers, Education Corps, Remounts, Veteri-
nary and Farms Corps and Corps of Military Police.
Interpersed throughout the three Commands are the various
schools of instruction, e.g. the Military College, the Engineering
College, the Signal School, the Artillery School, the Armoured Corps
School, the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School and the
Physical Training School. The larger schools and colleges are direct-
ly under the Army Headquarter for the purposes of administration,
while the smaller centres are under the Command Headquarters, e.g.,
Infantry regimental centres.
INDIAN NAVY
The history of the Indian Navy dates back to 1613 when
the Indian Marine was constituted as a fighting force of
the East India Company. In 1985 the name of the Service was
changed to Bombay Marine, by which name it was known till 1830.
After World War I in 1918 the Service was reconstituted on a
combatant footing. Later, the Indian Navy Discipline Act was
passed by the Indian Legislature and on September 8, 1934, the
Royal Indian Navy came into being. During World War II, the
Navy expanded from a force of 2,000 officers and men to a total
strength of 30,000 and modem ships began to be added to the fleet.
Before the dawn of freedom on August 15, 1947, India could
hardly be said to bave a navy of its own. What small forces of ships
26
402
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and escort vessels existed were merely an adjunct to the Royal Navy.
August 15, 1947, found this small force further reduced orving
.to the partition of the country as the result of which roughly one-
third of it went to Pakistan together with some of the most import-
ant naval establishments.
The Naval HQ., under the Chief of the Naval Staff, exercises
control over the Navy through the following four operational and ad-
ministrative commands :
1. Flag Officer (Flotilla), Indian Fleet.
2. Commodore-in-Charge, Bombay.
• 3. Commodore-in-Charge, Cochin, and
4. Naval Officer-in-Charge, Visakhapatnam.
Plans for the expansion of the Navy were immediately taken in
.hand by the Government of India. Before the year was out. Gov-
ernment of India purchased from Great Britain the 7,030 ton cruiser,
■Achilles, which was renamed Delhi. She became India’s flagship.
The acquisition of Delhi was followed by the purchase of three des-
troyers from Britain and these formed India’s first destroyer flotilla.
-Simultaneously, a frigate flotilla was formed. In 1954, the
Navy had acquired three Hunt class destroyers, namely Godavari,
Ganga and Gomati. The recent acquisition by the Fleet is the
• 8,000 ton Colony Class Cruiser H.M.S. Nigeria renamed I.N.S.
Mysore. This ship is being modernised and refitted in the U.K. and
is expected to join the Indian Fleet in early 1967. IVo of the
inshore minesweepers purchased by the Navy, namely I.N.S. Bassein
and Bimlipatam arrived in October 1956.
2. The Indian Fleet consists today of the following —
(a) Flagship Delhi (cruiser).
(b) Two Destroyer Squadrons — Rajput, Ranjit, Rana, Goda-
vari, Ganga and Gomati.
(c) One Frigate Squadron — TtV, Cauvery and Kislma.
(d) Junior Officers’ training ship — Tir.
(e) Two Minesweeping Squadron — Bombay, Konkon, Madras,
Bengal, Rohilkhand, Bassein and Bimlipatam.
(f) Survey ships — Investigator, Sutlej,
(g) Fleet tankers — Shakti and other auxiliary vessels at
Cochin.
(h) An aircraft carrier, I.N.S. ‘Mysore’ a colony-class cruiser
has recently been acquired and is expected to join in
1957.
The training of naval personnel is carried on at the following
shore establishment — ^INS Vendunithy, Cochin, INS Circars, Visakha-
patnam, INS Angre, Bombay, INS Shivaji, Lonavla, Bombay, NIS
Valeiira, Jamnagar and INS Hamla, Bombay. _
The training of personnel of the Naval Aviation Wing is carried
. out by the Fleet-Requirements unit of INS Garuda at Cochin. INS.
.Asvini at Bombay is the first and only naval hospital to be set up
so far. The Naval Dock Yard at Bombay is being e^anded to meet
growing requirements of the Fleet. For the productions and printing
of charts for marine survey, a Naval Hydrographic office has been
established at Debra Dun.
NATIONAL DEFENCE
403
Naval Wing of the Senior and Junior Divisions of the National
Cadet Corps came into being in 1952. Their object is to make youth
of the country naval-minded and impart naval training.
The year 1953 saw the inauguration of the Navy’s first air
station Ganula and the setting up of a shores-based fleet requirement
unit Vendiinithy at Cochin.
Cadets of the Navy are trained along with the cadets of the
Army and Air Force at the National Defence Academy at Khadak-
vasla. On completion of their training at the N.D.A., they are sent
to naval ships and establishment.
Ratings of the Navy get their training in shore estab-
lishments at Cochin (iM.S. VENDURUTHY AND LN.S.
GARVDA), Visakhapatnam (IJN.S. CIRCARS), Jamnagar {IME.
VALSURA), Lonavla SHIVAJI) and Bombay {I.N.S.
HAMLA).
I.NE. ANGRE (Bombay) controls the Naval Dockyard and
various other establishments. The other establishments of the Navy
include IJNE. ADYAR at Madras and /.JVjS. HOOGHLY at Calcutta.
IJ<I.S. ASVINI at Bombay is the first naval hospital to be set up.
On January 26, 1950, came a change in the name of the Navy
which was of considerable significance. On that day it dropped the
title ‘Royal’ which had been associated with it for long and since then
it came to he know as the Indian Navy, with the White Ensign yield-
ing place to the Indian Navy Ensign at all naval establishments and
ships.
Similarly, in the crests of the Navy, the old Tudor Crown was
replaced by the Asoka Lions and the former Star of India by the
Lotus.
The next epoch-making event in the history of the Indian Navy
took place on May 27, 1951, On that day, the President, Dr. Rajen-
dra Prasad, as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of India’s Armed
Forces, presented the President’s Colour to the Navy at a ceremony
in Bombay.
INDIAN AIR FORCE
On the recommendations of the Skeen Committee in 1926, a flight
of the Indian Air Force was formed on April 1, 1933. Beginning its
career with a few Wapiti aircraft and a handful of Cranwell-trained
pilots and a small team of airmen, the lAF has acquired a distin-
guished stature and status during the part 24 years. To-day, the
Service is not only a distinct and indispensiblc arm of the country’s
Armed forces, in keeping with the defence needs of the nation, but it
is a modem, flying fit, expanding Air Force,
On Air Force Day — April 1, 1954 when the lAF celebrated its
21st anniversary. Air Marshal S. Mookerjee took over command of
the Service. By then, all important executive posts, had been taken
over by Indian officers. On that historic day, the lAF was also
honoured by the presentation of the President’s Colour by the Presi-
dent and Supreme Commander, in token of the services rendered by
the lAF to the nation.
404
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
The functional control on the lAF is exercised hy Air HQ
with the Chief of the Air Staff as its head. The CAS has three Prin-
cipal Staff Ofncers controlling three Branches into which Air HQ
is divided.
Under the overall control of Air HQ come three main Co mm ands
of the LAF. The Operational Command controls all front line units,
the Training Command all training establishments, for flying,
ground, technical and non-technical training^ and the Maintenance
Command the various technical and equipment depots of the
lAF. The varioTis operational, training, technical and other static
units are further grouped under Wings and Stations, and controlled
hy one or the other of the three Commands. There are a few units
which come directly under the administrative and functional control
of Air HQ, such as the Record Office, the Central Accounts Office, the
Central lledical Board and the Sigrnals Centre.
Since Independence and more especially since the introduction
of ‘all through’ training system, aU training establishments have
been re-or^nised and a number of new training institutions esta-
blished. Since 1952, the LAP has achieved complete self-sufficiency
in flying, technical and non-technical training of its officers and
airmen. In fact, the lAP has been in a position to train airmen of
neighbouring Asian countries as aircrew and groimd technicians,
during the last few years.
The lAF has two full-fledged flying training colleges for the
training of pilots, navigators, air signallers and other members of
aircrew for flying duties. The No. 1 Air Force College is located at
Begumpet (Hyderabad, Deccan) and the No. 2 Air Force College at
Jodhpur. A third institution, known as the No. 3 Air Force College,
for training officers for various ground duties of non-technical nature,
is at Coimbatore. A Technical Training College for training officers
in aero-engineering, armament, signals and electrical specialisations,
was established in 1949 at Jalahalli, Bangalore, and is today consi-
dered as the premier institution of its kind in the East.
A net-work of technical and non-technical schools for training
airmen also exists as part of the lAF training set-up. Flying Ins-
tructors’ School, a Paratroopers’ School and an establishment for
training Air Force medical assistants, are some of the other important
training institutions.
The Air Force maintains an internal comier which twice a
month, links up all its stations in India and two external courier ser-
vices one with England and the other -with Indonesia.
Since Independency the Air Force has been entrusted with a
number of national duties which may well be termed as full-fledged
“operations” in peace-time. Some of these tasks are airlift of
Indian personnel of the International Supervisory' Commission to
Indo-China, air-drop of foodgrains and medical supplies in the N.E.
Frontier Agency and over a number of other places affected by
earthquakes, floods and siuular other natural calamities, carrying
out of photographic surveys to assist in the planning developmeiit of
hydro-electric schemes and several other national reconstruction pro-
jects undertaken as part of Five-year Plan.
NATIONAL DEFENCE
405
Vampires and Ouragans (Toofanis) are the modem jet
fighters which the lAP now uses for the air defence of the country.
Amongst the other aircraft in its fleet of bombers, transport, re-
connaissance, aerial survey machines, are Dakotas, Liberators, Aus-
ters, Flying Boxcars, Helicopters and Vicker Viscounts. As its
trainer equipment, the lAF has commissioned for service the first
India-built HT-2 trainer, in the development of which, the lAF had
a direct hand.
The lAF has also two full-fledged hospitals at Jalahalli and at
Jodhpur.
Air Reserves — The Resei-ve and Auxiliary Air Forces Act, passed
in August 1952, provides for the establishment of three different
categories of Air Force reserves.
The first type is to be known as Regular Reserves, comprising
those officers and airmen who have at one time or other served in
the regular Air Force and have since gone out of service on release
or retirement. The second category known as Air Defence Reserves,
will consist of all technical and flying personnel associated with
aviation but not directly connected with the regular Air Force. The
third type, known as Auxiliary Air Force, is more or less a counter-
part of the Territorial Army in the Land Forces. This auxiliary air
force will comprise a number of squadrons to be raised in principal
cities of India.
Three Auxiliary Air Force squadrons — No. 61 (Delhi) squadron,
No. 52 (Bombay) squadron and No. 53 (Madras) squadron — were
formally inaugurated in 1956. No. 64 (Calcutta) squadron has also
been formed.
GENERAL TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
National Defence Academy, Khadakvasla, Poona — The Services’
premier training institutions at Dehra Dun, the National Defence
Academy and the Joint Services Wing, moved to Khadakvasla near
Poona, in January, 1955 and started functioning at the permanent
new buildings of the Academy. What was _ formerly the Military
Wing of the National Defence Academy continues to remain at Dehra
Dun with its changed designation of Military College.
Cadets for the National Defence Academy are selected every six
months initially through the medium of the UPSC. They receive
training for three years at the Academy, after which they get specia-
lised training with their respective Service establishments before
being commissioned. The universities are being approached to grant
year to year recognition to the three years' course at the Academy.
This is being done to ensure that a cadet who is withdrawn from the
Academy for reasons other than weakness in academic subjects does
not suffer in his future studies on that account. ^
Defence Services Staff College, Wellington — ^This is an inter-
Services institution in the Nilgiri Hills, South India. One hundred
officers drawn from the three Services are trained here. The object
of the training is to prepare officers to hold second-grade or equivalent
staff appointments or higher staff or command appointments.
406
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Institute of Armament Studies, Kirkee — ^This institute, the first
of its kind in India, was established at Kirkee in 1952 and started its
regular course for technical staff officers in October, 1953.
An important function of this Institute is to maintain contacts with
the imiversities and other civilian research institutions to promote the
dissemination of basic knowledge of defence science. ,
School of Foreign Languages, New Delhi — ^This school has been
started at New Delhi in February, 1949, to impart instruction in
certain foreign languages to officers of the Armed Forces. _
College of Military Engineering, Poona — ^This college is situated
at Kirkee, near Poona. Officers of the Corps of Engineers, the Corps
of Signals and the Corps of Electrical & Mechanical Engineers are
trained to a degree standard in civil, tele-communication and electrical
and mechanical engineering respectively.
Armed Forces Medical College, Poona. — ^This college has been
started to train junior and senior medical officers — other ranks also
receive training to qualify as laboratory assistants, radiographers,
sanitary assistants.
MISCELLANEOUS
On January 2G, 1950, the President instituted three gallantry
awards, namely the Param Vir Chakra, the Malta Vir Chakra and
the Vir Chakra. These awards, which are given for gallantry in
combat with the enemy, came into force with effect from Augmst
15, 1947. All members of the Armed Forces, including the Nur-
sing Services and Civilians working with the Army, the Navy and
the Air Forces are eligible for these awards.
Every recipient of any of these decorations who is not a Com-
missioned officer is entitled to a special pension for life at prescribed
rates. On the death of .such a recipient, the pension is conti-
nued to his widow until her death or remarriage.
A fourth award, subsequently instituted, is Asoka Chakra
classes I, II, III for conferment in recognition of gallantry in civil
life.
The various Commissioned ranks in the Army from the top
downwards are : General, Lieutenant-General, Major-General, Bri-
gadier, Colonel, Lt. Colonel, Major, Captain, Lieutenant and Second
Lieutenant. The ranks of the Junior Commissioned Officers and other
ranks respectively are Subedar-major/Resaldor-major, Subedar/Risal-
dor and Jamadar/Dafadar and Havildar, Naik, Lance-Naik and
Sepoy/Sowar.
TTie various ranks of the Navy from the top downwards are :
Admiral, Vice-Admiral, Rear-Admiral, Commodore, Captain, Corn-
manner, Lt. Commander, Lieutenant, subLieutenant, Branch List
Officer, Midshipman, Chief Petty Officer, Petty Officer, Leading Rate,
Able Rate and Ordinary Rate.
. The various .commisioned ranks in the Air Force, from the top
downwards are : Air Chief Marshal, Air Marshal, Air Vice-Marshal,
Air Commodore, Group Captain, Captain, Wing Commander, Squadron
Leader, Flight Lieutenant, Flying Officer and Pilot Officer. The
NATIONAL DEFENCE
407
men are ranked as Master Warrant Officer, Warrant Officer, Plight
Sergeant, Sergeant, Corporal, Leading Aircraftsman, Aircraftsman
Class I and Aircraftsman Class n.
NATIONAL INCOME
The national income of India at 1948-49 prices was Rs. 10,170
crores in 1954-55 as compared with Rs. 10,040 crores in 1953-54 and
Rs. 9,460 crores in 1952-53. This is revealed by the third issue of the
annual paper on national income by the Central Statistical Organi-
sation. The per capita income at 1948-49 prices worked out to Rs. 269
in 1954-55 and 1953-54 as against Rs. 256.6 in 1952-53. The estimates
for 1953-54 are based on the detailed method of estimation followed for
the erlier years. The estimates for 1954-55 are, however, based on
partial material and are subject to revision.
SALIENT FEATURES
The salient features of the estimates are presented in the table
below ; —
o .u
2 =5
Rs. crores
1948-49
8650
1949-50
8820
1950-51
8850
1951-52
9100
1952-53
9460
1953-54
10040
1954-55
10170
capita
output
1948-49
vices
output
current
rices
■§ Re
e-tss
?> S
°g‘C
ij p-
■o
C.C c!
C C5
Rs.
Rs. crores
Rs.
246.9
8660
246.9
248.6
9010
253.9
246..3
9530
265.2
250.1
9970
274.0
256.6
9820
266.4
269.0
10490
281.0
269.0
9910
262.1
As is customary for national income estimates for the U. K. and
some other countries, the estimates for the past years are revised
when fresh data become available. In the Indian estimates also
certain revisions have been incorporated in the estimates for the
earlier years, particularly in the industry sector and some consequen-
tial changes in other sectors. This has affected the figures for 1951-
62 and 1952-53, some of which are now a little different from those
given in the earlier release. The changes, however, are not substantial.
408
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
SMALL RISE
Expressed at 1948-49 prices, there is a small rise in national in-
come between 1953-54 and 1954-55. The rise, however, is so
small that the per capita incomes for both years at 1948-49 prices
have been placed at Rs. 269. Expressed at current prices, the
national income in 1954-55 showed a decline of Rs. 580 crores or 5.5
per cent relative to 1953-54. The fall is entirely due to a large fall
in the price level. If the necessary adjustments were made for the
price levels in the two years, an increase in real term of 130 crores
or 13 per cent in 1954-55 over 1953-54 would be indicated as com-
pared with an increase of Rs. 580 crores or 6.1 per cent between
1952- 53 and 1953-54. The per capita income in 1954-55 at current
prices has gone down in comparison with the respective figure for
1953- 54. Thus, the broad conclusion is that while the incomes ex-
pressed at current prices have gone down, the substantial rise in real
national product which has occurred during the last three years has
been maintained between 1953-54 and 1954-55. Looked at from
another angle, the fall in money incomes at current prices has not
adversely affected the general population because the prices have also
gone down considerably. The absence of any large rise in national
income between 1953-54 and 1954-55 is almost entirely due to no rise
in agricultural production between the two years.
NORMAL PROGRESS
The progress of incomes in all other sectors has been quite
noi-mal. Fibres at current prices indicate a considerable shift
against agricultural and other primary production. While this is
partly due to a relatively larger rise of incomes in the secondary and
tertiary sectors, a disproportionately large fall in agricultural prices
is probably the main reason. When expressed at 1948-49 prices,
the relative share of agriculture still exhibits a small fall, while all
the other sectors mark some rise.
On the whole between 1948-49 and 1954-55 the per capita income
rose by some 9 per cent at constant prices.
NATIONAL INCOME OF INDIA
NATIONAL INCOME
409
lacoio cq -toacoci o
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Professions and liberal arts . . . . 'I.Il -l.S -1.7 6.0 6.2 6.2 6.6
Government services (administration) . . 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.6 4.0 4.9 6.2
Domestic service . . . . 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.4 1 2 1.4 1.4
House property . . . . 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.1 4’.2 4.4 4.5
Net domc.stic product at factor cost . . 8G.7 90.3 96.6 99.9 98.3 104.9 99.1
410
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
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Source: Cenlrnl Statisticnl Oi’ganisntion.
INDIANS OVERSEAS
India, more than two thousand years ago, was a great colonising
country, sending her people far and wide over East Asia and found-
ing colonies of a distinctly Indian character. But this sti-eam of
colonisation dried up round about the 8th century A.D. for reasons
which history does not make full clear. It may be that the Muslim
invaders checked the spirit of ejqjansion ; it may be that as Hinduism
absorbed Buddhism, the old missionary zeal abated and with it the
urge for adventures overseas.
Indian emigration started again in the 19th century, but it was
of an entirely different character. Instead of sending out traders,
missioneries and conquerors — ^people of high culture which stamped
itself indelibly on the culture of the countries they visited. She
sent out labourers of a humble order to work on the plantations of
tropical and sub-tropical countries. These people and their descen-
dants settled in their homes and have created Indian enclaves with a
distinct life of their own.
The vast mass of Indian emigration has been to countries within
the British Empire. The recruiting of Indian labour for planta-
tion work began in the 19th century. It was gpven stimulus by the
abolition of the slavery throughout the British Empire, when
emancipated slaves were on the whole unwilling to work for wages
and labour had to be recruited from else where. India with its large
agricultural population accustomed to labour for a low monetary
return offered a promising field of recruitment.
At first the recruitment was a personal venture but later the
traffic was organised by the importing countries. They appointed
emigration agencies which supervised recruiting within India,
arranged transport and organised distribution of labourers between
planters in the colonies. Labour was recruited on definite contract
— long term or short term. On expiry of the contract, the labourer
could either renew it, return home (usually with financial assistance)
or settle in the colony as a free man. This was the essence of the
system of indentured labour, which aroused strong criticism in India
and was finally abolished in 1916.
INDIANS OVERSEAS — ^Roughly, the total population of Indians
abroad is nearly four million. Despite the fact that the maximum
number of Indians living overseas is in Burma, the Indian population
to the total population there is only 6.9 p.c. whereas in Mauritius the
Indian population is proportionately the highest — 63.4 p.c. Next in
order comes British Guiana and the Fiji Islands each with 47 p.c.
of the total population being Indian nationals. In Trinidad and
Tobago, the Indian population is 36.1 p.c., in Malaya and Singapore
11 p.c., Ceylon 12.2 p.c. and Jamaica 2.1 p.c. The countries in which
Indians number more than a lakh are Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore.
412
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
South-Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, Mauritious, British Guiana and
Fiji Islands.
History of Emigration — ^The emigration of Indian labour began
at the beginning of the nineteenth century -when the Indians first
went to Straits Settlements in large numbers to work on the planta-
tions. The emigration remained unrelated until the passing of
the first Emigration Act in 1837. This Act was replaced by the
Indian Emigration Act of 1922 which was further amended in 1938
and again in 1940.
‘Emigration’ means departure by sea out of India of a person
under an agreement to work for hire. Emigration is not lawful
unless the departure is made from ports which have been notified
as “Emigration Ports.” Emigration for unskilled work is unlawful.
The functions under the Emigp-ation Act is carried out by the
Government of India through the Conti’oller-General of Emigration
and Joint Secretary to the Government of India in the Ministry of
External Affairs, New Delhi, with the assistance of the Protectors
of Emigp:ants at the Emigration Ports and the Controller of Emigra-
tion of Madras who supervises the activities of the Protectors of
Emigrants in the Madras State.
Nature of Work — According to the latest information, Indians
overseas are mostly labourers employed on tea and rubber planta-
tions in Ceylon ; on coconut and sugarcane plantations in Fiji
Islands ; on sugar and tea plantations in Mauritius ; on rice fields
and in industrial establishments in Burma ; in tin, coal, gold, iron
and aluminium mines and on rubber, tea. coconut, jute and cocoa
plantations in Malaya and as agricultural labour in British Guiana.
The Emigration Ports — The following ports are declared Emi-
gration ports under the Act -with a Protector of Emigrants at every
port —
(1) Bombay (Protector of Emigrants). (2) Okha (Port Officer),
(3) Porbander (Port Officer), (4) Bedi (Port Officer), (6) Madras
(Protector of Emigrants), (6) Negapattanam (Protector of Emig-
rants), (7) Dhanushkodi (Protector of Emigrants at Mandapam),
(8) 'Tuticorin (Protector of Emigrants), (9) Gopalpur (District
Officer, Ganjam), (10) Calcutta (Protector of Emigrants).
_ Quota System— Some countries, such as Canada, U.S.A. Thailand,
Philippines and Indonesia allow Indians on Quota System, such as —
(1) Canada — ^under an agreement in 1951 Canada agreed to
receive 150 Indian nationals every year for • permanent residence.
The selection is entirely by the Government of Canada.
(2) U.S.A. — U.S.A. has fixed a quota of 100 Indian nationals .
for settlement there per year, of which 25 p.c. is reserved for Indians
bom or residing outside India. The selection is made by tbe U.S.
Government.
(3) Thailand — ^has fixed quota of 200 Indian nationals per
year. Setection js made by Thai Government.
(4) Philippines — from September 1943, 50 Indian nationals are
admitted per annum under Philippines Immigration Act.
(5) Indonesia fixed a quota of 1,000 immigrants in 1952 to a
group of four countries, namely India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Burma.
INDIAN OVERSEAS
413
(6) _ Malaya — ^is now divided into two administrative units —
Fedaration of Malaya and Singapoi’e. Indians are eligible for citi-
zenship in the Federation of Malaya, if they fulfill the prescribed con-
ditions. Under the new citizenship code of 1952, Federal citizenship
is automatic for citizens of U.K. and colonies. Most of the Indians
in Malaya are qualified or entitled to became citizens of the U.K. and
colonies under the British Nationality Act of 1948. In Singapore
there is no citizenship law and the British Nationality Act applies.
Unrestricted Migration — There are many countries where
Indians are not admitted for the specific purpose of settlement ; they
can enter and reside on completion of formalities on conditions pres-
cribed under the respective immigration and other laws of those
countries such as —
Mauritius, British East African territories of Kenya, Uganda,
Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Northern Rhodesia, Nayasaland, Belgian Con-
go, Ruanda-Urandi, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Aden, Bahrein, Iraq, Muscat,
Kiwait, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Malaya, Fiji, Japan, United King-
dom, British West Indies, British Guiana and British North Borneo.
Ban on Entry — Indian immigratoin is either banned or is not per-
mitted as a matter of policy into the following countries— South
Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, Australia, New
Zealand, Ceylon, Nayasaland, Burma, most of the European and
South American countries.
In Australia, Asians including Indians are not allowed to
immigrate for permanent settlement. But Indians who are bona
fide merchants may be admitted and allowed to remain there so
long as they continue to the trade. In Burma no foreigner is
allowed to buy any property, nor can any property be transferred
to any foreigner. As foreigners of the country Indians have no
franchise. The worst form of racialism prevails in Union of South
Africa. The new worst legislation in this respect is Group Areae
Act of 1950 which divides the entire population in three main
groups — ^White, Native and Coloured. The Indians are included in
the Coloured group.
INDIANS OVTBRSEAS
Commonwealth Countries
Australia (1947) 2,500 Kenya (1954) 127,000
Canada (1951) 3,000 Uganda (1954) 60,000
New Zealand (1952) 1,200 Nayasaland (1954) 6,000
South Africa (1961) 3,65,524 Zanzibar & Pemha
-Ceylon (1954) 969,726 (1948) 16,812
Malaya (1954)' 691,431 Tanganyika (1954) 68,500
Singapore (1954) 91,029 Jamaica (1954) 26,500
Hongkong (1965) 2,000 Trinidad & Tobago (1964) 50,800
Mauritius (1953) 3,52,405 Br. Guiana (1954) 2,10,000
Gibraltar (1954) 41 Fiji Islands (1955) 160,303
Nigeria (1947) 304 Br. North Borneo (1954) 2000
(1) Including Pakistanis,
414
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK.
Ck)mnioii\realth Countries
N. Rhodesia 11954)
3,500
Br. Hondtixas (1946)
2,000
S. Rhodesia (1954)
4,700
Sierra Leone (1948)
76
Aden (1946)
9,456
United Kingdom*
Sarawak (1954)
2,201
Leeward Islands (1946)
99
Brunei (1947)
436
Gold Coast (1954)
329
Br. Somaliland (1946)
250
St. Vincent (1954)
2,000
Malta (1948)
37
Barbados (1955)
140
Granada (1954)
4,000
St. Kitts (1950)
97
St. Lucia (1954)
3,000
Foreign Countries
Afganistan (1954)
236
Lebanon (1955)
59
Argentina (1955)
300
Madagascar (1950)
9,954
Austria (1955)
41
Muscat (1947)
1,145
Bahrein (1956)
3,000
Nepal (1941)
10.441
Belgian Congo (1950)
1,227
Palestine (1947)
56
Belgitim (1955)
72
Panama (1950)
90S
Brazil (1955)
60
Philippines (1954)
1,295
Burma (Approx.)
650,000
Portuguese E. Africa
Cambodia (1955)
200
(1948)
5,000
Denmark (1955)
22
Quatar (1954)
800
Dutch Guiana (1955)
70,000
bunion Is. (1947)
2,200
Etliiouia & Eritrea (1955) 1,645
Ruanda Urundi (1950)
1,963
France (1953)
390
Saudi Arabia (1948)
2,400
Germany (1953)
36
Sharjah Dubai (Persian
Indoaesea (1952)
40,000
Gulf 1954)
250
Iran (1953)
800
Sweden (1955)
79
Iraq (1955)
850
Switzerland (1955)
250
Italian Somaliland (1947) 1/)Q0
Syria (1954)
13
Italy (1955)
113
Thailand (1955)
1L235
Japan (1954)
501
U.SA- (1954)
1,428
Kuwait (1954)
2,500
U.S.S.R. (1953)
15
•Latest figure not avaUafile.
INDIAN CENSUS
BROAD OUTLINES— The census taken in India in 1961 is the
eighth regular census and first census of free India, We enumerate
here the broad outlines of 1961 census —
1. Total Population
2. Literacy for India (1951)
3. No. of females to every 1,000
males
4. Urban population
5. Rural population
(J. Total no. of towns
7. Total no. of villages
8. P.c. of population dependent
on agriculture
9. Density of population
10. Increase over 1941 census
11. Total land area covered by
1961 census
12. Highest density, Delhi,
13. Increase of urban population
over 1941
14. P. C. of population dependent
on agiiculture
366,879,894
16-6 p.c.
947
62 millions or 17'3 p.c.
295 millions or 82-7 p.c.
3,018
558,089
70
312 per sq. m,
12.5 p.c,
12,69,640 Sq. ni.
3,017 per sq. m.
3.5 p.c.
70
GROWTH OF POPULATION
1891
Pop. in
■millions
. . 235-90
Increase in
millions
P.c. of
increase
1901
. . 235-50
-0-4
-0-7
1911
. . 249-05
13-55
+6-8
1921
. . 248-18
-0-87
-0-3
1931
. . 276-52
27-34
+11-0
1941
. . 314-77
39-25
+14-3
1951
. . 356-88
42-11
+13-4
INDIA AND THE WORLD — ^India’s total population is the
second highest in the world. So far as land area is concerned, she
ranks seventh in the world next to U.S.S.K., China, Canada, Brazil,
U.S.A. and Australia. India occupies 2,2 per cent of the total land
area of the world and supports 16 p.c. of the world population
against China’s 19. In Asia next to Japan, Lebanon and Korea, she
has the highest density of population. The population of India is
more than combined population of North America and South
America, about twice the population of Africa and about 44 times
the population of Australia, It is 1.8 times the population of
U.S.S.R., 2.4 times the population of U.S.A. and 7 times the popula-
416
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
tion of United Kingdom. Humanity consists of nOt_ less than six
and not more than seven persons for every person living in India.
But the total land area of all the countries of the world is well oyer
forty times as extensive as India. The total number of people living
in U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. put together is slightly smaller than the total
number of the people of India. But the land area of these two
countries is far more than nine times as large and not far short of
ten times as large as India.
RURAL-URBAN RATIO — ^The census figures indicate a signifi-
cant bias towards urbanisation. Of the 357 million who constitute
the total population of the country, only 62 million or 17‘3 per cent
live in cities and towns while the remaining 295 million or 82-7 per
cent live in villages. The tables below shows the gradual trend
towards urbanisation —
P.c. of total population
Rural Urban
1921 .. 88-7 11-2 1941
1932 .. 87-9 12-1 1951
P.c. of total population
Rural Urban
. . 86-1 13'9
. . 82-7 17-3
CITIES — ^India has 73 cities with a population of 1,00,000 and
over. This clearly indicates a shift in the population from rural to
urban areas.
In cities, specially industrial ones, males preponderate over
females, such as in Calcutta, Bombay, Kanpur, Ahmedabad, New
Delhi, etc.
States having cities with a population of 1,00,000 or over as
follows — Bombay — 8 cities ; UJ*. — ^16 cities ; Bengal — 6 cities ; Mad.
— 4 cities ; Bihar — 5 cities ; Punjab, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Rajas-
than,^ Saurashtra — 3 cities each ; Madhya Pradesh (fmd Travancore-
Cochin — 2 cities each ; Ajmer and Manipur — 1 city each.
LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS — Out of the total population of 3,566
lakhs, 1,044 lakhs (29.3 p.c.) are self-supporting ; 2,143 lakhs (60.1
p.c.) are non-earning dependents and 379 lakhs (10-6 p.c.) earning
dependents.
Out of the total agricultural population of 2,490 lakhs, 710
lakhs are self-supporting, 1,470 lakhs are non-earping dependents
and 310 lakhs earning dependents.
Out of the total non-agricultural population of 1,072 lakhs, 334
lakhs are self-supporting, 673 lakhs are non-earning dependents and
69 lakhs earning dependents.
RELIGION
No. in lakhs
Hindu . . 3,032
Sikh . . 62
Jain . . 16
Buddhist . . 2
Zorastrian 1
Christian 82
No. per No. in lakhs
10,000
8,499 Muslim 354
174 Jew
45 Tribal .. 17
6 Non-Tribal 1
3 All Religions 3,567
230
No. per
10,000
993
47
3
10,000
INDIAN CENSUS
417 .
TOWNS & VILLAGES IN INDIA
No. of Villages . . 558,089 Population in
Population in Towns .. 619 lakhs
Villages . . 2,950 lakhs No. of towns with
No. of Towns . . 3,018 pop. one lakh or
or over . . 73
SEX RATIO
In India as a whole the total number of males is 183 millions and
of females 174 millions.
India has 947 females for every 1,000 males. The number of
males exceeds that of the females in all the States except Orissa,
Manipur, Madras, Travancore-Cochin, where for every 1,000 males
there are 1,022, 1,036, 1006, 1008 and 1079 females respectively.
The minimum number of females is found in the Andaman & Nicobar
Islands (625 per 1,000 males) and Delhi (768 per 1,000 males).
Sex ratio for the ten larger cities in India is as follows — Greater
Calcutta 602, Greater Bombay 596, Madras 921, Delhi 750, Hyderabad
989, Ahmedabad 764, Bangalore 883, Kanpur 699, Poona 883,,
Lucknow 783.
hlARITAL STATUS — Out of every 10,000 persons in India
there are 5,133 males and 4,867 females. Among them 2,521 males
and 1,886 females are unmarried. If we reckon males and females
together, the unmarried people are 44.1 p.c. of th population.
The proportion of unmarried person is highest in. South 'India
(48.2 p.c.) and lowest in Central India (41.1 p.c.).
FUTURE GROWTH — It is the considered opinion of the census
authorities that unless the rate of the growth of population is check-
ed by contraception or a breakdown of food supply of a serious nature,
population will increase during 1951-80 at a faster rate than during
1921-50. So the following forecast which errs on the side of under-
statement, can be accepted.
Pop. in Pop. in
crores crores
1951 .. ..36 1971 .. ..46
1961 . . . . 41 1981 . . . . 52
The Census Commissioner stated that the only solution is
the population control. Census Commissioner has pleaded for the
adoption of a 15 year plan for the elimination of improvident mater-
nity in India, such as efficient, harmless and economical methods of
birth control and other measures.
BIRTH RATES AND DEATH RATES— During the ten years
1941-50, births occured at an average rate of 40 per thousand per
annum and deaths at an average rate of 27 per thousand per annum.
Hence, the natural increase of the population has been occuring
during 1941-50 at an average rate of 13 per thousand per annum.
The Statement here gives birth and mortality rates : —
27
418 HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
(per 1,000)
Birth
Death
Infant
Birth
Death
Infant
rate
rate
mortality
rate
rate
mortality
1936
.. 36
23
162
1946
. . 28-9
18-7
136
1937
. . 35
22
162
1947
. . 26-6
19-7
146
1938
.. 34
24
167
1948
. . 25-4
17-1
130
1939
.. 34
24
156
1949
. . 26-7
16-0
123
1940
.. 33
22
160
1950
.. 24-8
16-0
127
1941
. . 32-1
21-9
158
1951
.. 24-9
14-4
124
1942
. . 29-5
21-4
163
1952
.. 24-8
13-6
116
1943
. . 26-1
23-9
165
1953
.. 24-8
13-5
118
1944
. . 25-8
24*5
169
1954
. . 25-5
13-0
113
1945
. . 20-0
22-1
151
AGE STRUCTURE
Age Structure — The age strnctnre of the Indian people has a
striking difference from Trestem countries — the juvenile proportion
of our population is much higher than in U.SA. or European coun-
tries and a little higher than Japan.
Infants & young children
Boys and girls
Young Man & Woman
Middle aged man & vroman
Elderly people
Age-group
Pereentai
0 to 4
13-5
5 to 14
24-8
15 to 24
17-4
25 to 34
15’6
35 to 44
11-9
45 to 54
8-5
55 to 64
5-1
65 to 74
2-2
75 and over
1-0
100-0
POPULATION OF SPECIAL GROUPS — In 1951 conformity
■with the Government’s policy of discouraging community distinctions
based in caste, information about race, caste or tribe has been collec-
ted only from certain groups of people -who have specifically been
mentioned in the Constitution. A person is a member of the “Special
Group” if he is a member of a Scheduled Caste, of a Scheduled Tribe,
of any other ‘Backward Class’ or if he is an ‘Anglo-Indian’ —
Anglo-Indians 1,11,637 Scheduled Castes 5,13,43.898
Scheduled Tribes 1,91,16)498
■ _ EXPECTATION OF LIFE — The Census .Actuary of India has
estimated the expectation of life in India on the basis of 1951 census
at 32.45 years for males and 31.66 years for females. The last offi-
cial estimate on the basis of 1931 census -was 26.91 for males and 26.56
INDIAN CENSUS
419
for females. Though no ofScial estimate for the expectation of life
based on 1941 census was made, yet Prof. Kingslay Davis in his
book Population of India and, Pakistan has estimated the expectation
at 32,09 for males and 31.37 for females.
BEGGARS IN INDIA — There has been a steep fall in the num-
ber of beggars and vagrants in India — from 2.5 millions in 1911 to
about half a million in 1951, a fall of 81 per cent.
Bihar
Punjab
Madras
Bombay
Orissa
W. Bengal
Sikkim
Coorg
P.c. of beggars State-wise
0-06 Himachal Tripura 0‘20
0'08 Pradesh 0-05 Madhya Bharat 0‘20
O’lO Vindhya Pradesh 0-06 Hyderabad 0'25
O'll Mysore 0-07 Rajasthan 0’27
0'12 Tra.-Cochin 0'09 Kutch 0-29
0-17 PEPSU 0-10 Bhopal 0-32
O'Ol Ajmer 0-14 Saurashtra 0’38
0-05
FERTILITY OF INDIAN WOMEN
A country-wide sample census of births and deaths was conduc-
ted by the Registrar-General of India in 1952-53 and 1953-64, The
following is the summary of the result —
An average Indian women gives births to between six and seven
children during her productive period. This is very much higher
than the figures for other countries. In Japan it is 6.3, in United
States 3.3 and in England 2.6.
For mothers of completed fertility, the child-loss varies from
about 20 per cent to about 33 per cent. In other words about one-
fifth to one-third of the children bom predecease their Unothers.
The pattern of fertility of women in India is a distinctive one.
In the first place, India has the highest age specific fertility (birth
per 1,000 females in the same age-group) for “all ages” as well as
individual age-groups when compared with the United States or
Canada or European countries like England, Belgium, Denmark and
Prance or even Japan.
Secondly, fertility in India follows different trends from those of
American or European countries or Japan.
Fertility in this country is low in the age-group 16-19 hut rises
sharply in the next age-group 20-24 and rises slightly in the age-group
26-29. Then a decline occurs.
Fertility in the age-group of 40-44 and 45-49 in this country is
very high as compared with the other countries. The wide use of
contraceptives in the other countries explains this difference.
The family in India grows “earlier and faster,” as different
order of births occur earlier than in western countries.
420
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
AREA & POPULATION-^
-
Area
Pop.
Area
Pop.
States
(Sq. miles)
States
(Sq. miles)
PART A.—
PART C,—
Andhra
63,608
20,507,801
Ajmer
■2,417
693,372
Assam
86,012
9,043,707
Bhopal .
6,878
836,474
Bihar
70,330
40,225,947
Coorg
1,586
229,405
Bombay
111,434
35,956,150
Delhi
578
1,744,072
Madhya
. Himachal Pra-
Pradesh
130,272
21,247,533
desh & Bilas-
Madras
60,362
35,734,489
pur
10,904
1,109,466
Orissa
60,136
14,645,946
Kutch
16,724
567,606
Punjab
37,378
12,641,205
Manipur
■ 8,628
577,635
Uttar
Tripura
- '4,032
639,029
Pradesh
113,409
63,215,742
Vindhya
West Bengal
Pradesh
- 23,603
3,574,690
■with Chan-
'
dernagore
30,779
24,860,217
Total <
75,350
9,971,749^
Total
762,720 278,078,737 PART D, etc.-
—
Andaman &
PART B.—
Hyderabad
Madhya
Bharat
82,168
18,655,108
Nicobar
Islands
Sikkim
46,478
7,954,154
TotaF
Mysore
33,309
9,848,684
PEPSU
10,078
3,493,685
SUMMARY—
Rajasthan
130,207
15,290,797
Part A
Saurashtra
21,451
4,137,359
Tra.-Cochin
9,144
9,280,425
Part B
Pari; C
Total
332,835
68,660,212
Part D, etc.
3,215 30,971
2,744 137,725
6,959 168,696)'
762,720 278,078,737
332,835 68,660,212 '■
75,350 9,971,749 '
5,959 168,696
Bihar
Patna
Jamshedpur
Gaya
Bhagalpur
Ranch)
Bombay
Bombay
Total 1,176,864 356,879,394.
. (Source : Ministry of Home Affairs)'.
POPULATION OF CITIES
283,479
218.162
133,700
114,530
106,849 •
. . 2,839,720
Ahmedabad
Poona ’
Sholapur
Surat
Baroda
Kolhapur
Hubli
788,833
480,982
266,050
223,182
211,407
136.835
129,609
. * Kashmir and Tribal-Areas of Assam are not included
in the 1951 census.
INDIAN
CENSUS - . -
. 421
Andhra
West Bengal
Vijayawada
161,198
Calcutta
2,548,677
Guntur
125,255
Howrah
*
433,630
Visakhapatnam
108,042
Tollyganj
*
149,817
Rajamundry
105,276
Bhal.para
.
134,916
Kharagpur
129,636
Madhya Pradesh
Garden Reach
109,160
Nagpur
449,099
Behala
104,055
Jabalpur
256,998
Hyderabad
Madras
Hyderabad
•
1,085,722
Madras
1,416.056
IVarangal
*
133,130
Madurai
361,781
Tiruchirapalli
218,921
Madhya Bharat
Salem
202,335
Indore
„
310,859
Coimbatore
197,765
Gwalior
241,577
Kozikode
158,724
Ujjain
•
129,817
Mangalore
• •
117,083
Vellore
• «
106,024
Mysore
Tanjore
« •
100,680
Bangalore
778,977
Mysore
244,323
Orissa
Kolar Gold fields
159,084
Cuttack
102,505
Rajasthan
Punjab
Jaipur
291,130
Amritsar
325.747
Jodhpur
•
180,771
Jullundur
168,816
Bikaner
•
117,113
Ludhiana
153,795
Saurashtra
Uttar Pradesh
Bhavnagar
•
137,951
Kanpur
705,383
Rajkot
• •
132,069
Lucknow
496,861
Jamnagar
104,419
Agra
375,665
Banaras
355,777
Travancore-Cochin
Allahabad
332,295
Trivandrum
186,931
Meerut
233,183
AUeppey
.
116,278
Bareily
208,083
Moradabad
161,854
Ajmer
Saharanpur
148,435
Ajmer
•
196,633
Dehra Dun
144,216
Aligarh
141.618
Bhopal
Rampur
134.277
Bhopal
.
102,333
Gorakhpur
132.436
Jhansi
127.365
Delhi
Mathura
105,773
Delhi
914,790
Shahjahanpur
104,835
New Delhi
.
, 276,314
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INDIAN CENSUS
423
P. C. OF POPULATION BT RELIGION
84'99 Sikhs 1*74 Zoroastrians 0‘03
9-93 Jains 0-45 Other Tribals 0-47
2'30 Buddhists 0'06 Non-Tribals 0'03
LITERACY IN INDIA, 1955
Percentage of lAteracg
[.The definition of literacy according to 1951 census was ability to
read and lorite a simple letter]
Part A States Part C States
males females
total
males females
total
Andhra
22-2
8-6
15-1
Ajmer
29-1
10-3
20-1
Assam
27-1
7-0
18-1
Bhopal
12-3
3-9
8-2
Bihar
20-6
3-8
12-2
Coorg
34-0
19-0
27-2
Bombay
35-5
12-7
24-6
Delhi
43-0
32*3
38-4
M. P.
21-9
5-9
13-5
Himachal
Madras
32-6
11-0
21-8
Pradesh
7-7
12-6
2-4
Orissa
27-3
4-3
16-8
Kutch
24-4
10-2
17-1
Punjab
22-0
9-5
16-1
Manipur
20-8
2-4
11-4
U. P.
17-4
3-4
10-8
Tripura
22-3
8-0
15-5
West Bengal 34’7
12-8
24-6
Vindhya
Pradesh
10-9
1>1
6-1
25-4
8-1
16-7
21-1
8-5
15*1
Part B States
Hyderabad
15-1
3-0
9-2
Part D States & other countries
M. B.
17-4
3-7
10-8
Andaman &
Mysore
29-5
9-8
19-9
Nicobar H’s-
34-2
12-3
25-8
PEPSU
17-7
5-2
8-4
Sikkim
12-8
1-3
7-3
Rajasthan
13-7
2-6
8-4
Saurashtra
26-3
10-5
18-5
17-3
3-0
10-7
Travancore-
All India .
, 24-9
7-9
16-6
Cocbin
55-2
37-7
46-4
Hindus
Muslims
Christians
INDIilN ARCHAEOLOGY
Beg'innings of Archaelo^cal Study in India — idea of found-
ing an institution for promoting tlie study of oriental literature Md
culture %vas first conceived by Sir William Jones, tlie Puisne Judge
of the Supreme Court at Calcutta. In January, 1784 within, four
months of his arrival, Asiatic Society of Bengal and a nioseum vrere
esiahlished under his guidance with the object of enquiring into the
history and anitquities, arts, sciences and literature of Asia.
Though great impetus was given to the_ study of archaeology,
there was, however no systematic exploration of the antiquarian
remains in the country during all these years. Alexander Cunning-
ham who had come to India in 1813 in the service of the Government
of India as a Lieutenant of the Royal Engineers urged that the Gov-
ernment of India should help in the preservation of ancient' monu-
ments by the appointment of a suitable officeir at Government expe^e.
Cunningham’s appeal met with no response from Government but
in 1860, lA)rd Canning, the first "Viceroy of India decided to establish
an Axchaeologdcal Department of Northern India with Cunningham
as the first Archaeological Surveyor of India on a purely temporary
basis. Cunningham’s activities were confined only within North-
Western Provinces (present U.P.) and Bihar. In J866, after four
years of appointment, the post w^s retrenched. However in 1870,
during the vieeroyalty of Lord Mayo, Government of India sanctioned
the post of a Director-General of Archaeological Survey, for which
Cunningham was appointed. ' This department’s activities were con-
fined only to Northern India. In 1874 the activities of the survey
was extended to Western and Southern India. The conservation of
ancient monuments however did not form any part of the duties of
this department. This service was supposed to be performed by
the Provincial Governments through their P. W. D. The residt was
that a scant attention was paid to the structural monuments of
India. However in 1878, Lord Lytton, the then "Viceroy of India
wrote “the preservation of national antiquities and works of art
ought not to be left to the charges of local Government.” The pro-
nouncement led to the creation of the post of a “Curator of Ancient
Monuments”. His duty was to prepare a classified list of ancient
monuments of each province and to advise Government as to which
of them were fit to be kept in permanent good repuir or decayed
beyond that point but not in complete ruin or were unimportant or
irretrievably ruined. But this post was again abolished and the task
of conservation of monuments again devolved on Provincial Govern-
ments. The same year saw another great archaeological event in the
passing of the Indian Treasure Trove Act W of 1878.
In 1885 the Surveys of Northern and Southern India were amal-
gamated and was placed under a Director General. The whole of
British India was divided into five circles, vir., Madras, Bombay,
INDIAN ARCHA2L0GY
425
Punjab (with Sind and Rajputana), North-West Provinces (with
Central India and Central Provinces) and Bengal (with Assam).
But from 1889 the suia^ey again fell into bad days with the result
that several important posts were kept in abeyance.
But the brightest day of Indian Archaeology in India dawned
with the appointment of Lord Curzon as the Viceroy of India. In one
of his speeches he announced '“the conservation of ancient monu-
ments as one of the primary obligation of the Government”. So
revival of the activities of the survey began again. Indian States
were put under one or other of the Surveyor. In 1904, the legisla-
ture passed the much needed Ancient Monuments Preservation Act
which brought a new era for Indian archaeology. The main object of
the Act was “to ensure the proper upkeep and repair of ancient
buildings in private ownership excepting such as were used for reli-
gious purposes, to prevent the excavation of sites of historic interest
by ignorant and unauthorised persons, and to secure control over the
traffic in antiquities.”
With the departure of Lord Curzon in 1906 the Department
passed through various vicissitudes of fortune. From 1907 onwards
there had been curtailments, retrenchments, reorganisations. The
Reforms of 1919 made archaeology a Central subject and since then
it has continued to be such. Since the inception, the survey had
concerned itself primarily with monuments dating from Maurya
Period, because very little archaeological evidence of a period earlier
than the time of Buddha was forthcoming. It was never dreamt
that there could have been an earlier civilisation which was in every
respect superior to the civilisation of the Aryan immigrants. AU
such ideas were however completely transformed by the discovery
of the Indus Valley Civilisation to gather with regular excavations
of important archaeological sites and also explorations in the
borders of India and beyond them such as the undertakings of Sir
Aurel Stein in Chinese Turkistan, made the work of the survey more
progressive and more widespread.
With the attainment of Independence on 15th August, 1947 and
the partition of the country, fresh reorganisation of the department
was called for. East Bengal was lost to the Eastern Circle and the
West Punjab, Sind and NWFP to the Frontier Circle. Orissa was
taken out of South Eastern Circle and added to the Eastern Circle.
East Punjab was added on to the Delhi Circle converting it into a
full Circle.
The Administration — The Archaeological Department has no pro-
vincial centres, but for the purpose of carrying out archaeological
work in the States it has been divided into seven circles: — 1. Northern
Circle, Agra. 2. Central Circle, Patna. 3. Eastern Circle, Calcutta.
4. S. E. Circle, Visakhapatnam. 6. Southern Circle, Madras. 6.
Western Circle, Poona. 7. Delhi Circle, Delhi. There is a
Central Advisory Board of Archaeology presided by the Minister of
Education, Government of India. This Board is an advisory body
consisting of the representatives of Parliament, States, learned bodies
— ^both scientific and historical — and the Central Archaeological
Officers.
426
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Archaeological Research — The works of the Department is pri-
marily two fold, conservation and research and exploration and is
divided into four branches, namely. Excavation Branch, Epigra-
pMcal Branch, Chemical Branch and Museum Branch. _
Epigraphical Research — enjoys an unique position in India.
Nowhere else has it served history so well as it has done
here. India has inherited a vast legacy of epi^aphical_ material.
The number of old inscriptions discovered runs literally into thou-
sands. Inscriptions are found more commonly on metals and stones.
This research is being carried out by the Epigraphical Branch.
Chemical BrancE— came into being in 1917. The principal work
of this department is the chemical treatment and preservation of
museum exhibits and other antiquities, chemical conservations of
monuments and interpretation of ancient Indian techniques through
chemical analysis and scientific examination of all specimens.
Museum Branch— T^he development of Indian museums has been
one of the important works of the Department. The progressive
expansion of archaeological enterprise tkroughout the country gave
rise to the growth of archaeological museums on excavated sites, such
as, Nalanda, Samath. The museum branch of the department was
established in 194B to control site museums. A National Museum of
India has been started at New Delhi. The foundation stone of the
Museum building was laid by the Prime Minister on May 12, 1955.
Publication — another important activity of the Department is the
publication of the results of excavation and other research work.
The publications of the Archaeological Survey of India have at times
assumed different forms and represented various degrees of scholar-
ship and merit, but they have on the whole constituted a noble mine
of information for any future historian of India.
National Archives of India — ^is the repository of the recorded
files and papers of the Government of India. This valuable mass
of papers forming an important part of the nation’s cultural heri-
tage is impressive both in quality and quantity. In many ways it
is perhaps the best historical material in the world. The steel shelves
of the department cover about 14 miles of shelf space and shelter
72,691 bound volumes and 3,644,000 • unbound documents which lie
in the buUding.
National Archives of India which was styled as Imperial Records
Department before independence came into existence in 1891. The
contents of the National Archives include numerous documents of
great historical importance. The regular series of records begin
from 1748 but some interesting collections relate to earlier years.
Historical Records Commission — ^The Commission was set up
in 1919 by a regulation of the Government of India. It is a national
organisation of individuals and institutions engaged in the study,
upkeep and preservation of records and historical manuscripts. The
Minister of Education is the ex-officio President of the Commission
and the Director of National Archives is the Secretary.
Training Facilities — The National Archives of India have made
considerable progress in granting research facilities to scholars and
the provision of facilities for training in archives.
LANGUAGES
( INDIA & WORLD )
Some of the World’s Greatest Languages — Chinese Lan-
guage is spoken by the greatest number of the people of
the -world. Nearly 600,000,000 people speak Chinese or
variations of it, such as Mandarin, Cantonese, etc. English is the
major commercial, scientific and deplomatic language of the world
and is the most -widely used second language in foreign countries.
It is used as a first language by more than 250 million people and
is used as a second language by countless millions more. Russian
has nearly 200 million speakers. Hindustani, the principal language
of India is spoken by about 160 million people. Exceeding 60 million
are Arabic, Bengali, French, German, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese,
Portuguese and Spanish.
Indo-European — ^Thc languages of the peoples of Europe
and parts of Asia appear to have come from a mother language
which is generally called “Indo-European” language. The Indo-
European Languages are divided into Germanic, Celtic, Romance,
Albania, Greek, Slavic, Baltic, Indo-Iranian and Armenian. A short
note on languages is given here —
Romance languages arc one of the most important of Indo-European
language. Latin is the mother of the Romance languages which
include Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Rumanian
Celtic — includes Welsh, Briton, Irish, Scottish, Gaelic, Manx.
Germanic — includes modem German, Dutch, English, Swedish,
Danish, Norwegian among its principal languages
Greek-— has modem Greek as survivor of a group of historical
languages
Slavic — ^languages include Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Baltic.
Albanian and Armenian — are classified separately in the Indo-Euro-
pean Group.
Indo-Iranian — Consisting of numerous languages of middle and
Southern Asia spoken by over 300,000,000, includes Iranian, Indie,
to which classical Sanskrit is related, Hindi,_ Bengali, Kashmiri,
Gujarati, Marathi, Rajasthani, Punjabi, Pahari, Urdu, Hindustani,
Oriya.
Dravidian — ^These are the languages of Northern Ceylon, Malabar,
Coromandel, Baluchistan and other parts of Southern and Cen-
-tral India. These languages are Tamil, Malayalam, Kanarese,
Kulu, Kota, Toda, Telugu, Gondi, Kurukh, Malto, Bhil, Kolani, and
Brahui.
Hamito-Semitic — prevails in Asia Minor and North-Eastern
Africa. In this group are such languages as early Egyptian (later
Coptic), Etheopic, Aramaic, Hibrew, Phoenician, Assyro-Babylonian
and A-rabic. Many of these languages are dead, but the peoples
428
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
of the middle East, north-eastern Africa and Malta speak lan^ages
descended from them.
Malayo-Polynesian — ^includes languages of Malaya, East In-
dies and other islands of South-West Pacific.
Sivo-Tibetan or Indo-Chinese — Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese and
Siamese.
Caucasian — ^There are many languages in this group not clearly
related. The most important of these is that spoken by the Georgian
people in the southern part of the Soviet Union.
Ihcro-Basquc — is spoken by the Basque people of Spain and France.'
Japanese and Korean —
Australian — There are about 100 different languages v:hich are
not clearly related but they are spoken by the natives of Australia.
WORLD’S LANGUAGES
The important languages of the world are estimated as
follows : —
Chinese
English
Russian
Hindustani
Spanish
German
Japanese
Bengali
480.000. 000
263.000. 000
200 . 000 . 000
175.000. 000
120.000. 000
100,000,000
85.000. 000
70.000. 000
Arabic
French
Portuguese
Italian
Polish
Turkish
Dutch & Flemish
65.000. 000
65.000. 000
60.000;000
45;000,000
35.000. 000
20.000. 000
20.000;000
INDLAN LANGUAGES
The language returns of the 1951 Census of India makes an
interesting study. The entire population of India escepting inhabi-
tants of jammu & Kashmir and the Part B Tribal Areas of Assam
(where no census was taken) have as their mother tongue 782 Indian
languages and dialects and 63 non-Indian languages. Ma&ya Pradesh
alone has 377 languages and dialects, Hyderabad 238 and Assam 120.
Mother tongue is defined as the language spoken from the cradle. _
Origin and Growth of Indian Languages — The four great linguistic
families of India are (1) Indo-Aryan, (2) Dravidian, (3) Austria and
(4) Sino-Tibetaiu
Indo-Aryan Languages are descended from the ancient speech
of the Indo-Eirropean invaders who came to India from their original
homeland in the Eurasian plains. The oldest form of Aryan speech
is to be found in the Vedas believe to have been completed in the
10th century B.C. Vedic Sanskrit gradually developed into what are
known as middle Indo-Aryan dialects. Between 600 B.C. to 1000
A.D. — ^the period of Aryan expansion, they gradually spread over
northern India. The early literature of Buddhism is enshrined in
Pali, one of the earlier Indo-Aryan dialects. By the tenth century
A.D. the middle Indo-.Aryan dialects gradually developed into modem
Indo-Arjun languages.
Dravidian Languages have their home in Peninsular India and
LANGUAGES
42D,
include twelve distinct languages — Tamil, Telugu, Kanarcse, Malaya-
lam, Tulu, Kodagu, Todda, Kota, Gond, Khond, Oraon and Rajmahal.
These languages are spoken in the following regions or districts of
India — South-eastern, north-eastern and south-western, the Malabar
coast, Coorg (adjoining the Malabar coast), Nilgiri Hills, Central
India, north-west Orissa, and Rajniahal Hills of Bengal. Tamil is
also spoken in the northern pai-t o f Ceylon, also Brahui in Balu-
chistan. Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada are the most im-
portant among them. Tamil, the oldest member of the group, pre-
serves a good deal of the general character and vocabulary of the
ancient Bravidian speech ; it has a most extensive vocabulary. Ma-
layalam is closely related to Tamil and has borrowed considerably
from Sanskrit.
Primitive tribes constituting about 1.3 per cent of the popula-
tion of India speak Austric Language represented in the hills and
jungles of central and north-eastern India. These languages ar,e
said to be related to those of south-east Asia. They are believed to
have come to India with the invaders from the north-east long before
the Indo-Aryan invasion. Following are the Austric languages —
(a) Kol or Munda group which includes Santluxli, Mnndari,
Ho, etc.
(b) Khasi in Assam and (c) Nicobarese.
Sino-Tibetian Languages are used by small tribes along the
southern slopes of the Himalayas, in the north Bengal and Assam.
These languages mostly belong to the Mongolian race. Newari of
Nepal and Meithei or Manipuri of Manipur are the most important
among them.
Languages in the Indian Constitution — ^Indian Constitution re-
cognises fourteen languages — ^namely, Assamese, Bengali, (Jujarati.
Hindi, Urdu, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya,
Punjabi, Sansladt, Tamil and Telegu. Hindi has been declared the
official language of the country, but for a period of fifteen years
English will also continue to be in official use.
Modern Indian Languages — A short description of important
modem languages are given here —
Hindi with its various branches, is the third most important
language of the world after Chinese and English. As a regional
language, Hindi may be regarded the spoken language of eleven
out of 29 States of India — Bihar, U.P., major portion of Madhya
Bharat, Rajasthan, Vindhya Pradesh, Bhopal, Delhi, Himachal
Pradesh and also eastern half of the Punjab. As the geographical
extent of language is very great, the masses use more than dozen
allied local dialects, each one of which is equally important and is
very rich in literary folk traditions. Under the general term, Hindi
language, all these spoken and literary forms of the Hindi area are
included. Hindi literature thus comprises of at least five main
literary currents, namely, Dingal or old Marwari, Braj Bhasa,
Ilhari Boli based on the dialect spoken in the vicinity of Delhi,
Awadhi and Maithili.
430
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
So far as Hindi and XJrdxi are concerned, they are practically
identical in points of grammar and syntax and there
is a considerable fund of vocabula:^ common to both. Three
factors however contribute to their separation. Firstly Hindi
is written in Devnagri script and Urdu in Parsian-Axabic
script. Secondly, owing to various historical and sociological asso-
ciations, Hindi has to be associated with Hindus and Urdu with
Muslims. Thirdly, Urdu writers tend to draw upon Arabic and Per-
sian for expanding their vocabulary and Hindi writers upon Sans-
krit. Urdu originated from the dialect spoken round about Delhi. It
became the spoken language of the Muslims when they settled in
Delhi. It was in fact at first the court or the camp language of the
Mughals.
Bengali is the language of over 60 million peoples and although
less than half of this number is in West Bengal, there is identity of
speech and culture which links up West Bengal in India with East
Bengal in Pakistan. The whole of the Bengali people inherit a
common literature which is one of the most significant facts in
modem India. It is also spoken by the majority of the people
■of Manbhum district Bihar and Cachar district of Assam and TM-
pura. It is the most compact language of two Bengals.
Bengali literature started with some songs and poems of late
Buddhist mystic inspiration, going back to the 10th century A. D.
After the establishment of the British in Bengal, Bengali as a
language came in touch with English and as a result, a veritable
renaissance took place for the intellect of Bengal. A number of
very eminent writers who were leaders of thought, not only for
Bengal but for the whole of India, expressed themselves through
the Bengali lan^age — beginning with Raja Rammohon Roy,
Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Bankim
■Chandra Chatter jee and above all Rabindranath Tagore. The
•emancipation of Indian mind through literature was started in Bengal
and galaxy of eminent novelists and other ■writers of the present day,
including among other names that of Sarat Chandra Chatterjee, still
holds the torch of India for rational thinking through literature.
Telugu — ^is one of the important members of the Dra'vidian
group of languages and takes the third rank among the languages
of India, next to Hindi and Bengali. The language seems to have
branched out from the parent Dravidian tongue in the middle of the
first millennium B. C.
Bhojpuri — ^is claimed to be the spoken language of about 4 crores
■of people living within an area of 250 lakh sq. miles. The districts of
Saran, Champaran, Sahabad, Palamou and Ranchi (part) in Bihar
and Balia, Gazipur, Banaras, Mirzapur, Gorakhpur, Azamgarh and
Deoria in U. P. and Jaspur and Surguja in Vindhya Pradesh comprise
Bhojpuri-spealdng area. It is spoken by about four crores of people.
Marathi is spoken in western and central India. It covers parts
•of two States of India Bombay and Madhya Pradesh. It is also
spoken in Portuguese India and some parts of Hyderabad.
Gujarati is spoken in Gujarat, the northern maritime portion of
Bombay and also in Baroda and adjoining places. Rajasthani is
LANGUAGES
431
spoken in Rajasthan and adjoining parts of central India. Rajas~
thani has numerous dialects. Pahari is a general name applied to
Indo-Ajryan languages spoken in the lower ranges of the Himalayas
from Nepal in the east of Chamha.
SPEAKERS OF PRINCIPAL INDIAN LANGUAGES
(As enumerated in the Constitution)
Hindi, Urdu,
Hindustani,
P.c. of
total
Gujarati
Kannada
16,310,771
14,471,764
13,380,109
P.c. of
total
5-1
4-5
Punjabi*
149,944,311
46-3
Malayalam
4-1
Telugu
32,999,916
10-2
Oriya
13,153,909
4-0
Marathi
27,049,522
8-3
Assamese
4,988,226
1-5
Tamil
26,646,764
8-2
Kashmiri
61,086
. .
Bengali
25,121,674
7-8
Sanslcrit
Total
555
323,972,607
;;
TRIBAL LANGUAGES OR DIALECTS WITH SPEAKERS
NUMBERING A LAKH OR OVER
Santhali
2,811,678
Garo
239,816
Gondi
1,232,886
Khasi
230,982
Bhili
1,160,299
Kui
206,609
Oraon
644,042
Korku
170,607
Lambadi
628,166
Savara
256,259
Ho
599,876
Boro Bodo
166,447
Mundari, Munda etc.
585,211
Lushei
163,600
Vagdi
516,991
Paraja
146,938
Meithei (Manipuri)
486,787
Maria
140,683
Banjari or Labhani
332,317
Koya
137,358
Kondh
280,661
Mikir
130,746
Bhilali
264,289
Total
. . 11,531,884
OTHER INDIAN LANGUAGES OR DIALECTS WITH SPEAKERS
NUMBERING A LAKH OR OVER
Marwari
4,514,737
Tuiu
787,624
Mewari
2,014,874
Sindhi
745,434
Dhundhari or Jai-
Rajasthani
646,001
puri
1,588,069
Konkani
639,020
Bagri
926,029
Kumaoni
571,401
Chattisgarhi
902,908
Garhwali
484,261
Malwi (Malvi)
886,895
Ajmeri
463,161
Harauti
816,859
Nepali
421,688
*Returns described as Gurumukhi are also included under head
‘Punjabi’.
432
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Halbi
Nimari
Brij-bhasha
Tripura
Saurashtra
' 264,912 Mewati •
180,696 Khatria
177,847 Nimadi
129,379 Bhumij
124,486 Total
, 111,083
110,592
110,577
' 101,508
. . 17,698,041
OTHER INDIAN LANGUAGES OR DIALECTS WITH SPEAKERS
NUMBERING LESS THAN A LAKH
Total number of Total No. of
languages or dialects 720 Speakers . . 2,860,974
PRINCIPAL NON-INDIAN LANGUAGE SPEAKERS .
Arabic
7,914
Hebre'w
, ,
1,209
Burmese
3,955
Italian
685
Chinese
9,214
Malaj'an
703
English
171,742
Persian
11,814
French
1,929
Portuguese
6,652
German
1,665
Tibetan
2,494
Sinhalese
561
UTTAR PRADESH
‘
No. of
Speakers
No. of
Speakers
Hindi
60,454,217
Garh-wall
482,607
Hindustani
6,742,936
Punjabi
323,456
Urdu
4,300,425
Bengali
73,045-
Kumaoni
-■571,348
WEST BENGAL (Chandernagore
& Sikkim)
No. of
Speakers
.
No. of
Speakers'
Bengali
21,039,601
Eai
84,177
Hindi
1,580.724
Languages of
other
8,684
Santhali , . .
663,616
Asian countries • •
Urdu
457,981
Languages of-
conti-
Nepali
212,562
■ nents other
than
Oriya
ASSAM
182,618
No. of
Asia
39,714
No. of
speakers
speakers
Assamese
4,972,493
Naga Group
, .
209,954'
Hindi
335,688
Kuki-Chin Group
209,553 '
Bengali
1,447,075
Khasi -
292,923
Abor
2,167
Manipuri
89,433
Miri
57,623
Tripura
. ,
Boro-Bodo-Group
Mikir
456,140
130,581
Others
-
567,997
R-771 .r,27
LANGUAGES
433
MANIPUR STATE
No. of
No. of
speakers
speakers
Hindi
950 Naga Group
. . 80,545
Bengali
. , 1,850 Manipuri
. . 377,191
Assamese
. . 245 Others
. . 20,317
Mikir
. . 96,528
676,026
TRIPURA STATE
No. of
No. of
speakers
speakers
Hindi
. . 37,972 Manipuri
19,086
Bengali
. . 273,441 Tripura
, . 129,379
Assamese
. . 263 Others
. . 43,887
Boro-Bodo-Group
3,543
638,212
Kuki-Chin Group
. . 30,641
MADRAS
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Tamil
. . 24,504,146 Hindustani
. . 682,756
Telugu
. . 21,753,278 Konkani
.. 245.915
Malayalam
. . 5.229,040 Oriya
.. 163,463
Kannada
. . 2,073.291 Marathi
145.040
Urdu
. . 866,040 Saurashtra
. . 124.486
Tulu
704,406 Hindi
.. 106,269
COORG
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Coorgi
, . 66,642 Malayalam
. . 32,683
Kannada
80,410
MYSORE
No. of
Speakers
Kannada . ■ 6,990,297 Tamil
Telujru . • 1,375.702 Marathi
Hindustani .. 661,696 Banajari
Tulu
No. of
Speakers
651,260
13<1.542
67.453
61,607
TRAVANCORE-COCHIN
No. of
Speakers
Malayalam .• 8.012-685
Tamil . . 1,162,141
No. of
Speakers
Hindi .. 4.654
TelujnJ • • 23.742
Konkani . . 46,395
28
434
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
KUTCH
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Gujarati ■with Kachchhi 560,493
Rajasthani
397
Sindhi
3,802
Punjabi
328
Hindi (Eastern)
•
1,706
Marathi
293
VINDHYA PRADESH
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Hindi
3,556,913
Gujarati
203
Bengali
681
Punjabi
1,164
Marathi
1,065
Telugu
78
Sindhi
14,292
Kannada
10
Malayalam
83
Orya
68
Tamil
133
AJMER
Ajmiri is spoken hy 60 p.c. and Hindi by 13 p.c. of the population.
RAJASTHAN
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Rajasthani
10,678,142
Telugu
441
Western Hindi*
3,360,646
Sindhi
125,028
Bihari
995
Tamil
439
Bengali
2,775
Oriya
106
Bhili or Aboriginal
Kanarese
60
Language
792,557
Kashmiri
132
Eastern Pahari
3,880
Eastern Hindi
956
Kanjari or
Sansi
Gohati
4,129
(Gypsy)
3,626
Asian Vernaculars . .
1,962
Gujarati
, ,
61,429
European languages
57
Khandesi
• a
40
American Languages
8
Marathi
, a
12,405
African languages . .
18
Punjabi
--
251,066
PUNJAB
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Hindi, Urdu, Puniabi
Bihari
57
& Pahari
a a
12,366,399
Oriya
81
Kashmiri
1,538
Assamese
143
Bengali
1,036
Kanadi
11
Tamil
1,105
Malayalam
105
Telugu
392
Syric
2
Gujarati
310
Pushtu
604
Marathi
467
Sindhi
688
•Includes Western Hindi, Brij Bhasa, Bundel Khandi, Dungi,
Hindi and Urdu.
LANGUAGES
435
Burmese
48
German
12
Chinese
* ,
26
French
2
Persian
7
Irish
2
Tibetan
79
Spanish
1
English
• •
587
BIHAPv
No. of
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Speakers
Hindi
34,817,133
Ho
418,223
Gondi
3.319
Bengali
1,769,719
Kharia
69,787
Other Dravidian
Oriya
313,340
Korwa
10,767
languages
3,156
Punjabi
40,826
Mahili
3,827
Marwari
16,955
Bbumij
1,821
Other languages of
Nepali
11,357
Karmali
100
India
Gujarati
8,291
Kora
80
Pushtu
1,224
Other Indo-
Other munda
Malar
289
Aryan Ian-
languages
8,867
Miscellaneous 510
guages
4,521
Asiatic
Dravidian
languages
2,254
Oraon
461,203
English
3,958
Munda Languaaes
Malto
23,857
Other European
Santhali
1,720,529
Telugu
18,979
langruage
141
MuTidari
600,342
Tamil
6,692
ORISSA
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Oriya
12,065,272
Bengali
86,083
Tribal languages . .
1,837,732
Other non-tnbal
Telugu
342,623
languages
29,190
Hindi
123,971
Non-Ind. languages
2,158
Urdu
• .
159,017
BOMBAY
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Marathi_
15,850,632
Rajasthani
259,334
Gujarati
11,413,554
Tamil
110,370
Kannada
4,350,791
Punjabi
68,141
Urdu
1,917,081
Kachchhi
67,376
Hindi
485,278
English
47,387
Bhili
370,062
Malayalam
39,818
Konkani
313,677
Bengali
15,554
Telugu
306,949
Tulu
10,437
Sindhi
280,091
SAUBASHTRA
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Gujarati
2,033,838
Hindi
, ,
3,659
Urdu
27,263
Jlarathi
* ,
6,186,438
Sindhi
• •
25,340
Rajasthani
488
436
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
MADHYA PRADESH
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Hindi
10,320.875
Marathi
. . 6,186,438
Urdu
478.418
Gondi
. . 1,089,141
ChattisgarH
902,900
Maria
140,638
Banjari
156,826
Telugu
172,657
Oriya
••
304,261
MADHYA BHARAT
,
-•
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Hindi
6,909.761
Gujarati
79,476
Urdu
135.400
Sindhi
48,940
Rajasthani
832.507
Marathi
121,536
Bhili
••
774,595
Punjabi
28,611
BHOPAL
No. of
No. of
Speakers
■ Speakers
Hindi
. 652.722
Rajasthani
860
Hindustani
. 15.105
Gujarati
381
Urdu
. 131.600
Sindhi
, . 13.596
Malvi ^
7,831
Marathi
1,306
Marwan
1,999
Punjabi
3,483
HYDERABAD
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Telugu
8,921,524
Tamil
54,190
JIarathi
4.541,982
Marwari
54,126
Urdu
2.159.214
Koya
33,708
Kannada
1,961.901
Yerukala
23,602
Lambadi
553.412
Gujarati
22,168
Hindi
133.733
Pardesi
13K90
Gondi
90,816
Other languages
90,843
PEPSU
Nn. of
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Speakers
Hindi, Urdu,
Punjabi and
Pahari 3,493,43G
Telugu
11 Pushtu
7
Kashmiri
66
Gujarati
10 Sindhi
3
Bengali
9
Marathi,
45 English
39
Tamil
62
Malayalam
7
LANGUAGES 437
HIMACHAL PRADESH & BILASPUR
Hindi, Urdu,
Punjabi and
Pahari
1,108,283
Marathi
6
English
22
Kashmiri
380
Konkani
2
German
3
Bengali
18
Pushtu
602
French
1
Tamil
9
Chinese
154
Spanish
2
Gujarati
8
Tibetan
116
DELHI
No. of
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Speakers
Hindi, Urdu,
Kanadi
86
Baluchi
1
Punjabi
&
Malayalam
9,805
Russian
10
Pahari
1,646,476
Syric
1
Turkish
2
Kashmiri
411
Pushtu
931
English
3,635
Bengali
10,316
Sindhi
16,110
German
16
Tamil
8,745
Burmese
87
French
16
Telugu
9,667
Chinese
96
Swedish
17
Gujarati
14,038
Persian
14
Italian
16
Marathi
19,965
Tibetan
2
Dutch
11
Bihari
2
Arabic
2
Assamese
4,648
Ceylonese
10
ANDAMAN
& NICOBAR ISLANDS
No. of
No. of
Speakers
Speakers
Bengali
. . 2,363
Nicobari
. . 11,792
Burmese
. . 1,684
Tamil
.. 1,647
Hindustani
. . 4,139
Telugu
.. 1,044
Hindi
.. 976
Uraon
. . 1,065
Malayalam
. , 2,816
Andamanese
27
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
PUBLIC HEALTH ADJiILNISTRATION— The public health ad-
ministration is mainly a state subject, but Central Ministry of Health
exercises sole executive power in re^rd to subjects in the Union list
and powers in relation to the subjects in the Concurrent List,' So
far as the States are concerned, the functions of the Ministry of
Health is purely advisory and one of co-ordination. Besides, it sup-
plies them with vital information on medical subjects and for tHs
purpose maintains close liason with foreign countries and intp-
national health organisations like who, uxice?, EockefeHer Founfe-
tion and Bed Cross. The Centre also administers quarantine
in ports, enforces standards in the quality of imported drugs, super-
vises and controls central health institutions and promotes research
through the Indian Council of Medical Research and oSce bodies.
It also contributes statistical information to the State Governments
and their health departments.
In short the Constitution has charged the Union Government di-
rectly with the responsibilities only in the field of international health,
control of infections diseases and standards of higher technical edu-
cation. Medical relief and preventive work have been left to the
States, while all other matters are in the Concurrent List, that is,
both the Central and the State Governments can legislate on them-
The Central Ministry of Health comprises the main Ministry
and the Directorate General of Health Services which functions as
an attached ofnce. The latter is responsible through its various
subsidiary organisations for the initiation and execution of health
schemes and other allied matters. There are health organisations
operating in all important sea and air ports to prevent the spr^d of
contagions diseases. There is Drugs Controller and four Assistant
Drugs Controllers to ensure that drugs imported in the country con-
form to the required standards. The Indian CouncO of Idedical Re-
search formulates and organises directly or indirectly through the
research institutions, schemes relating to research on health problems.
Anti-malaria or similar operations are under the Malaria Institute of
India, Some Institutions are engaged in the manufacture of sera
and vaccines. There is also Adviser on tuberculosis and another on
maternity and child welfare attached to the Directorate General of
Health Services.
Ministry of Health — With the advent of independence, a Ministry
of Health has been established at the Centre. This Ministry is
directly responsible for the health of the CentraUy Administered
Are^. The States are autonomous in respect of m^ical relief and
public _ health. The Centre however advises the States and
keeps in close touch with them in their endeavours to build up the
health of the people committed to their charge.
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
439
In wider aspect the functions of the Central Ministry of Health
may be summarised as follows ; —
(1) To be responsible for international health relations and
the administration of port quarantine.
(2) To administer the central health institutions — ^the All-India
Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, the Malaria Institute, the
Central Research Institute, the Serologist’s Laboratory, the Central
Drugs Laboratory, and such other Central Health Institutions as
may be created from time to time.
(3) To promote research through the Indian Council of Medical
Research and other bodies.
(4) To promote in consultation with State Governments the
regulation and development of the medical, pharmaceutical and dental
and nursing professions.
(6) To promote, in consultation with State Governments, the
establishment and maintenance of drug standards.
(6) To lay down and enforce appropriate standards of medical,
dental, nursing, pharmaceutical and other ancillary branches of
Health Education,
(7) To collect information regarding developments in the
medical sciences and in health administration in India and elsewhere
and to make such information available to State Governments and
their Medical and Health Departments,
(8) _ To promote through a Central Health Board and otherwise
discussions and exchange of information on health problems,
(9) To promote through a Central Health Board and otherwise
special inquiries into particular health problems and co-ordination of
effort thereon.
(10) To collect and give publicity to statistical and other infor-
mation relating to health problems with the object of stimulating
the interest of and educating both the professional and lay public
on health matters.
(11) To discharge the functions of the State Government
in Health and Local Governments matters in the Centrally-adminis-
tered areas.
(12) To build up and maintain a Central Health Service for-
the purpose of (o) ensuring high standards of administration at the
Centre, (b) collaborating with the States for the maintenance of an
equally efficient standard in their administration, (c) making avail-
able to the Centre and the States the services of highly qualified per-
sonnel for teaching, research and medical institutes.
PROBLEM OF PUBLIC HEALTH IN INDIA— The Planning
Commission has stated that “the incidence of sickness, the existence
of disability, the death rate, the expectation of life at various ages
and the relation of the active population to the total, determine the
qualitative and quantitative use that can be made of the available
manpower.” It has been estimated that nearly 7,60,00,000 persons
440
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
suffer from malaria in any normal year and it takes a toll of at least
300,000 lives. It is estimated that about 25 lakh active cases of
tuberculosis exist annually and that 5 lakh deaths take place each
year from this cause alone. Among the countries for which statistics
are available, India ranks high as one of the largest reservoirs of in-
fectious diseases. Malnutrition and undemutrition reduce the vita-
lity and power of resistance of an appreciable section of the popula-
tion. The food consumed is insufficient to provide the necessary
energy requirements in the case of 30 per cent of families, and the
diet is almost invariably ill-balanced and there are in terms of food
factors a deficiency of fats, vitamins and proteins of high biological
value. Widespread adulteration of foodstuffs is doing insidious harm
to the health of the people. Water-supply is totally inadequate.
Only 6 per cent of the towns in India had protected water supply
which served 6.15 p.c. of the total population and 48.5 per cent of the
urban population. Of the 48 cities with a population of over a lakh
each, only 23 have sewage systems.
Due to this extremely low level of health, all health Schemes in
India has been generally divided under the following large groups —
(1) Control of disease (2) medical education (3) Training and re-
search (4) Rural health units (5) water supply and drainage (6)
Family Planning and (7) Health Education.
MEDICAL & HEALTH EDUCATION— The medical colleges
were first opened in Madras and Calcutta in 1835 and recognised by
the Royal College of Surgeons in 1845. Since then there has been
gradual progress of medical education in India. Practically all medi-
cal colleges offer a Doctorate of Medicine, Master of Surgery, etc.
Several of the colleges are offering D.P.H. or equivalent. There is
also a special profusion for military medical students of the Indian
Medical Department. On the recommendation of the Inter-Univer-
sity Board, an All-India Council of Post-Graduate medical education
has been set up. The Council prescribes standards for post-
gpraduate medical education in the univer.’-ities, and advise them in
order to secure uniformity of standards throughout the country.
The Directorate-General of Health Services are trying to spread
health education among the people through cinema shows, distribu-
tion of posters, pamphlets, radio talks ete. It has been decided to
set up a Central Health Education Bureau to produce filmstrips,
posters, models, literatures etc.
At present there are 36 medical colleges, 2 medical schools, 6
dental colleges and 5 other institutions for training in the allopathic
system of medicine. Medical Schools are being raised to the status
of colleges. Departments of some medical colleges are being
upgraded to provide post-graduate training for select doctors.
Facilities for the training of nurses exist in practically all major hos-
pitals in the country and in nursing colleges at Vellore and New Delhi.
FAMILY PLANNING — The Planning Commission gave import-
ance to the family planning in India in order to maintain a proper
balance between increasing_ population and limited resources of the
country. The Health Ministry initiated the family planning pro-
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
441
gramme in 1953. The First Five-year Plan allocated Rs. 56 lakhs
for it. The main programme of the plan was — (1) educating
the people about family planning, (2) training health personnel
and (3) finding cheap and dependable and harmless methods
of birth control. Three pilot schemes — ^two in Delhi and one in My-
sore — ^were started to assess the value of the “rhythmic” or “safe pe-
riod” method. The Second Plan is more ambitious. Rs. 4.97 crores
have been allocated for this. The work will be under a high-power
Board.
Union Ministry of Health has set up a high level Family Plan-
ning Board with the Union Health Minister as Chairman to direct
family planning programmes. The main function of the Board will
be — (1) Educating public opinion on matters of family planning,
(2) Advice and necessary service in family planning, as an integral
part of the public health activities through hospitals, health centres
and clinics, (3) Research on the production of contraceptives, (4)
Facilities for training of personnel in family planning, (5) Research
and studies on inter-relationship of economic, social and population
changes, on reproductive patterns, attitudes and motivatios affecting
the size of the family.
GOVERNMENT POLICY TOWARDS INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS
AND HOMOEOPATHY — After much discussions by the National
Planning Committee, Planning Commission and by various special
committees, such as Chopra Committee, Yodh Committee, Pandit
Committee, Homoeopathic Enquiry Committee and by successive
Health Ministers’ Conferences and the Central Health Council, the
Government of India has decided to recognise only the modern
system of medicine, because it is international in scope and has
attained highest standard of development. But the well-settled policy
of the Govmment is to give all possible help and encouragement to
the indigenous and Homoeopathic systems of medicine and incor-
porate from them contributions of approved value in the existing
system of medicine. Several measures have been taken by the
Union and the State Governments, such as setting up of a Central-
Institute of Research in indigenous system of medicine. A comrnittee
with D. T. Dave as Chairman has been set up to prescribe a uniform
standard in respect of education and regulation of practice in ayur-
veda, unani and homoeopathic systems of medicine. Recently the
Government of India approved five-year degree course for
homoeopathy.
BOARDS, ASSOCIATIONS, COUNCILS, ETC., FOR ALL-
INDIA PUBLIC HEALTH— We give below a list of boards, associa-
tions, councils, etc. of Public Health for all India mostly under
Government auspices —
Central Council of Health — ^was started on August 9, 1962 under
Article 263 of the Constitution. Its purpose is to promote concerted
action and to encourage the Centre and the States in co-operative
effort. This Central Council consists of the Central Health Minister
(as Chairman) and Health Ministers of all the States under the
442
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Chairmansliip of the Union Minister of Health. It considers and
recommends policies on matters concerning all aspects of health, en-
vironmental hygiene, nutrition, health education, and the promotion
of facilities for training and research, etc. Coordination and inte-
gration of work at administrative lavels, has, in a large measure, been
achieved through the Central Council of Health.
Development Council for Pharmacuticals and Dnigs — As a result
of the various recommendations made by the Pharmaceutical Enquiry
Committee, the Development Council for Pharmaceuticals and Drugs
was established by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in co-
operation with the Ministry of Health for advising Government on
matters relating to industry, such as recommending targets for the
production of drugs, suggesting norms of efficiency, promoting
standardisation of products, promoting means for better marketing
and systems of distribution and sale etc.
Central Advisory Board of Health — was started in 1937, m
which all State Governments are associated. It provides a forum for
the purpose of discussing and formulating of public health policy
and also to ensure co-operation between the Centre and the States
and between State and State.
Indian Nursing Council — was inaugurated at Delhi on May 19,
1949. One of the main functions of the Council is to lay down mini-
mum standards for the training of nurses. The Indian Nursing
Council has been vested with the power to inspect training institu-
tions and examination. The efforts of the Council is directed towards
attaining a uniformly higher standard than that which exists today.
Indian Medical Association — This is an all-India organization
of medical practitioners of India founded in 1928-29 for the purpose
of looking after the interest of medical education, public health and
the medical profession in India.
Medical Store Depots and Factories — ^There are at present four
main medical depots in Madras, Bombay, Calcutta and KAmal. Fac-
tories are attached to the first two depots. The Depots and Facto-
ries are running on a commercial basis and are self-financing.
Medical Council of India — was constituted in 1933 along the
lines of General Medical Council of Great Britain. The Council tries
to maintain uniform minimum standard of university medical quali-
fications for India proper and tries to arrange for reciprocal recog-
nition in India proper of approved qualifications but it has no disci-
plinary power.
Health Publicity Bureau — has been established according to the
Bhore Committee’s recommendations with a view to disseminating
useful information on health in a popular way to make the people
health-minded.
Drugs Technical Advisory Board — ^Under .the Drugs Act of
1942, the Central Government constituted the Drugs Techni-
cal Board in 1942. Its functions are to advise the Central and State
Governments on technical matters arising out of the administration
of the Act.
The enforcement of the control over manufacture, distribution
and sale of drugs in the States is the concern of the State Govern-
PUBLIC HEALTH OP INDIA
443
ments. The Central Government is responsible for control over
standard of drugs imported into India and over the manufacture,
distribution and sale of drugs in the Centrally-administered areas.
Indian Council of Medical Research — Prior of 1947, medical
research in India was confined mostly to researches undertaken by a
few specialised institutions and through a grants-in-aid programme
of the Indian Research Fund Association established in 1912.
National Government however took the early steps to reorganise
medical research on a sound footing. The erstwhile Indian Research
Fund Association was reoriented under its new name, the Indian
Council of Medical Research. The Council today is the agency
through which Central Government has organised planned research
in the country. Its research work embraces almost all the fields of
medical service.
Central Health Edtication Bureau — The establishment of this
Bureau has been finalised. The Bureau will have a Health museum,
a Film Strip Production Unit and a Film Lending Library.
Provincial Medical Councils — began to function from 1942 when
the first Provincial Medical Council was started in Bombay. It is now
functioning in all the States. The Provincial Councils keep register
of qualified practitioners and supervise medical education and ins-
pect examinations and exercise disciplinary powers over medical prac-
titioners, and also advise local Governments in regard to recognition
of various medical qualifications.
Dental Council of India — With the passing of Indian Dentists Act
of 1948, the Council was inaugurated on May 14, 1949 for
the development of dental training and practice of the profession
through the establishment of the Dental Councils at the Centre and
in the States, for the organization of dental services for the people
in urban and rural areas.
This Act was enacted to ensure that only properly qualified
dental surgeons were registered and allowed to practice dentistry.
There are now six dental colleges — 2 in Bombay, one each in Amrit-
sar, Lucknow, Calcutta and Madras.
All-India Council of Post-Graduate Medical Education — has
been constituted to prescribe standards for post-graduate medical edu-
cation in the universities and offer suggestions to evolve uniformity
of standards throughout the country.
Indian Cotmcil of Medical Research — ^is in charge of medical
research.
Ayurveda Advisory Committee — The Advisory Committee on
Ayurveda was formed in September 1954 for research in Ayurveda.
Pharmay Council of India — was inaugurated at Delhi on May
10, 1949 under the Pharmacy Act of 1948. The inauguration of the
Pharmacy Council marks a definite and important step in the
campaign for the regulation of the quality and purity of drugs made
available to the people of this country.
Voluntary Organisatiojis — The following are the important
voluntary organisations associated with local activities — (1) Indian
Red Cross Society, (2) St. John’s Amhidance Association, (3)
British Empire Leprosy Relief Association, (4) Mis^on of Lepers,
444
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
(5) Association for the Prevention of Blindness, Bengal, (6) Tuher-
cidosis Association of India, (7) International Health Division of
the Rockefeller Foundation in India.
DEFECTIVES — Efforts are being made for the improvement of
the lot of defectives in India. Such as crippled, blind, deaf, dumb and
mentally defectives. It is estimated that to-day the number of blind
persons in India totals about 1,800,000 and deaf persons number
600,000. There is a Training Centre for the adult blind at Debra
Dun to impart vocational training. There is also a common Braille
Code for Indian languages known as Bharat Braille. A Central
Braille Printing Press has been established in Dehra Dun. There
are in all about 50 institutions for the blind in India. The institu-
tions for the deaf numbers 43.
For the mentally defectives there are at present about 82 mental
hospitals. The most important of these are Mysore Government
Mental Hospital and Ranchi Mental Hospital. The Government of
India has recently started All India Mental Health Institute at
^ngalore in association vdth mental hospital there.
PREVENTION & CONTROL OF MAJOR AND TROPICAL
DISEASES — In 1937 a movement was started against tuberculosis
which was assuming an alarming proportion every year. It is
estimated that nearly 25 lakh people suffer from this disease and
about 5 lakhs die of it annually. The large scale measure taken by
the Government is the B.C.G. vaccination in controlling tuberculosis.
It is being carried in mass scale since April, 1951. B.C.G. is being
manufactured on large scale in the King Institute, Guindy, hladras.
One hundred and thirty vaccinating teams comprising of about 700
vaccinators are engaged in the B.C.G. vaccination campaign through-
out the country. It is being carried on intensively in Bombay, Bihar
and West Bengal. Three training and demonstrative centres for
control and prevention of T.B. have been opened at Delhi, Patna and
Trivandrum which give training to medical students, post-graduate
workers, nurses etc. T.B. Association of India trains a small_ number
of health visitors. Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute at Delhi affords
for post-graduate training for chest diseases. The after-care colo-
nies for T.B. patients who have been cured are being gradually
started to avoid the possibility of relapse. T.B. Seals Sale Campaign
is being regularly organised by the T.B. Association of India since
1950-51.
In consultation with the Technical Co-operation Administotion,
U.S.A, the Government of India has drawn up a National Filaria Con-
trol scheme. The T.C.A. will supply diethylcarbamzine tablets, trans-
port, sprayers, microscopes and insecticides free of cost to the
States, while larvicides and stirrup pumps will be supplied free by
the Government of India. The remaining expenditure will be borne
by the State Governments.
_ Malaria is a serious health problem throughout India. It is
estimated that 300,000 people die annually as a direct result of
malaria. The Government of India launched a National Malaria
Control Programme in 1953. It was designed to protect about
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
445
200,000,000 people living in the malarious zones of the country. The
project is jointly financed by U.S.A., Government of India and the
State Governments and is being run under Malaria Institute of
India. Other organisations that have helped in this venture are
WHO, Rockefeller Foundation and U.N.I.C.E.F.
It is estimated that there are over one million leprosy cases in
India. The Mission to Lepers is the largest voluntary organisation
for anti-leprosy work. It was started in 1875 and has 95 institu-
tions affiliated to it. Hind Kusht Niwaran Sangh (formerly British
Empire Leprosy Relief Association) is also doing excellent anti-
leprosy work. The Gandhi Memorial Trust has established a leprosy
work. Under the Leprosy Control Scheme of the Government of
India, the Government of India have made a provision of Rs. 30
lakhs for the institution of mass sulphone treatment. A Central
Leprosy and Teaching and Research Institute has been established
in Madras.
In India, it is estimated that over two lakhs of people die of
cancer annually. The Tata Memorial Hospital of Bombay and
Chittaranjan Hospital of Calcutta are the only two institutions for
the treatment of cancer. Research on cancer is now in proeress .at
the Cancer Research Centre of the Tata Memorial Hospital at Bombay.
The Tata Hospital has now acquired the status of a national
centre where Government of India has given large sums.
India being a tropical country, the control of diseases endemic
in the tropics will remain the major health problem of the country
for long. Malaria, Cholera, Dysentery, Plague and others are the
main tropical diseases. Indian Council of Medical Research carry out
extensive research on these diseases which form the foundation of
public health campaigns against these tropical diseases. The
Institutes like HafFkine Institute, Bombay, Research Institute at
Kasauli, King Institute in Guindy, Calcutta School of Tropical Medi-
cine, Malaria Institute and other Institutes have been carrying much
research for the control of these diseases.
LEGISLATIVE MEASURES — ^The Employees State Insurances
Act, although its implementation is the responsibility of another
Ministry, was drawn up and drafted largely in the Ministry of Healih.
Acts regulating the import, manufacture, sale, distribution and exhi-
bition of drugs and those regulating the practice and professions
of pharmacy, nursing and dentistry have_ been placed on the Statute
Book. Drugs & Magic Remedies [Objectionable Advertisements) Act,
1954 was passed prohibiting the publication of objectionable adver-
tisements or matter relating sexual stimulants, alleged magic cures
for venereal diseases etc. Many States have promoted legislation
for the control and regulation of the practice of indigenous systems
of medicine. A comprehensive Food Bill is before the Parliament
and plans for the setting up of Central Drugs and Food Laboratories
for purposes of carrying out the provisions of the relevant Arts are
ready. Legislative measures for preventing unqualified and unregis-
tered persons from practicing medicine and for regulation of training
in indigenous medicine are under consideration. The Prevention of
Food Adulteration Act was passed in 1954 which prohibits the manu-
446
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
facture of adulterated articles of food and their import or storing for
sale. It has also laid down the penalties. It provides for the
establishment of a Central Committee for Pood Standards and Central
Food Laboratory.
INDLA AND THE INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE— India is
a member of the World Health Organisation since 1948. India has
been receiving striking assistance from the World Health OrgarAsa~
tion and U. N. International Children's Emergency Fund. Help from
these organisations generally takes the form of expert advice for
improving existing services, medical literature, fellowships and equip-
ment. They have done much to control and cure tuberculosis, vene-
real diseases, malaria and improve c hild health in this country.
India has received assistance from WHO for Malaria Control
Programme, B.C.G. Campaign which now extends to every part of
India. The D.D.T and Anti-Biotic Production Plants have been esta-
blished with TirHO and UNICEF hel. Assitance has also been re-
ceived in fighting yaws and filaria, for starting or strengrthening vari-
ous departments at training institutions like the College of Nurshing,
New Delhi and similar institutions in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta,
the Medical Colleges at Bom bay and Trivandrum and the School of
Tropical Medicine, Calcutta. WHO Fellowship have enabled selected
candidates to receive valuable training abroad in various subjects
concerning medicine, and public health. Programme for Emergency
Drug Supplement stock for the training of nurses, midwives and
health visitors and for the distribution of drugs, diet supple men ts and
skimmed milk powder are being undertaken through WHO and
UNICEF assistance.
India has also made voluntary contributions to the UNICEF
totalling to Es. 66 lakhs and for 1956 Ife. 16 lalis. TWs includes the
grant-in-aid made by India UNICEF local ofBce in New Delhi
representing approximately 90 per cent of tte total expenditure on
the administration of UNICEF Area office.
MEDICAL CENSUS — The following is the number of persons
engaged in medical and health services according to 1951 census.
Registered Medical
Practitioners
Vaids, hakims, etc., prac-
ticing without being
registered
Compounders
Nurses
Midwives
Vaccinators
91,930 Dentists
Others employed in hos-
pitals or private insti-
96,147 tutions rendering medi-
38,407 cal or health services
31,517
23,938
5,928
3,283
72,970
3,64,120
TEN-TEAR HEALTH PLAN — ^.All-India Health Survey and
development Committee (Chairman, Sir Joseph Bhore) announced on
Dec. 25, 1945 a comprehensive ten-year national health plan for
India costing Rs. 1,000 crores.
The scheme winch takes the village as the nucleus for health
organisation, provides for : —
1. Primary centres in every village with a dispensary contain-
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
447
ing 5 beds. Each group of villages vath a population of 20,000 to be
in charge of a trained doctor with a woman doctor as well as a staff
of 34. Each group of three primary centres to have 30-bed hospital ;
in addition there will be 2 doctors, 2 public health nurses, and 4 mid-
wives at the villagers' homes. Each primary unit is to have a health
committee.
2. Secondary centres for a population of 50,000 — 60,000 with
specialist staff and hospital and laboratory facilities of a higher
than those in the primary centres, whose work they will supervise.
3. District centres with a still higher type of health organisa-
tion, each district hospital having 200 beds and being able to provide
medical and surgical aid of a high order.
Provincial Health Departments, while supervising in general the
health services of each State, are to interfere as little as possible
with primary and secondary organisations and to encourage them to
act independently and display initiative in tackling their problems.
The estimated capital expenditure is Rs. 163 crores in first live
years and Rs. 200 crores during second five years, with a recurring
annual expenditure of Rs. 40 crores during first half and Rs. 81 crores
during second half of the programme.
LABORATORIES, MEDICAL RESEARCHES & ASSOCIATIONS
All India Institute of Medical Science — ^has been started at Delhi
under the All India Institute of Medical Science Act of 1956 from
15th Nov., 1956. The Institute will comprise a medical college, a
dental college, a nursing college, a post-graduate teaching centre and
a 650 bed hospital and rural-urban organisation to provide centres
■for field work in New Delhi at an estimated non-recurring cost of
Rs. 479.93 lakhs.
Central Research Institute, Easauli (1906) — ^Manufactures
vaccine such as T.A.B. and anti-venom serums for civil and military
requirements, also well-known for its research on major epidemics
and also endemic diseases. The Institute serves as a centre of refer-
ence for anti-rabic treatment. A Rabies Research Centre is being
opened here and also a new Antirabic block has been constructed.
All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Calcutta —
Established in 1932 with the aid of an endowment from Rockefeller
Foundation which provides the scheme with the present building and
its initial equipment. The Government of India allow a grant of
Rs. 3,00,000 per year. The object of the Institute — (1) the training
of public health personnel, qualifying students for public health
diploma and (2) pursuits of research on several aspects of public
health including study of diseases like malaria, etc.
Central Drugs Laboratory, Calcutta — ^The Biochemical Standar-
disation Laboratory, Calcutta was converted into Central Drugs La-
boratory in 194'? to take up the registration of patent or proprietary
medicines under Drugs Act and to analyse samples in case of disputes
over standards of products sold or imported into the country.
Pharmacognosy Laboratory which was established in 1948 for
pharmacognostic testing in connection with the enforcement of Drugs
448
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Act has been merged vrith Central Drugs Laboratory and now forms
the pharmacognosy section of the main laboratory.
Serological Laboratory, Calcutta was established in 1914.
School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta (1932) — The School and
the Carmichael Hospital for Tropical Diseases has the following
departments : — (1) Tropical Medicines, (2) Bacteriology and Patho-
logy, (3) Protozoology, (4) Entomology, (5) Pharmacology, (6) Che-
mistry, (7) Anaemia and respiratory diseases department, (8) Hel-
minthology, and (9) Public Health Laboratory Practice.
HafTkine Institute, Bombay (1900) — The Institute acts as a
centre for the manufacture of plague vaccine and cholera vaccine for
the whole of India and centre for the manufacture of anti-rabic
vaccine for Bombay Presidency. It is also manufacturing sulpha
drugs.
Central Leprosy Teaching & Research Institute, Chinglepnt
(Madras) — has been established in Chingleput by the Government of
India.
Indian Cancer Research Centre — ^This Centre provides facilities
for post-graduate teaching and research in cancer and allied diseases.
It was formally opened at the Tata Memorial Hospital Bombay in
1952.
B. C. G. Vaccine Laboratoy — has been started in K. E. M. Hospi-
tal by the Union Government at Guindy, Sladras in 1948. It manu-
factures enough vaccine to meet the country’s requirements. It is
now one of the three big laboratories in the world. The laboratory
is now producing on an average six lakh doses of B. C. G. Vaccine
every year.
Central Research Institute, Easaull (1906) — provides facilities
for research. It provides the country’s entire supply of T. A. H.,
cholera, anti-rabic and anti-venom serums and vaccines.
All-India Institute of Mental Health, Bangalore (1934) — This
Institute was inaugurated on August 6, 1954. Besides promoting
postgraduate studies and research in mental health. It will advise
the Government of India and the States on the organisation of mental
health service and act in co-ordination with national and interna-
tional agencies on mental health. In 1955, the course for the Diploma
in Psychological Medicine and the training course in Clinical Psycho-
logy has been started at the Institute.
King Institute of Preventive Medicine, Guindy, Madras (1903-4)
— ^for manufacture of vaccines, therapeutic sera, vaccine lymph, blood
bank etc., and also research work.
Pasteur Institute of Southern India (1907), Coonoor.
King Edward VII Memorial Pasteur Institute and Medical
Research Institute (1907), Shillong.
Pasteur Institute, Calcutta — ^This institute is a part of School of
Tropical Medicine.
Pasteur Institute, Bombay — ^This is a part of Haffkine Institute,
Bombay.
Malaria Institute of India, Delhi (1939)— conducts research on
the origin, incidence and cure of this disease, it also directs anti-
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
449
malaria operations in the Centrally-administered areas. It advises
the States on anti-malaria worl: and trains malaria-workers for them.
The institute also undertakes research on other mosquito-bome
diseases like filariasis and is a training centre for personnel from
south-east Asian countries.
Verus Research Centre, Poona — ^was opened in 1953 to undertake
investigations into ^ verus diseases peculiar to India and to train
v/orkers in the field of verus research. The centre is a joint effort
of the Indian Council of Medical Research and the Rockefeller Foun-
dation.
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar — Started in
1893. It is nov/ a fully equipped research institute for veterinary
research. It also manufactures protective sera and vaccines. It has
a branch station at Izzatnagar (Bareilly).
Nutrition Research Laboratory Coonoor — Conducts research on
problem of nutrition and allied problems and acts as advisory bureau
on all questions for nutrition.
Central Institute for Research on Indigenous Medicine, Jam-
nagar — has been started by the Government of India under Five-Year
Plan.
Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, Delhi — ^has been newly estab-
lished for post-graduate training and research in the fundamental
problems of cardio-respiratory diseases, physio-pathology and chest
diseases. The Institute is financed entirely by the Government
of India.
Penicillin and D. D. T. Factories, Pimpri (Poona) and Delhi — ■
respectively have gone into production.
Sir Tata School of Social Service, Bombay — The only institution
in India v;hich provides facilities for the training of social workers in
the fields of family v/elfare, adult delinquency and industrial and
labour problems.
Sir Dnrabji Tata Trust — The Trust has established in 1940 Tata
Memorial Hospital for cancer at a capital of Rs. 23 lakhs and main-
tained at an average annual cost of Rs. 4 lakhs. There is also Tata
Graduate School of Social Work v/hich trains young men and women
from universities in social work. It is the first institution of its kind
in India.
Drug Laboratories — Drug laboratories in India where facilities
exist for testing of drugs may be divided into four classes — (1) Cen-
tral Government Laboratories, such as, Central Drugs Laboratory,
Calcutta and the Central Research Institute, Kasauli. (2) State
Government Laboratories — a number of laboratories have been esta-
blished by the States to catTV’ out functions assigned to the States
under the Drugs A-ct. (3) Manufacturers’ Laboratories, (4) Public
Analytical Laboralorines — There are at present a small number of
Public Analytical Laboratories, approved by Drugs Controllers of
different States.
29
450
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
BIRTHS IN INDIA DEATHS IN INDLA
( 000 )
1938 . . 282,110 9,398 33-3 6,685 23-7
1948 . . 245,459 6,196 25-2 4,168 17-0
1949 . . 256,331 6,762 26-4 4,044 15-8
1950 . . 269,897 6,728 24-9 4,333 16-1
1951 . . 273,688 6,821 24-9 3,939 14-4
1952 . . 282,717 7,017 24-8 3,834 13-6
1953 . . 286,886 6,925 24-8 4,034 13-5
1954 . . 283,402 6,019 25-5 3,062 13-0
INFANT MORTALITY
(Deaths per 1000 births)
1938
.. 167 1944
.. 169 1950
.. 127
1939
. . 136 1945
. . 151 1951
124'
1940
, . 160 1946
. . 136 1952
.. 116
1941
.. 158 1947
. . 146 1953
.. 118
1942
, . 163 1948
.. 130 1954
. . 113
1943
. . 165 1949
.. 123
{Monthly Abstract of Statistics, Sept., 1956),
HOSPITALS & PATIENTS
No. of
No. of
No. of
A’'o. of
Hospitals
&
Patients
beds avai-
indoor
Dispensaries
lable
patients
died
1947
3,825
43,019,772
60,974
53,177
1948
4,383
54,768,123
60,089
74,445
1949
4,756
70,095,115
73,580
86,896
(Statistical Abstract of India — 1951-52).
INDLAN EXPECTATION OF LIFE
Censns (according to actnarial report of Males 32-45 years
Censns) . . . _ _ ^ Feniales 31-66
1951 (by Kingsley Davis in his book “Popu- Males 32-09 ”
lation of India and Pakistan”) .. Females 31-37 ”
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
451
1931 {Official estimate by Mr. Vidyanathan) Mal6s 26'91
Females 26*66
FOOD & NUTRITION
Calory requirements in India
Net
Calories
Children
Man (120 lbs.)
Under 1 year
100/kg,
Light or Sedentary work
. . 2,400
1 to 3 years
900
Moderate work
. . 3,000
3 to 6 years
1200
Very hard work
. . 3,600
5 to 7 years
1400
Woman (100 lbs.)
7 to 9 years
1700
Light or sedentary work
. . 2,100
9 to 12 years
2000
Moderate work
. . 2,500
Adolescents
Very hard work
. . 3,000
12 to 15 years
2400
Pregnancy
. . 2,100
15 to 21 years
2400
Lactation
. . 2,700
(Nutrition Advisory Committee of Ind. Research Fund Association).
COMPOSITION OP A BALANCED DIET
Cereals
Oz.
14
Milk
Oz.
10
Pulses
3
Sugar and Jaggery
2
Green leafy vegetables . .
4
Vegetable oil, ghee, etc. .
2
Root vegetables
3
Fish and Meat
3
Other vegetables
3
Eggs
1 egg
Fruits
3
MEDICAL EDUCATION
(Affiliated to Universities)
Agra University
G. R. Medical College (Govt.), G-walior — ^M.B., B.S., M.D., M.S.
M. G. M. Medical College (Govt.), Indore — M.B., B.S.
Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal — ^M.B., B.S.
Sarojini Naidu Medical College (Govt.), Agra — ^M.B., B.S.,
M.D., MS.
Aligarh Muslim University
Department of Opthalmology — D.O.M.S.
Department of Unani Tibb and Surgery — ^Tibbiya.
Andhra University.
Andhra Medical College (Govt.), Visakhapatnam — ^M.B., B.S.,
M.S., M.D., M.Sc., Dip. in Obstetrics, Gynaecology, Laryngo-
logy & Otology, Opthalmology, Venerealogy and Pharmacy,
Sanitary Inspector Cert.
Medical College (Govt.L Guntur — ^M.B., B.S.
Banaras Hindu University.
College of Ayurveda (Univ.) — A. B. M. S. (Ayurvedacharya).
College of Technology — B. Pharm.
452
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Baroda University.
Pacul^ of Medicine (Univ.) — M.B., B.S., M.D., M.S.
Bihar University.
Medical College (Govt.), Darbhanga — M.B., B.S.
Bombay University.
Grant Medical College (Govt.), Bombay — M.B., B.S., B.Sc,,
(Med.), M.Sc. (Med.), M.D., M.S., D.P.H., D.A., V.D. & D.,
D.P.M., D.M.R.E., D.F.M., B.Sc. (Anatomy & Animal Physio-
logy), M.Sc. (Physiology, Microbiology & Bio-Chem.).
Seth Gordhandas Sundardas Medical College (Bom. Corporation)
Bombay— M.B., B.S., B.Sc. (Med.), M.Sc. (Med.), M.D., M.S.,
Ph.D., D.P.II., D.A., D.V. & D., D.P.M., D.M.R.E., B.Sc. (Anato-
my & Animal Physiology), M.Sc. (Microbiology & Biochemis-
try), Ph.D.
Topiwala National Medical College (Bom. Corporation), Bombay
— M.B., B.S., B.Sc. (Med.), M.Sc. (Med.), M.D., M.S.
Calcutta University.
National Medical Institute (Private), Calcutta — ^SI.B., B.S.
Medical College (Govt.), Calcutta — ^hl.B., B.S., D.O.M.S., D.T.D.
R. G. Kar Medical College (Private) — I.Sc., M.B., B.S., D.G.O.,
D.O.M.S.
Nilratan Sarkar Medical College (Govt.), Calcutta — M.B., B.S.
School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta — D.T.M. & H.
Calcutta Dental College — 114, Lower Circular Road, Calcutta —
D.B.S.
Delhi University.
Dept, of Tuberculosis — Dip. in Tuburculous diseases.
College of Nursing (Central Govt.), New Delhi — B.Sc. (Hons.),
Nursing.
Lady Hardinge Medical College (Private), New Delhi — M.B., B.S.
Gauhati University.
Assam Medical College (Govt.), Dibrugarh — ^M.B., B.S.
Gicjarat University.
M. P. Shah Medical College, Jamnagar — M.B.B.S.
B. J. Medical College (Govt.), Ahmedabad — M.B., B.S., M.D.,
M.S., B.Sc. (Med.), M.Sc. (Med.), D.M.R.E., D.O., T.D.O,
L. M. College of Pharmacy (Private), Ahmedabad — B. Pharm.
Kamatah University
Kasturba Medical College (Govt.), Manipal — M.B., B.S.
Kasturba Medical College (Govt.), Udipi— M.B., B.S.
Inicknow University
Kanpur Medical College, Kanpur— M.B., B.S.
King George’s Medical College, Lucknow— M.B., B.S.
State College of Ayurveda, Lucknow — M.B., B.S.
Madras University
^^edical College (Govt.)— M.B., B.S., M.D., M.S., B.D.S.,
B. Pharm., M.Sc., Ph.D., Dips, in Gynaecology &
Obstetrics, Venerealogy, Ophthalmology, Orthopaedics, Tuber-
culosis and Ota-Rhino-Laryngology.
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
453
Stanley Medical College (Govt.), Madras — M.B., B.S., M.D., M.S.,
M.Sc., Ph.D.
Christian Medical College (Private), Vellore — M.B., B,S>, M.D.,
M.S., B.Sc. (Nursing).
Madurai Medical College (Govt.), Madurai — ^M.B., B.S,
Mysore University
Medical College (Univ.), Mysore — ^M.B., B.S.
Medical School (Univ.), Bangalore — ^L.M.P.
Nagpur University
Medical College (Govt.), Nagpur — M.B., B.S.
Medical College, Jabalpur.
Osmania University
Osmania Medical College (Govt.), Hyderabad — ^M.B., B.S.
Punjab University
Medical College, Amritsar — ^B. Pharm.
Christian Medical College (Private), Ludhiana — M.B., B.S.
Dental College (Govt.), Amritsar — B.D.S.
Medical College (Govt.), Amritsar — ^B.Sc., M.Sc., M.B., B.S.,
D.I.D., D.O.M.S.
Medical College (Govt,), Patiala — ^M.B., B.S.
Patna University
P. W. Medical College, Patna — ^M.B., B.S.
Poona University
B. J. Medical College (Govt.), Poona — ^M.B., B.S., M.D., M.S.
Pandichei-ry
Govt. Medical College, Pondicheii’y.
Rajptitana University
Sawai Man Singh Medical College (Govt.), Jaipur — ^M.B., B.S.
Birla College of Science, Pilani — B. Pharm.
Travancore University
Medical College (Govt.), Trivandrum — ^M.B., B.S.
Govt. Ayurveda College, Trivandrum — B.A.M.
VtJcal University
. S. C. B. Medical College (Govt.), Cuttack — M.B., B.S.
’‘Six hledical Colleges proposed to be opened during the Second
Plan period, one has been established in Pondicherry. Other
colleges Vrill be located at Kanpur, Jamnagar, Eanchi, Bhopal
and Kerala State.
BROADCASTING IN INDIA
Early History — ^The first development of Radio in India began
■with a Radio Club at Madras in 1924, but regular service was inau-
gurated by the Indian Broadcasting Company when the first station
was opened in Bombay on July 23, 1927 and Calcutta station was
opened on August 26, 1927. Before these dates a number of low
power 'stations in various parts of India were working. Financial
difBculties overpowered the company and it went into liquidation in
March, 1930.
But there was an universal demand that broadcasting should
continue in India -without any interruption. As a' result of various
representations. Government decided to take over the radio as an
experimental measure. With effect from 1st April, 1930, it was
placed under the direct control of the Government of India in the
Department of Industries and Labour under the designation of
'Indian State Broadcating Service.’
But the position of broadcasting in India did not improve. The
Government again decided to close down the service as it was being
run at a considerable loss. The decision to close down was announc-
ed on the 9th October, 1931. The announcement caused considerable
agitation everywhere. It became however clear that new sources of
revenue had to be found out if broadcasting was to continue in India;
It was decided that customs receipts should be increased. So broad-
casting in India started again as a state monopoly under the name of
All India Radio in 1936.
Since then there has been steady progress. To-day All India
Radio is a vast organization under the Director-General of Broad-
casting -with a net-work of regional stations all over India. Each
station is under a Station Director. A.I.R. has now at its command
a most powerful battery of transmitters capable of covering at least
four continents direct. Even in its present set-up, A.I.R. is Asia’s
biggest institution of its kind.
Since 15th August, 1947, the number of radio stations has in-
creased from six to twenty nine including stations taken over from the
integrated States and the States at Srinagar & Jammu in Kashmir.
Organisation — ^All India Radio is a ■wing of the Ministry of In-
formation and Broadcasting and is controlled by a Director General.
The Directorate General has 11 subordinate offices and 27 regional
stations operating from the following centres — Delhi, Bombay,
Madras, Calcutta, Lucknow, Tiruchirapalli, Patna, Cuttack, Gauhati,
Nagpur, Vijayawada, Baroda, Allahabad, Jullundur, Ahmedabad,
Dharwar, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Trivandrum, Kozhikode, Jaipur,
Simla, Poona, Rajkot, Indore, Jammu & Srinagar.
A.I.R. Stations — are grouped into four regions — ^North, East,
South and West. North Regional stations are Delhi, Lucknow, Alla-
habad, Patna and Jullundur, Jaipur Ajmer and Simla. East Regional
BROADCASTING IN INDIA
455
stations comprise Calcutta, Cuttack and Gauhati. In South Region we
have Madras, Tiruchi, Vijayawada, Trivandrum, Kozhikode, Hyderabad
and Bangalore. The West Region has Bombay, Nagpur, Baroda-
Ahmedabad, Dharwar, Poona, Rajkot and Indore.
In addition to this, Kashmir has two stations at Srinagar and
Jammu.
Programmes are planned by Station Directors and are drawn up
well in advance of their scheduled dates. The regional station is a
self-contained unit incharge of a Station Director who has under
him expert staff for Administration, Engineering, Programme
Planning and Production. Except in matters of co-ordination with
other stations, its programme plans are drawn up independently.
Each centre has its own studios, ofBces, transmitters and receiving
centre. Programmes are arranged and produced locally and consist
of music, talks, plays, special programmes for women and children,
school broadcasts and rural broadcasts for community listening.
In its broadcasts, A.I.R. emphasises on instrumental, cultural
and entertainment items. It avoids politics of a controversial nature
and does not accept sponsored broadcasts or any matter that would
amount to commercial advertising. It does not include in its pro-
grammes any appeal for funds or contributions.
Promotion of Hindi — ^The new Constitution brought with it im-
portant changes in the policy as well as size of the organisation.
This choice of Hindi as national language is reflected in A.I.R. pro-
grammes in a number of ways. The volume and variety of broad-
casts in Hindi from stations located in the predominently Hindi areas
were increased by modifying the linguistic composition of their pro-
grammes. In December 1950 stations in the non-Hindi area inaugu-
rated popular courses of lessons in Hindi in their respective regional
languages. News bulletins in Hindi are also broadcast from stations
in non-Hindi areas. A Hindi Advisory Committee has been set up
to achieve uniformity in the language and development of vocabu-
lary in Hindi. Well-known Hindi scholars have been appointed to
A.I.R. in Hindi-speaking areas.
Revenue — ^The sources of revenue are customs duty on wireless
apparatus, license fees and subscription and advertisement revenues
from radio journals. There is an annual license fee of Rs. 16 per
each domestic receiver which is the main source of income. The
licenses are issued by the Post and Telegraphs Department. The
traders in wireless apparatus have to take out special import licenses.
The A.I.R. has a limited budget of about 2 crores and 40 lakhs per
year, of which two crores is recurring.
Journals — Seven radio programme journals, i.e., Indian Listener
(Englishl. Awaz (Urdu). Sarang (Hindi), Betar Jagat (Bengali),
Vanoli (Tamil), Navovani (Gujarati) and Vani (Telugu) are pub-
lished by the A.I.R. They give advance publicity to home programmes.
Languages of the Stations — ^The programmes are broadcast
in 13 languages. Delhi — Hindi. Urdu, Hariyana, English, Pun-
jabi and Gorkhali ; Patna — Hindi, Urdu, and English ; Lnc-
knoiu and Allahabad — Hindi, Urdu, English ; Jullimdur and Amrit-
sar — Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu and English; Bombay — Gujarati, English,
456
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Hindi, Urdu, Marathi, Kannada and Konkani ; Nagpur — ^Hindi, Mara-
thi and Eng-Iish ; Baroda and Ahmedabad — Gujarati ; Dhancar —
Kannada, Hhidi and English : Hyderabad — ^Telu^, Hindi, Urdu,
Marathi, Kannada and English ; Calcutta — Bengali, Hindi Oriya and
English ; Cuttack — Oriya, Hindi and English ; Shillong-Gauhati —
Assamese, ffindi, English, Khasi-Jaintia ; Madras — ^Tamil, Hindi,
English and Telugn ; Tiruchi — ^Tamil ; Vijayawada — ^Telugn and
English ; Trivandrum and Kozhikode — ^Malayalam and English ;
Mysore — Kannada, Hindi and English and also Kashmiri.
Licences — All the radio licences are available from post offices.
The fees for each year are as follows : Commercial Broadcast
Receiver lAeence — ^Rs. 50 ; Possession Licence for dealers and non-
dealers — Rs. 15 ; Demonstration Licence — ^Rs. 15 ; Community Broad-
cast Receiver Licence — Rs. 10; Broadcast Receiver Licence (Domes-
tic) — Rs. 15 ; Broadcast Receiver Licence for Schools — ^Rs. 3 ;
Broadcast Receiver Licence for Institutioris for the Blind — ^Rs. 3 ;
Broadcast Receiver Licence for Crystal sets — ^Rs. 3.
Varied Broadcasts — Broadcasts are now made in 16 languages
including Sanskrit and 12 dialects in the Home Services and in 12
languages, including_ two dialects of Chinese in external services. In
regard to news services, 71 news bulletins are being put out daily, in
28 Indian and foreign languages.
The details of various broadcasts are given here : —
Industrial Area Broadcasts — ^The Calcutta, Bombay, Ahmedabad,
Lucknow and Madras stations broadcast special progarmmes for
workers in factories and other establishments. The Calcutta pro-
gamme is broadcast daily in Bengali and Hindustani and is
addressed to the workers. The Bombay programme is broadcast
three times a week in Marathi, Gujarati and Hindustani.
School Broadcasts — are meant to supplement the routine lessons
through instructive subjects at schools and not to act as substitute
for the teacher. The usual duration of a school broadcast is half-
an-hour. These are now over 13,000 Community listenening sets in
the country and over 4,800 schools have taken out licences for
receiving_ sets. The subjects selected for school broadcasts may not
fall within the four comers of the school curriculum. IVTien they do,
a fresh approach not always within the competence of an ordinary
school teacher is made. This listening-in is, however, to be super-
vised by the teacher who follows it up by a discussion vith the
students. At present 13 stations of AIR broadcast programmes for
schools.
Womeji’s Broadcasts — ^These programmes are broadcast in regi-
onal languages from almost all the stations. They consist of music,
features and talks.
_ External Broadcasts — ^AIR has an External Services Division
which plans and broadcasts programmes directed to listners in certain
foreign countries, including^ Indians overseas. The aim of such
bro_adcasts_ is to promote friendly relations with those countries to
which India is bound by cultural or economic ties and to keep Indian
Mtiona|s_ abroad in touch with developments in the mother country.
The division now broadcasts on six short wave transmitters in 18
BROADCASTING IN INDIA
457
languages. External Services Programmes are given publicity
through different journals.
National Programmes — The National Programme in music
features the best available talent in Hindustani and Karnatic. Music
is being broadcast from Delhi Station every Saturday for a duration
of 90 minutes before a select gathering. On certain occasion
like Independence Day, Dewali etc. its duration is extended upto
midnight. These programmes combine entertainment with musical
education for listeners all over the country. Concerts etc. of regio-
nal music are also featuring in the national programme.
In the national programme of talks, a number of subjects
covering important aspects of our national life, such as agriculture,
health, education, communication etc. are arranged. The idea of
the national pro^amme of music and talk has also been extended
to plays and features. Outstanding plays from the principal In-
dian literature are selected and broadcast by all stations of All India
Radio simultaneously in all the languages. With a view to commu-
nicating to listeners the views of original thinkers and distin-
guished scholars, services of lecture as Patel Lecture is being broad-
cast by AIR.
Armed Forces Broadcasts — ^During the War, Delhi started
special programmes in Hindustani for Indian troops in India and
abroad. After the war and from 15th August, 1947, the troops pro-
gramme has been given a new orientation. The programme is now
broadcast only for 40 minutes daily in the afternoon.
Song and Drama Division — This Division is responsible for pub-
lishing the Five-Year Plan through the instructional entertain-
ment media.
Farm Forum — ^is a new broadcast introduced during past five
years. The speciality of this is participation of listeners and it deals
with subject like talks on compost manure making and subjects of
rural interest.
Radio Reporting — ^has now become a regular feature of A.I.E.
programmes. It covers national festivals, cultural activities and
sports.
Community Broadcasts — Since listening facilities are very
meagre in the rural areas. All India Radio operates a scheme of
community broadcasts. Under this scheme community sets are
installed for public use in towns and villages by the State
Governments or by the local bodies. Special programmes for
rural listeners and other special groups like industrial workers,
children and students are planned and produced by AIR. At
present almost all the stations of AIR broadcast rural programmof.
A scheme for providing a community receiver set to each < ''
the villages with a population of 1,000 and above has alreary
been started.
Radio Debates — A novel experiment in broadcast discussion is
now being tried. This is the two way discussion that began in 1949
first arranged with co-operation of BBC in which participants were
present in London and Delhi and conversed over a radio link. Few
458
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
more such two way discussions are being broadcast sometimes inside
the A.I.E. net-work.
News Services — The News Services Division of AIR is to-day
one of the largest news organisations in the world. The main
activity of the News Services is the dissemination of accurate news
in India and abroad for listeners in this country, for people
of Indian origin abroad and for listeners in the neighbouring
countries. It puts out daily 71 news bulletins in 28 Indian and
foreign languages. All news bulletins are centrally arranged
and broadcast from the short wave transmitters at Delhi, each
station relapng the bulletins in the language or languages of its
area. To give wider coverage to news from the States, regional news
bulletins have also been started from Nagpur (Marathi), Lucknow
(Hindi), Calcutta (Bengali), Madras (Tamil & Telugu) and Bombay
(Gujarati).
At present, AIR broadcasts 71 news bulletins a day in 28 Indian
and foreign languages in the Home and External Services. Twenty
eight of these bulletins are broadcast in the External Services and
43 in the Home Services for a total duration of about 14 hours.
The radio newsreel launched in Dec. 1955 is broadcast once a week in
Hindi and English.
Music Broadcasts — ^A panel was formed to assist All India Radio
in selecting and grading artists who broadcast classical and light
classical music. The duration of film music has been substantially
reduced and the time thus saved is being devoted- to light music
with an acceptable standard of merit. All India Radio has also
inaugurated a national programme of music from Delhi in order to
promote cultural unitj' among the people.
Children’s Programmes — ^These programmes are conducted from
all the stations, the time varying from 30 minutes to an hour.
Wherever possible the children are divided into two or three age
groups.
Contact vith the Public — ^For establishing and maintaining con-
tact between A.I.R. and its listeners, there is a Director of Public
Rdations at Headquarters and a Public Relations OfScer in some
stations.
Contact with public for keeping programme policy in consonance
with the main trends of the public opinion is maintained by the
machinery of the Advisory Committees of various types. The Regi-
onal Programme Advisory Committees which function at certain
staUons include members of the Parliament residing in the respective
regions. Educational Consultive Panels are attached to the stations
at Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, while Language Advisory
Committees are attached to Delhi and Luclmow.
Advisory Committees — ^There is a regional programme Advisory
L immittee in all stations. Educational Consultive Panels are attach-
ed to the stations at Delhi, Bombay, (Calcutta and Mardas, Language
Advisory Committees are attached to the stations at New Delhi
and Lucknow. Stations at Delhi and Bombay have consultive panels
for Indian music. Rural Advisory Committees are attached to the
stations at Delhi, Tiruchi, Madras and Vijayawada.
BROADCASTING IN INDIA
459
Central Programme Advisory Committees has been established
to discuss and lay down the general lines of the programmes policy
to be followed by A.I.R. also a Central Hindi Advisory Committee
to advise on the Hindi programmes of A.I.R.
A Central Advisory Board of Music, composed of eminent musi-
cians and music lovers have also been constituted in 1953 to advise
the Government on music policy of A.I.R.
A Mrisic Audition Board with a Northern and a Sonthem Panel
was constituted in 1952 to audition classical and light classical music
artists who broadcast from A.I.R.
Research — ^AIR has a small research organisation continuously
dealing with broadcasting problems, such as acoustics of studios,
ionospheric studies and development of new equipment to make
broadcasting an efficient service. It is proposed to develop equip-
ment for the objective measurement of atmospheric noise. The
Research _ Division aims at studying the aerial characteristics of
transmitting and receiving aerials with a view to finding out best
ones for use in our country.
Transcription Service — The Transcription service came into being
in April 1954 ; since then the service has considerably extended its
scope of programme activities. The production of the various light
music unit functioning in different stations of A.I.R. are processed.
A number of signature tone, the national anthem etc. are some of
the items handled by this unit for processing. Besides, this service
has provided the nucleus for an exchange of recorded programme
with foreign broadcasting organisations. Recorded programmes
reflecting Indian art and culture are also supplied to this organisa-
tion. The Record Processing Plant is engaged in the production of
finished gramophone record from plastic material.
AIR Monitoring Service — A.I.R. monitoring service at Simla
keeps a watch on transmissions from all the main broadcasting sta-
Hons in the world. The service monitors news, commentaries, and
selected tal^ transmitted from these stations in English, in Indian
languages and in some foreign languages. The service covers 11
broadcasts per day from 24 radio stations. The languages include
besides English, French, German, Kashmiri, Bengali, Hindi, Urdu,
Punjabi, Persian, Afgan and Pushtu.
A.I.R. Staff Training School — ^The All India Radio opened a
Staff Training School in 1948 for the training of new entrants into
the service, both programme and technical as well as of the existing
members of the staff. On the Technical side, trainees receive ins-
truction on the physical properties of the medium as well as on the
complicated chain of technical processes between the broadcaster
and the listener. On the Programme side, instruction consists of a
scries of lectures, demonstrations and practical exercises on every
aspect of broadcasting. There is also another section to the school
to train engineer apprentices. Here the training is of post-graduate
standard lasts for about six months. There is a special course for
announcers also and school often holds introductory seminars for
the benefit of the production staff.
Listener Research Unit — ^This unit of A.T.R. continuously tries
460
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
to keep in touch ■with the ne'ws and interests of its listeners. In order
to study the trends in listening and the shifts in public taste, contact
-with listeners is maintained by a system of listening panels, postal
enquiries and sample surveys.
niPORTS OF RADIO SETS
(In lakhs of Rupees)
No.
Value
Income from duty
1950-51
. . 16,012
25-44
50-56
1951-52
. . 29,121
52-64
92-90
1952-53
. . 19,286
36-09
68-85
1953-54
. . 13,042
23-45
45-42
1954-55
. . 4,515
11-20
58-73
NO. OF DOMESTIC
RECEIIHER SETS IN INDIA
1947
.. 2,48,274 1950
. . 5,07,324
1953 . . 7,69,505
1948
. . 2,86/146 1951
. . 6,35,026
1954 . . 8,35,246
1949
. . 3,69,728 1952
. . 6,94,560
1955 (Sept.) 8,90,671
IMPORTANT DATES OF BROADCASTING IN INDIA
1924 — First Radio Club in India in Madras on May 16, 1924.
1927 — Bombay Station of the Indian Broadcasting Co., opened on
' July 23, and Calcutta opened on August, 1927.
1930 — ^Indian Broadcasting Co., -went into liquidation on March, 1930
and Broadcasting -was placed under the direct control of the
Government of India and its name -n-as changed to “Indian
State Broadcasting Service.”
1939 — ^Designation of the Indian State Broadcasting Service changed
to “All-India Radio.”
1939 — ^In December, first foreign language service opened.
1947 — Broadcasting started at Patna(26th Jan.)& Cuttack(27th Jan).
1948 — Broadcasting started at Shillong and Gauhati (1st July).
1948 — Broadcasting started at Srinagar (Kashmir) on 1st July.
1948 — Broadcasting started at Nagpur (16th July).
1948 — ^Broadcasting_ started at Vijaya'wada (1st Dec., 1948).
1948 — Baroda Station taken over by Government of India i6th Dec.
1949 — ^Allahabad Station opened on 1st February, 1949.
1949 — Jodhpur Station •went on the air on 26th Jan., 1949.
1949 — Jullundur Station opened on May 16.
1949 — Ahmedabad Station opened on April 16.
1950 — Calicut Station opened on June 1.
1950 — Stations of Jlysore, Trivandrum, Hyderabad and Aurangabad
incorporated in AIR on 1st April.
1950 — ^Dharwar Station opened on Jan., 8.
1953 — ^Poona and Simla Stations opened.
1955 — ^First television broadcast in India by Philips Electrical Co.
at Indian Industries Fair at Delhi, Nov. 1, 1955.
INDIA’S POWER SUPPLY
POWER-GENERATION IN INDIA— Generation of power is
essential for the industrial development of India. Because the eco-
nomic prosperity of the country mainly depends upon the generation
of power. In this respect, compared with progressive countries, India
woefully lags behind. The per capita consumption is 14 kilowatt
powers in India compared with 1,100 kwt. in the U.K., 3,905 in
Canada, 2,400 in Sweden, 2,207 kwt. in the U.S.A., 2,024 in Norway
and 16,188 in Switzerland.
Power can be derived from oil, coal, water and wind movements.
Our mineral-oil reserves are almost negligible. So production of
power through oil is an imposibility. So far as coal is concerned,
India has no doubt fairly large reserve of coal, but it would be
uneconomical if we are to waste coal reserves for the production of
power ; moreover well-known coal-bearing areas are concentrated
in Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Hyderabad.
So in regions far away from the above coal fields, coal costs much
due fo high cost of transport. This higher cost of transport adver-
sely affects the establishment of large thermal power stations in
South India or Punjab. As for water power, it may be said that
water is inexhaustible, whereas coal or mineral oil are wasting assets,
and the water besides being inexhaustible is the cheapest of all.
Although a complete field survey has not so far been under-
taken, a preliminary assessment of the hydro-electric potential of
India made during the first Five-Year Plan shows it to be 36 million
kw. This figure is divided into four regions. —
1. Himalayan rivers and their tributaries — ^20 million Irw.
2. Central Indian rivers (Narbada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Brahmani
and Baitarini)— 4 million kw.
3. East-flowing rivers of the Deccan Plateau — 7 million kw.
4. West-flowing rivers of the Deccan Plateau— 4 million kw.
AD5IINISTRATION — The Ministry of Irrigation and Power
was created in May 1952 by the bifurcation of the Ministry of Na-
tural Resources and Scientific Research. Among other things, the
Ministry is responsible for the development of irrigation and power.
Central River Valley Projects, Central Water & Power Commission,
Damodar Valley Corporation, co-ordination of power and tele-com-
munication lines, the Central Electricity Acts, etc. The Ministry
continues to be responsible for the multipurpose development of the
river valley projects, the grant of financial assistance to State Gov-
ernments and inter-state disputes regarding irrigation and power.
Legislation on electricity, inter-state rivers and river valleys are
some of the other responsibilities of the Ministry.
Till recently the generation and distribution of electricity
in India was governed by the Indian Electricity Act of 1910.
It was merely a restrictive and regulatory measure not designed
462
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
to promote power development in the country. Though the ap-
palling backwardness was clearly demonstrated during the World
War I, little was done by the Government beyond conducting
a hydro-electric survey in 1921. The need of further power
development became apparent during World War II. Accordinly
ElectHcal Commission was set up by the Govemment of India
in 1941 to regulate, assist and control the power-generating
industry in the interest of war effort. Later the Central Techni-
cal Power Board (subsequently merged in the Electrical Commission
in 1948) was created in 1945 to assist the State Governments and
electricity undertakings in initiating and planning new power
schemes. To ensure economy and efficiency in the administration,
the Central Electricity Commission and the Central Water Power,
Irrigation and Navigation Commission have been amalgamated
recently and the new organisation known as the Central Water and
Pmuer Commission thus came into being. The Power Wing of this
organisation is generally responsible for the co-ordination and pro-
motion of schemes of electric power development. The Commission’s
functions range from investigation, surveys, co-ordination of re-
search, experiments and propaganda to advising and assisting the
Central and State Governments on all important matters relating to
power development and construction work on river valleys.
It also looks after the scheme of thermal power development and
transmission and utilisation of electrical energy.
For the rapid and orderly generation of electricity, the Electri-
city (Supply) Act was passed in 1948. It provides for the setting
up of a Central Electricity Atithority for the entire country as well
as regional organisations known as State Electricity Boards. In
accordance with the provisions of the Act, the Central Electricity
Authority was constituted in 1950. It consists of a Chairman and
four members.
The Central Electricity Authority is required to — (i) evolve a
sound, adequate and uniform national power policy, co-ordinate the
activities of the planning agencies; (ii) act as arbitrator in disputes
arising between a State Govemment or a State Electricity Board
and the licenses ; (iii) carry out investigations and collect and
publish data concerning the generation, distribution and consump-
tion of power; (iv) make public from time to time information secured
■under the Act.
State Electricity Boards have been formed in some of the
States. The State Boards are required to rationalise the produc-
tion and supply of electricity in their respective areas, give bulk
supplies of power to existing licensed undertakings and retail power
wherever necessary and direct licenses to achieve the maximum
•economy and efficiency in the operation of their undertakings. The
■Electeicity (Supply) Act of 1948 thus provides suitable machinery to
facilitate the co-ordination of electric power development throughout
India.
The importance of the grid system has been fully recognised,
^e large blocks of power can now be transferred economically over
distances of 300 to 400 miles. This makes it possible to harness
INDIA’S POWER SUPPLY
463
hydro-electric and thermal power potentials in various regions and
utilise this power in widely separated industrial centres and rural
areas in the neighbourhood of transmission lines.
HYDRO-POWER RESOURCES OF INDIA— India’s utilisable
hydro-power resources have been roughly estimated at 35 million
kw. at 60 per cent load factor by the Central Water and Power Com-
mission. The Commission has divided country into six broad
regions ; (a) the west-flowing rivers of the Western Ghats, (6) the
east-flowing rivers of Southern India, (c) the rivers of Central India,
(d)_ the Ganga basin, (e) the Brahmaputra basin and (/) the Indus
basin.
The problems involved in the development of the west-flowing
rivers of Western Ghats are common — almost all being ‘high-head’
schemes, unaffected by conflicting requirements of irrigation etc.,
those of east-flowing rivers of southern India are different in that
over-riding requirements for irrigation have first priority and power
development is generally of the "medium-head” class.
PATTERN OF ELECTRICITY IN INDIA— Broadly speaking
most of the electrical developments in India has so far been limited
to satisfying the demand of urban areas. This has led to a topsided
development of our economy. It may be pointed out that six large
cities — Bombay, Calcutta, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Madras and Delhi
account for 51 per cent of the country’s installed capacity and 54 p.c.
of the generated energy. During the Second Five-Year Plan 7,500
towns and villages will be electrified in addition to those now served.
Second Five-Year Plan aims at extending power facilities to all
villages and small towns with a population of over 10,000. Out of 685
medium and small towns with a population of 20,000 and above, 550
had been electrified during the first Five-Year Plan period and in the
next population range of 10,000 and 20,000, 360 out of 856 had been
covered.
The distribution of electrification over towns and villages of
different sizes is as follows —
No. likely
Total No. Ntimber to be elec-
Population according electrified trifide in
range to 1951 in March March,
census 1950 1967.
Over 1,00,000 . . 73 73 73
Between 1,00,000 — 50,000 . . Ill 111 111
„ 60,000—20,000 . . 401 366 400
„ 20,000—10,000 . . 856 450 816
„ 10,000— 5,000 . . 3,101 1,000 2,600
Below 5,000 . • 5,56,o65 4,500 10,000
5,61,107 6,500 14,000
STATE OP POWER DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
The state of power development in India at the present time
is as follows: —
464
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
(1) South India — largely hydro-electrical.
(2) Bombay area — largely hydro-electrical but Kith a limited
amount of thermal poicer.
(3) Bihar and Bengal coal fields — mainly thermal.
(4) Central India — comprising Hyderabad, Orissa, and
Madhya Pradesh — mainly thermal.
(5) Punjab and Uttar Pradesh — mainly hydro-electrical —
partly thermal.
Slysore — Mysore grid consists of the three generating stations
of Sivasamudram and the Jag Falls totalling about 179 MW installed
capacity.
Madras — Madras grid comprises four hydro-electric power
stations, namely Pykara and Moyar on the Nilgiris, Mettur on
Cauvari river, and Papanasam in Tennivelly on the Tambrapami
river, and two thermal stations in Madras and Sladurai. Two new
hydro-electric stations, the Periyar and Kundah are under construc-
tion. Total installed generating capacity in the grid — 257.300 kw.
The number of towns and villages electrified is 2,600. Madras State
ranks third in India in generation and utilization of electric power.
Andhra — ^The Andlira grid consists of : (1) Machkvjid hydro-
electric scheme in Visakhapatnam district with an ultimate capacity
of 105 MW. (2) Tungahhadra dam power house with about 45 MW
and course 35 MW. (3) Vijayawada, Visakhapatnam and Nellore
thermal stations accounting for about 30 MW steam plant.
Travancore-Cochin — In Travancore-Cochin, the Pallivasal, Scn-
gitlam and Porangalikuthu projects will have an installed capacity
of about 109.5 MW. These are capable of producing about 570
million units.
Bombay Area — ^In the Bombay State, the only major public
utility stations are the Hydro-Electric installations of the Tata
Hydro-Electric Age7icics which control three power suppfies (1)
Tata Hydro-Electric Power Supply Co Ltd., (2) Andhra Valley Power
Supply Co. Ltd. and (3) Tata Power Co. Ltd. and the Thermal Power
of the Ahmedabad Electricity Company.
The three hydro-electric power stations of Tatas — Klwpoli,
Bhipuri and Bhira are situated on the slopes of the Western Ghats
between Poona and Bombay. These Power Stations carry power to
urban and industrial areas of Bombay and Poona. Tata power
system is also inter-connected uith the Chola Steam Station of
Central Railway.
The Government of Bombay has set up the Bombay Electricity
Board on 6th November, 1954. The Grid Systems of Bombay has
been transferred to this Board. This development programme under
execution at present consists of (1) North Gujarat Grid Scheme,
(2) South Gujarat Grid Scheme, (3) Jug-Kamatak Electric Grid
Scheme, (4) Extension of Chola Power Station of Central Railway,
(5) Radhanagari Hydro-Electric Scheme, (6) Rural Electrification
and Small Towns Schemes based on small Diesel stations or distribu-
tion of power purchased from the existing licenses.
Bihar-Bengal Area — ^With the ample supply of coal, power deve-
lopment of Bihar and Bengal has been based almost exclusively on
INDIA’S POWER SUPPLY
465
steam power stations. The largest of the power stations are those
belonging to Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation with a total ins-
talled capacity of 437,290 kw. This Corporation has four large
steam power stations — Cossipur, New CoBsipur, Southern and Mula-
jore, all situated on the banks of the river Hooghly. These power
stations supply power to Calcutta industrial and residential areas.
Other major public utility power stations in the area are Gouripur
(53,350 kw), Sibpur (8,375 kw), Dishergarh (16,000 kw) in Bengal
and Sijua Jherriah (18,000 kw), and Patna in Bihar. There are
several privately owned power stations belonging ta — ^Tata Iron &
Steel Co. Ltd., Jamshedpur, Ind. Iron & Steel Co., Rohtas industries,
Dalmianagar, Aluminium Corporation of India, Asansol.
Orissa — Total capacity of power station installed in the State is
8,227 kw.
Madhya Pradesh — The M. P. Electricity Board, a statutory body
under the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 started functioning from
Ist April, 1952, when the State Government transferred to it the
work of their Electricity Department and Power Stations and trans-
mission lines. The progress achieved in the development of electri-
city in M. P. is as follows —
1
Installed
generating
capacity
(kw)
•<p*
O w
V
o-S
Cities &
towns havin
electricity
with pop, ov
Villogcs wi
electricity
with Pop.
under lO.OOi
1964 73,000
177-4
71,000
48
102
1956-66 100,00
282-3
89,600
73
197
Delhi — ^has a State Electricity Board whose installed capacity
of the generating plant is 64,000 kw. with a safe generating capacity
of 38 Kw.
Punjab — ^The old undivided Punjab during 1937-38 developed the
hydro-electric site in Mandi State on the Uhl river. The power house is
located at Jogindemagar. It so happned that the major portion of
the loads connected to Jogindemagar station fell within the limits of
Punjab, now forming part of Pakistan. The major load centres
coming within the Indian Union connected to Jogindemagar power
system are Amritsar, Jullundur, Ludhiana and Ferozepore. A work-
ing arrangement has been made between Governments of Punjab
(India) and Punjab (Pakistan) for the continuance of the present
supply from Jogindemagar power station to the Punjab (Pakistan)
which is expected to be gradually reduced.
Uttar Pradesh — Allahabad Power Station, Lucknow Power
Station, Kanpur Electric Supply Administration, Ganga Canal Grid.
30
,466
HINDUSTAN YEARrBOOK
POWER PROJECTS UNDER FIVE-YEAR PLAN
)tal installed '
pacity, April
966 (MW.)
ticipated total
apacity, in
956 (MW.)
■)tal installed
pacity, April
966 (MW.)
ticipated total
apacity, in
966 (MW.)
Assam
3.36
4-05
Madras
168-03
362-03
West Bengal
522-29
560-29
Mysore
107-20
179-20
Bihar
44-98
258-98
Pepsu
6-74
6-74
Bombay
416-19
672-49
Orissa
4-6
68-61
Centrally admi-
Punjab
61-38
160-38
nistered areas
Rajasthan
24-12
39-12
Delhi
37-54
68-54
Saurashtra
21-89
31-89
Rest
6-88
13-68
Travancore-
Hyderabad
21-07
74-54
Cochin
34-69
116-69
Jammu &
Uttar
Kashmir
Madhya
6-30
12-30
Pradesh
183-84.
. 306-14
13-69
31*19
1712-64
3057-13
Bharat
Madhya
Pradesh
27-84
101-34
PROGRESS OF ELECTRICITY SUPPLY, 1947-53
Installed capacity
of total gene- Energy gene- Energy sold
rating plants ted {kwh) (kwh)
(kw)
1947
. . 13,63,266
4J)73-318
3,356-794
1948
. . 14,10,966
4,575-466
3,721-464
1949
. . 16,37,186
4,909-289
4,004-716
1960
. . 17,12,515
6,106-700
4,156-667
1951
. . 18,35,426
6,858-403
4,793-344
1952
. . 20,61,765
6,120-347
6,005-682
ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATED AND SOLD
(Energy in millions of kilo-watt hours)
No. of concerns Generated Sold
1952-53 , . 614 6,301.4 5,134.3
1954- 65 . . 686 7,760.9 6,319.2
1955- 56 . . 716 8,805.8 7,185.8
{Central Water & Power Commission).
INDIAN IRRIGATION
USEFULNESS OF INDIAN IRRIGATION— The subcontinent
of India is mainly an agricultural country. Water is primarily
essential for growing crops and it is also an aid to increase the crop
yield. Although it is said that the average rainfall in a year is suffi-
cient to cover the whole subcontinent to a depth of no less than 3 feet
8 inches the variation from one part of the country to another (from
about 5" in Rajputana to 450" in Assam) and from year to year
(from 60 pc to/ 50 pc) is so great that the supply of water to the fields
under cultivation by artificial means is a necessity in many parts of
the Country. Because of this uncertainty of rainfall, Indian agricul-
ture has been described as a “gamble in the monsoon." The result
has been that the agricultural development in India has not kept pace
with the growth of population. So the area under cultivation must
be expanded by the larger irrigation facilities throughout the country.
Of the irrigated area some 60 per cent is from Government
works, 23 per cent from wells, and 27 per cent from other sources.
The total amount of annual flow of water in Indian Union is 1,366
million acre feet. This constitutes 49 per cent of the mean annual
rainfall. Of this volume of water, only 76 million acre feet or 5.6
per cent are at present being used for irrigation purpose and the
remaining 94.4 per cent runs to waste causing untold damage before
it joins the sea. The supplies for irrigation are obtained from three
sources —
(1) directly from the waters flowing in natural streams ;
(2) from the storage of flood waters of these streams or direct-
ly from storage of rain water in small tanks ; and
(3) from the underground subsoil reservoir.
ADMINISTRATION — With the introduction of Provincial Anto-
nomy in India in 1937, irrigation became a complete Provincial subject
and every administrative or lagislative measure was taken by the res-
pective province in regard to waterways. The Central Waterways.
Irrigation and Navigation Commission was constituded in 1945,
generally to act as a central fact-finding, planning and co-
ordinating organisation with authority to undertake constructional
work. In 1951-62 it was amalgamated with the Central Electricity
Commission and the Central Technical Board to form a new organi-
sation known as Central Water and Power Commission.
The Ministry of Irrigation and Power is responsible for the
Irrigation, Hydro-electric and other electric schemes in India.
The Indian Union has two central statutory bodies for the work
of irrigation — (1) Central Board of Irrigation and Power with
a Research Committee and a Bureau of Information and (2)
Central Water & Power Commission. The Central Board of
Irrigation and Power co-ordinates research work in irriga-
tion and hydro-electric matters and establishes contacts with insti-
468
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
tutions and individuals and disseminates teciinical information on
these subjects, and is also the liaison body for International Associa-
tion for Hydraulic Structures Research and runs the Indian National
•Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. The Cen-
tral Water and Power Commission is a central fact-finding planning
and co-ordinating organisation to advise Central and State Govern-
ments in regard to waterways , irr igation and navigation problem
throughout the country. The CWPC is mainly responsible for ini-
tiating, co-ordinating and promoting schemes for the control, con-
servation and utilisation of the country’s water resources. It also
looks after schemes of thermal power developmmt and of trans-
mission and utilisation of e lectr ic energy available in the country.
The Potcer Wing of CWPC is generally responsible for the co-
ordination and promotion of schemes of electric power development.
One of its functions relates to planning and desigfning * of power
systems.
There is also a Central Standing Comnuttee for co-ordination of
Power and Telecommunication Lines set up in May 1949 which
carries out scientific and field studies on the various aspects of co-
ordination problems.
Flood Control — The severe floods that occured in India in 1954
compelled the Government of India to formulate a comprehensive
programme of flood controL Flood Control Boards at the Centre
and in several States were created with a flood wing in the Central
Water and Power Commission. The programme of the flood control
was divided into three categories — (i) immediate, (ii) short-term and
(iii) long-term.
K^EAKCH WORK — -An important activity of the Commission is
the Irrigation Research. The Central Water, Power and Research
Station at Khadakvasala near Poona is the oldest research institution
in India which is endeavouring to determine the best form of struc-
tures for the control and development of river in the country. The
station now consists of eight sections : (1) Canal Hydraulics, (2)
Navigation, (3) Concrete and Materials of Construction, (4) Sofl-
Mechanics, (5) Mathematics, (6) Statistics, (7) Physics and (8) Che-
mist^. The States have also there research stations in Bombay,
Amritsar, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Mysore and Hyderabad. The re-
search work done in aU these stations is co-ordinited by the Central
Board of Irrigation.
RIA’ER VALLEY PROJECTS — India is well-placed in respect of
overall water resources and power potential. It is increasingly being
realised that while a project conceived for a single purpose like
irrigation or flood conri-ol might not be an economic proposition, it
might become a financially feasible and productive scheme, if it in-
cluded other purpose like power generation, navigation et<L So the
multi-purpose schemes have come in, because of the manifold benefits
they yield. Apart from providing irrigation facilities for growing
additional food anj commercial crops, two other main benefits are the
control of floods which cause enormous destruction of crop, propertv,
cattle and human life every year and the. generation of large blocte
INDIAN IRRIGATION
469
of hydro-electric power. Among the other benefits which accrue
from the projects are the development of internal navigation which
relieves the pressure on the railways, facilitates conservation, affore-
station, pisciculture and the provision of drinking water. The
importance of these projects can be realised from the fact that high
priority has been assigned to them by the First Five-Year Plan.
Nearly a third of the total budget for the plan has been ear-marked
for irrigation and power projects.
At present there are 163 projects under execution in different
parts of the country. Of these 6 are multi-purpose, 104 irrigation
and 43 power projects. Twelve of these 153 projects may be termed
'major'. The cost of the 12 major projects is estimated at Es. 439
crores and that of remaining 141 projects at 151 crores. Thus the
aggregate cost of all the projects is Rs. 680 crores. In addition, there
are 122 other projects for which preliminary investigations are either
in progress or have been completed but which can not be under-
taken for lack of funds.
MAIN TYPES OF IRRIGATION— (1) Canal Jrrigation—This is
the most important type of irrigation. Canals draw their waters from
rivers or from artificial storage. They are mostly seen in Northern
India. The river canals are of three classes — Imindation canals.
Perennial canals and Storage canals. By inundation canals, water
supply is made possible by leading water from rivers and streams.
They are formed by making smaller cuts through^ the river bank,
into which the water flows when the level of the river rises during
floods. These are generally found in the Indus basin and its tribu-
tories. The Perennial canals are built by erecting some form of
barrage across a river which flows throughout the year and divert-
ing its water through a canal to the country to be irrigated. These
canals are found in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. Storage canals are
built by constructing a dam across a valley to store the rain water
during the monsoons. The water so held is later distributed to lands
by means of canals drawn from the storage. These works are found
in the Deccan, M. P. and Bundelkhand.
(2) The rest of the irrigation is done through tanks, surface
percolation wells, tube-wells, etc. The term minor applies to this
type' of irrigation.
(tt) Surface Percolation wells exist all over the country.
(6) Tanks and Reservoirs — The water collects either in natural
depressions, on the beds of streams are dammed up and shallow
basins created for storing water.
(c) Flood irrigation and inundation irrigation are the other
sources of minor irrigation in India. The monsoon flood water of
rivers diverted to lands which are above the level of the ordinary
supply in a river. The flood water soaks the lands and the moisture
retained in the soil allows the cultivation of a winter season crop,
which otherwise would not be possible.
(d) Tube wells — This means lifting of water from underground
by means of mechanical pumps. This process helps to utilise the
sub-soil water resources of the country, particularly in the alluvial
plains of the Indo-Gangetic basin.
470
HINDUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
The irrigaiioii is again dirided in thres classes Dy Government —
(1) Productize — -tie capital for the constmction and extension
of thig class is provided ont of borron-ed money or by appropriaSoa
from Famine Irisnrance grant and vrhich is expected to yield vrithin
ten years of their completion snmcient revenne to pay vrorking
expenses as vrell as the interest on the capital espend^ on their
construction.
(2) Unproduetizc — ^Unproductive vrorks are these vrhich yidd
a net revenue vrhich is less than the percentage fixed for productive
vrorhs. These are constructed primarily as prot^tion against
famine and the cost of construction is provided out of current reve-
nnes or by appropriation from Famine Insurance grant-
(3) Minor — These are small vrorts for vrhich detailed capital
or revenue accounts are not maintained, such works may be produc-
tive or unproductive.
Dams and Barrages — VTe have to understand the differences be-
tween Dams and Barrages in connection with river valley projects.
Any ohstmction Built to stem the Sow of water in a stream is ^a dam,
and from that point of view, the barrage also is a dam._ But the dam
has come to be synonymous with the comparatively high structure
built to make reservoirs of water and the barrage is a structure which
controls and regulates the Sow of water.
CANALS OF INULA
Punjab
1. TTcstcrn Jamuna Canal takes its water from the Jamuna, near
where the river leaves the Himalayas and irrigates the districts of
Bohtak and Hissar, States of Patiala and Jhind.
2. Sirhirjd Canal takes water from SntleJ Purer and irrigates
Ludhiana, Ferorpur. Hissar and Nabha.
3. Upper Bcri-Dcah Canal takes water from Bavi Biver and
irrigates Gurdaspur, Amiitsar and Lahore. Its main lines are 324
miles long.
4. Eest-cm Canal constructed in 1928.
Uttar Pradesh
Names of larger irrigation roorJrs — (1) Ganga Carmh takes on
from the Ganga river at &rdwar. (2) Eastern Jamuna Canal. (3)
-Agra Canal, (4) Sarda Canal (one of the largest canal in the worli
This sj-stem serves a dozen districts in Central U. F. and commands
a culturable area of 7 million acres. 'With new extensions, it wiH
provide irrigation to an additional 167,000 acres. A 40 so. mile lake
is being made which will store suiplus water. It is Imown as
Sarda Sagar. There is also a power-house at Hhatima, Si miles
below the headworks at Banbasa which wiH have installed canacity
Al.OOO law.), (5) Betwa CanaL (6) Uhasan Canal. (7) Ken Canhi,
(S) Ghatga Pumped Canal, (9) Bamganga Canal and (10) Bijnor
Canal.
INDIAN nmiGATION
471
Madras
Cauvery-Mattur Project, Godavari Delta System, Kistna Delta
System, Cauvery Delta System, Pennar River System, Periyar
System, Chicacole Minor River System, Lower Coleroon Anicut
System, Kumool-Cuddapah Canal, Sarda Canal.
Madhya Pradesh
Tandula Canals and Mahanadi Canals.
Bombay
Nira left-bank Canal, Godavari Canals, Pravara Canals, Nira
right-bank Canals.
Bihar
Son Canals and Tribeni Canal.
West Bengal.
Damodar Canals and Midnapnr Canals.
Hyderabad
Nizamasagar Canals.
Mysore
Krishnarajasagar Canals.
Orissa.
Orissa Canals.
SOME PRINCIPAL PROJECTS
Bhakra-Nangal Project — ^The project comprises two big
dams, a vast network of canals, four power houses and a large
number of transmission lines with scores of sub-stations spread
over the Punjab, Pepsu, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi.
The special feature is to be a straight gravity concrete dam 680 ft.
high, across the Sutlej at the Bhakra Gorge about 50 miles
upstream from Rupar. Eight miles_ down stream from Bhakra
is the 95 ft. high Nangal Dam. This dam, which has a storaga
capacity of 24,000 acre-feet of water, was completed in 1951. The
Nangal hydel channel which has also been completed, takes off from
the left bank of the river above the Nangal dam.
The first stage of power development in the project concerns only
the two stations on the Nangal channel with two 90,000 kw. genera-
ting units in each. The work at Ganguwal has already been com-
pleted in 1965. It supplies power to the Bhakra works, Delhi and
many towns in the Punjab.
At Kotla, which is sis miles downstream from Ganguwal, the
final installation of machinery is taking place. Ultimately, 594,000
kw. are expected to be generated by the four power houses in this)
project. The excavation of the Bhakra canals in the Punjab has
4‘72
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
been completed and the canal system was opened by the Prime
Minister in 1954. The project, is scheduled to be completed by 1958.
The salient components of the whole Project are : _ (1) Bhakra
Dam across the Sutlej, 50 miles above Rupar in Ambala district of the
Punjab, (2) Nangal Dam, (3) Nangal Canal, (4) two Nangal power
houses at Ganguwal and Kotla and (5) the Canal system.
Bhakra Dam : The Dam, when built, will be 680 ft. high to
reservoir level; its length at road level will be 1700 feet and maxi-
mum width 625 feet. A 260 feet long central spillway equipped with
radial gates will provide for passage of floods of the intensity of
400,000 cusecs. The Dam will be pierced by two tiers of outlets with
10 outlets each for releasing 106,000 cusecs of water for irrigation
purposes.
Nangal Dam : The Nangal Dam, located 8 miles downstream
of the Bhakra gorge, is a 95 feet high structure, 1000 feet long and
with a flood-capacity of 350,000 cusecs. There are 26 bays of 30
feet each with V feet wide piers between consecutive spans. Other
notable features of th Nangal Dam are the Shingle Excluder — design-
ed to prevent entry of shingle into the Nangal Hydel Canal — and an
Inspection Gallery, several feet below the crest level for watching
and observing the behaviour of the Dam under all conditions.
Nangal Hydel Canal : The Nangal Hydel Canal takes off at
Nangal and is lined throughout its entire length of 40 miles. The
Canal is considered the biggest undertaking in the Punjab and, per-
haps, without precedent in the world.
Bhakra Canals System : The Bhakra Canals System includes
nearly 700 miles of main canal and branches and 4,000 mUes of dis-
tributaries. The biggest single unit is the Bhakra Canal 238 miles
long and is considered “the largest and the longest lined canal in the
world.” The project, on full development, will serve a culturable
commanded area of nearly 6 million acres of which 3.2 million will
be irrigated annually in the States of Punjab, PEPSU and Rajasthan.
This will boost up food production by over a million tons in addition
to cash crops — 800,000 bales of long stable cotton, 500,000 tons of
fodder.
Power Houses : The total installed capacity of Bhakra and
Nangal Power Houses will be of the order of a million kilowatts. As
at present estimated, the Bhakra Power Houses will comprise a units
of 53,90,000 Kws. each in addition to a stand-by. Each of the two
Nangal Power Houses at Ganguwal and Kotta will have three units
of 24,000 Kws. or 144,000 Kws. in all. The firm power from both
Bhakra and Nangal is expected to be 365,000 Kws. at 100 per cent
load factor.
Two units of the Ganguwal Power House went into commission
on the 2nd of January, 1955 and the Kotla Power House has started
functioning in 1956. On full development,, the integrated grid of
Bhakra and Nangal Power Houses will cater to the requirements of
towns, rural areas, railways, industry, and fertilized factory in
Punjab, PEPSU, Himachal Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan and Delhi.
Damodar Valley Corporation. — ^The aim of this multi-purpose
project is to tame the turbulent Damodar and its tributaries which
INDIAN IRRIGATION
473
overflow their banks and bring destruction, misery and desolution to
large parts of Bihar and Bengal. This Corporation has been brought
into being for the development of Damodar Valley with flood control,
irrigation and generation of power as the main objects. It is a joint
venture undertaken by the West Bengal, Bihar and Central
Governments at a cost of Rs. 86 crore. It is to be completed
in two phases. The first phase, which began in 1948 comprises
(1) four dams at Tilaiya, Koner, Maithon and Panchet Hill, with
hydro-electric stations attached to all except the Konar dam ; (2) a
thermal power station at Bokaro with an ultimate capacity of 200,000
kw ; (3) 800 miles of transmission lines and a number of power sub-
stations and receiving stations ; and (4) an irrigation barrage at
Durgapur, with 1564 miles of irrigation and navigation canals and
distributaries. The second phase will include hydro-electric dams
at Aiyar, Bokaro, Balpahari and a hydro-electric weir at Bermo.
Most of the work envisaged in the first phase has already been com-t
pleted including Bokaro Power House, one of the biggest plants in
the East. It has a capacity of 150,000 kw. The resevoirs attached
to these four big dams, Tilaiya, Koner, Maithon and Panchet Hill
will release water to the barrage at Durgapur, which will provide
parennial irrigation for an area of 10,26,000 acres. The barrage was
completed in 1956. The irrigation system includes two canals on
either side of the Damodar, the head works of which have been com-
pleted. The left bank canal, which will be 85 miles long will connect
the Hooghly, thus providing a new transport route between the Rani-
ganj coalfield and Calcutta. Moreover, there will be 1,430 miles of
branch canals, distributaries and drainage channels.
The Damodar Valley Corporation was brought into existence in
1948 and it is an autonomous corporation consisting of the represen-
tatives of the Central Government and of the Bihar and West Bengal
Government. It is responsible for the execution of irrigation power
and flood control schemes. It is also responsible for the integrated
development of the valley’s land, water, forest and mineral resources.
klachkund Project — ^The Machkund scheme is a joint venture be-
tween the States of Orissa and Andhra. The two share the capital
outlay and power benefit in the ratio of 30 : 70 respectively. The
agency for the execution of the scheme is the Government of Andhra.
The scheme harnesses the waters of the Machkund river, a sub-tribu-
tary of the Godavary which forms the boundary line between Andhra
and Orissa and the Duduma Falls in the Koraput district of Orissa.
The construction commenced in 1946. The full scheme comprises (1)
a dam at Jalaput and a reservoir with an ultimate storage capacity
of 25,660 million cu. ft. (2) a diversion dam below Jalaput and li miles
above the Duduma Falls which will regulate flow of water into
power house turbines (3) a tunnel system (4) a power station with)
an initial capacity of 61,000, kw. and (5) a transmission system
covering Andhra coastal districts. The work was started in 1946.
Chambal Multi-purpose Project — ^The Rs. 70-crore Chambal Pro-
ject, a joint venture of Rajasthan and Madhya Bharat, involves the
construction of three dams across the Chambal with power house at
each, a barrage near Kota, and canal networks on both sides. The
474
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
project -mil idtimately Lave an installed capacity of 2,10,000 Lw. and
irrigate 14 lakh acres of land. It is to be competed in three stages.
The first stage ■which •will be over by 1962 and •will cost about Rs. 48'
crore, consists of (1) the Gandhi Sagar dam at the border of the two
States (2) a power house at the dam site (3) about 772 miles of
■transmission lines in the two States and (4) the Kotah barrage and
canals. These works ■wiU irrigate 11 lakh acres and generate 75,000
kw. of power.
Nagarjunasagar Multi-purpose Project — The foundation stone of
Nagarjunasagar Midti-Pnrposc Project was laid on Dec. 10, 1955
over the river Krishna at Nandikonda 100 miles south of Hyderabad
on Hyderabad-Andhra border. A 387 feet high dam across the
Krishna near Nandikonda village -wiU ultimately be constructed. It
•will irrigate 34.02 lakh acres. A hydro-electric power plant located
on the left bank -wiU generate 75,000 kilowatts firm power at 6 p.c.
load factor, besides additional secondary power.
Tnngabhadra Project (Andhra and Mysore) — is a joint enter-
prise of Andhra and Mysore States and one of the large multi-
purpose schemes in South India, was taken up for execution
almost immediately after World TYar II, The muln-purpose scheme
comprises (1) a storage dam across Bhadra river in Mysore State
(2) power sluices in the dam on either bank to generate 41,040 kw. of
power immediately and (3) two channels totalling 210 miles in length,
to irrigate 2,34,200 acres. The construction of the dam was started
in 1945 and inaugurated on July 1, 1953. The investment on the
project is Rs. 17.75 crore.
Hirakud Dam Project — ^is designed to harness the water of the
Mahanadi for irrigation, power production, flood control and na’riga-
tion. The project comprises of the construction of (1) a huge damj
across the Mahanadi about 9 miles upsti'eam from the to'wn of Sam-
balpur (2) two canals taking off from either side of the reservoir and
(3) a po^wer house at the dam site. Hirakud is the longest earth dam
in the world. The reservoir, like the dam, is largest in India, •mil
pro-vide water for 6.7 lakh acres in Sambalpur and Bolangir districts
of Orissa.
The main dam has a length of nearly three miles, of which 3,768
feet is of concrete and masonry and the rest of earth. Besides there
are two dykes on both banks aggregating 13 miles in length. It has
cost Rs. 54 crores -with main power house of four generating units,
Kosi Project — ^An agreement between India and Nepal was
signed at Kathmandu on April 25, 1954. The Kosi is one of the most
destructive of Indian rivers, owing to the unusually large amount of
coarse silt it carries in its descent from the hills. The scheme ■will
cost Rs. 45.95 crore, comprises (1) a barrage of three miles from Ha-
numan Nagar in Nepal where the Kosi leaves the hills (2) flood em-
bankments on either side of the river (3) diversion of flood -n-aters into
the_ old channels of the river and (4) the eastern Kosi canal system
■which will irrigate an estimated 13.97 lakh acres annually and a'west-
em canal to irrigate 29,000 acres in Nepal, The construction of the
embankments was taken up in January 1955.
INDIAN IRRIGATION
475
Malampuzha Project — This project consists of a dam across
Malampuzha river at the foot of the Western Ghats, three miles east
of 01avakkot_ Railway Station and a main left bank canal about 20
miles long with branch channels to irrigate the Malabar district of
Kerala. The dam has been completed and irrigation was extended
to 35,000_ acres in Sept. 1955.
Manimuthar- — This project, which will irrigate large acres in the
Tirunelveli district of Madras consists of a dam (largely earth) across
the river Manimuthar and a canal taking off from the right side of
the reservoir. The entire project is expected to cost Rs. 3.05 crore.
Periyar — The Periyar river which rises on the border of Travan-
core-Cochin and Madras has a total fall of about 1,200 ft. in its
descent to the plains. This fall is to be utilised to generate 105,000
kw. of po%ver for the Madras grid system. The scheme will ultimate-
ly cost about Rs. 10.48 crore.
Longer Bhavani Project — This is one of the most notable projects
of Madras. Bhavani is a tributary of the Cauvery and has a major
portion of its course in the Coimbatore district. It drains a catch-
ment of 2,376 square miles. The project consists in the construction
of a dam across the river about ten miles upstream of Satyamanga-
1am. The dam is 28,862 feet long. The main canal taking off on the
right side is about 124 miles long and it will irrigate a new area of
207,000 acres mostly dry crops and cotton. Taken up in 1948, this pro-
ject has already been completed at a cost of Rs. 9.38 crore.
Koyna Project — Bombay is going ahead with its Rs. 40.49-croTe
Koyna multi-purpose project. A 207,5 ft. high dam will be built
across the Koyna river with an underground power house having
four units of 60,000 kw. each.
Kakrapar Project — ^This project on the Tapti river in Bombay
State forms part of a more comprehensive project for the develop-
ment of lower Tapti Valley. The scheme is to build a weir across
the river near Kakrapar, 50 miles upstream from Surat. Two canals,
one either side of the river, will irrigate 6.52 lakh acres annually.
The total cost of the project is Rs. 11.01 crore.
Kakrapar project provides for the construction of a weir 2,175
ft. long and 45 ft. high on the rocky river bed near Kakrapara, 50
miles above Surat. The weir will feed a 850-mile long canal system
which will irrigate 6,62,000 acres annually. This project is being
financed by the Bombay Government and will be ready in 1967.
Mayurakshi Project (Canada Dam) — aims at irrigating about six
hundred thousand acres in Birbhum area including adjoining areas
of the disti-ict of Blurshidabad and a small area of the district of
Burdwan. The project consist of two parts. Part I — the storage
dam and reservoir at Messanjore in the Santhal Parganas in Bihar.
Part II — barrage and canal system in Birbhum district.The
first stage of the project was completed in 1957 with the construc-
tion of a diversion barrage at Tilpara near Suri in West Bengal.
The 113 feet high and 2,067 feet long Messanjore Dam was completed
in June 1955. The canals on either side will irrigate 6 lakh acres of
land in West Bengal and 23,000 acres in Bihar. The cost will b©
1^. 16.1 crore.
476
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Kistna Pcnnar Project — ^The project aims at hamessmg the
waters of the great Eastna river draining 80,000 sq. miles to irrigate
a little over 4.2 nulUon acres of the first and second crops in the
Kayalaseema and in some of the coastal districts of Madras State.
It is also proposed to develop power of ahont 250,000 kw. firm and
seasonal.
Rampadasagar Project — consists of (a) a dam 428 ft. high
across Godavari river, (6) two canals taking off an. either flank of
the dam — one extending npto Visakhapatnam port and the other
extending npto Kistna river in the adjacent valley and even beyond
into the Guntur district npto the Gnndalakama river, (c) a hydro-
electric generator station at the right flank.
Kihand Dam Project — ^It is a multi-purpose dam in South Mirm-
pur district of U.P. at the cost of Bs. 45.26 crores, foundation of which
was laid in October 1954. The work comprises a concrete gravity
dam across the Riband river. A power house equipped with five unite
of 50,000 kw. each will also be constructed. The project will also
help to irrigate 21 lakh acres through tube-wells in TT.P. and Bihar.
The U. P. Government has entered into an agreement with
the Hindustan Construction Ltd., for the construction of the Riband
Dam.
POWER & IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN THE
FIRST FITE-TBAR PLAN
(Costs & Benefits)
Total Irrigation benefits Power benefits
Expendi- (thousand acres) (thousand kw.)
tare
1951-56
o
f
c>
o
t
o
{lakhs of
Ms.)
lO
o
«1.2
IS
•0x0
o
gp
<? 5 ^
o
>-4
V
V
Blulti-purpose Projects
Bhakra-Nangal
. 77,50
1,361
3,604
96
114(a)
Harike
. 10,62
—
—
D. V. C.
. 41,70
595
1,141
154
254
Hirakud
Addl. fund for above
. 44,00
261
1,785
— —
123
projects
. 50,00
—
—
—
—
New Schemes (b)
. 30,00
—
—
—
429
Total .
. 253,82
2,217
6,500
250
940
(a) Nangal only.
_ (b) The new schemes include Kosi (Stage 1), Koyna (Stage 1),
Krishna, Chambal (Stage 1) and Riband.
INDIAN IRRIGATION
477
Part A States
Andhra
Assam
Bihar
Bombay
M. P.
Madras
Orissa
Punjab
U. P. ,
W. Bengal
. . 2,83
. . 16,82
. . 33,12
. . 9>08
. . 84,32
. . 6,91
. . 3,64
. . 33,21
. . 16,13
Total . . 206,67
_
51
121
218
218
—
7
Q
675
474
114
435
777
893
184
608
8
83
77
110
y
84
77
245
Q
480
480
7
O
666
1,361
774
3,181
111
156
A
917
917
4
5,340
8,032
4 ^
911
Part B States
Hyderabad
Jammu & Kashmir
Madhya Bharat
Mysore
Pepsu
Rajasthan
Saurashtra
Travancore-Cocnm
Total
, 28,00
, 3,60
. 5,56
. 19,84
65
. 6,45
. . 6,88
.. 16,11
.. 85,11
306
731
53
71
r
76
83
30
169
152
250
6
17
72
18
72
243
108
17
129
523
120
168
13
9
81
ii
16
134
86 ^
2,242
” 2 ^
351
Part C States
Ajmer
Bhopal
Coorg
H. Pradesh
Kutch
Manipur
Tripura
Vindhya Pradesh
Total
Grand Total
3,41
558,41
75
38
100
38
113
8,533
138
16,942
3 5
Z ~1
1 8
2 4
6 18
958 2,030
INSURilNCE IN INDIA
It is unique in the annals of life insurance all the world over, that
the Government has taken over from 1956 the life insurance business in
its own hands. According to our Prime Minister, Mr. Nehru, “It is an
important step in our march towards a socialist society”.
As a first step in this direction, the Life Insurance (Emergency
Provisions) Ordinance was promulgated by the President on January,
19, 1956, vesting in the Government of India, with immediate effect, the
management of the life insurance business in India of both Indian and
foreign insurances and the foreign life insurance business of Indian
insurers. The Ordinance affected the entire business of Provident
Societies as well as capital redemption and “annuity certain business.”
Under the Ordinance, Government appointed Custodians to manage
the business of insurers vesting in Government, pending completion
of permanent arrangments as set out in the Life Insurance Corporation
Bill. For the period during which the management is vested in
Government, i.e. until the new statutory corporation to be appointed
by Government takes over the business, compensation will be paid
to shareholders on an equitable basis, reflecting the allocation to the
shareholders in the past. Government have also since decided that
all the insurers carrying on life business in India would offer uniform
rates and conditions in respect of policies where the risk commenced
on or after Jannuary 20, 1956.
The Life Insurance Corporation BiU, 1956, which was introduced
in Lok Sabha on Feb. 17, 1956 provides for permanent arrangements
for the management of life insurance business, by transferring all
the assets and liabilities of existing insurance companies carrying on
life business in India to a statutory Corporation. This Corporation
^vill have the exclusive right to carry on life insurance business, in-
cluding capital redemption, business, annuity certain business and re-
insurance business, in India and outside. No insurance company will
be authorised to carry on life insurance business in India after the
establishment of the Corporation. All contracts, agreements etc.
which were in effect before the establishment of Life Insurance Cor-
poration and which have been transferred to it, will remain in full
force. The Bill will not apply to the Post Office Life Insurance Fund
and to existing compulsory life insurance schemes for Government
employees. The Life Insurance Corporation -nTll have an initial capi-
tal of Rs. 5 crores, which will be provided by Government. The cor-
poration v^l act as far as possible, on business principles and will be
guided by direction issued by Government on matters of policy
involving public interest. The Bill sets out the principles governing
compensation payable by the Corporation to the life insurance com-
panies and provides for the constitution of a tribunal for settlement
of disputes arising in the process of nationalisation, including
msputes concerning compensation. The Bill has laid down that
there shall be five zones with headquarters at Bopibay, Calcutta,
INSURANCE IN INDIA 479
Madras, Delhi and Kanpur. Under each zone, there shall be Divi-
sional Offices. The Bill was passed by both the Houses of Parlia-
ment in May 1956 and came into force on July 1, 1956.
Under the provisions of the Act, 33 Divisional Offices have been
established all over the country. Under the Divisional Offices,
there would be a network of branches — some 180 in number.
The other terms of nationalisation are — certain private firms
will be allowed to carry on business outside India, provided they can
satisfy the Government about their capacity to handle it. Foreign
companies will be permitted to take their sterling policies out of the
country. The nationalised industry is to be run on strictly commer-
cial lines and not subject to the tiresome impediments of ofiicial
audit or day to-day Parliamentary control.
General insurance is to be l^t in private hands, for the time
being.
LIFE BUSINESS
New B-usiness — No. of Policies issued
1950
. . 498,000
1953
. . 562J)00
1951
. . 636,000
1954
. . 705,000
1952
. . 534,000
Total biisiness in Force
1950
. , 3,280,000
1953
. . 4,106,000
1951
. . 3,905,000
1954
. . 4,313,000
1952
. . 3,925,000
Non-Life Business
Total net Premium income
1948
. . 15.06 Crores
1952
21.24 Crores
1949
. . 16.30 „
1953
21.63 „
1950
.. 16.63 „
1954
22.35 „
1951
. . 21.80 „
New sums insured
Average sum in-
Total sum in-
sured per policy
sured in force.
(Crores Rs.)
(Rs.)
(Crores Rs.)
1950
. . 118.38
2,471
635.81
1951
. . 131.38
2,158
755.17
1952
. . 129.28
2,728
789.88
1953
. . 138.18
2,565
833.36
1954
. . 213.32
3,123
921.90
NATIONAL LIFE INSURANCE CORPORATION
Central Office — ^Bombay
Chairman — ^H. M. Patel
480
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Members of the Corporation
Mohammed Hashan PremjL
Prof. D. G. Karve.
Sir Dhiren Mittra.
S. M. Eamakrishna Rao.
Chakreswar Kumar Jain.
VadUal Lallubhai Mehta.
Lala Eaghuraj Swarup.
L. K. Jha I.C.S.
B. K. Kaul, I.C.S
L. S. \^dyanatban-
A. Rajagopalan.
K. R, Srinivasan.
V. H. Vora.
D. P. Guzdar.
Zonal and Divisional Offices of the Corporation
Central Zone — Blanpur., Western Zone — ^Bombay.
Eastern Zone — Calcutta. Northem Zone — Delhi.
Southern Zone — ^Madras.
Divisional Offices will be located at —
Lucknow*
Agra.
Banaras.
Indore.
Jabalpur.
Calcutta.
Jalpaiguri.
Asansole.
Patna.
Muzaffarpur.
Jamshedpur.
Gauhati.
Cuttack,
Bangalore.
Udipi.
Madras.
Coimbatore.
Muthurai.
Trivandrum.
Hyderabad.
Masulipatam.
Bombay,
Poona.
Nasik.
Satara.
Nagpur.
Ahmedabad.
Surat.
Rajkot,
Delhi.
JuUundur.
Ambala.
Ajmer.
Two committees have been formed — (i) Executive Committee
consisting^ of H. M. Patel, {Chairman}, Mohammed Hasham Premji,
Dhiren Mittra, Mr. Vidyanathan and Mr. Rajagopalan. (ii) Invests
ment Committee consisting of H. M. Patel, K. R. P. Shroff, H. T.
Parikh, Mr. Chaturvedi, L. K. Jha, K- R. P. Ayyangar and Mr.
Vidyanathan.
INDIAN INDUSTRY
MINISTOT OF COMJIERCE AND INDUSTRY— The entire
field of foreign trade including control over impoits and exports, the
negotiation of tode agreements and commercial treaties, the deter-
mination of tariffs, commercial representation in overseas countries,
participation in international conferences and exhibitions and trade
publicity overseas comes within its sphere . In the internal trade of
the country too, the Ministry is responsible for control over inter-
state trade and commerce, trade marks and patents, forward markets
and price controls. Practically the entire field of privately owned
industry, including cottage industries and plantation industries like
tea, coffee and rubber is in its charge. In the interest of the con-
sumer, the Ministry exercises control over production, distribution
and prices of essential commodities like cotton textiles, and cement,
imported copra and coconut oil, while it is equally responsible for
helping the producer in increasing his output and for accelarating
the industrial development of the country.
From 1955, Iron and Steel, which was under the Industry and
Commerce Ministry, has been separated and formed into Iron and
Steel Ministry. This new Ministry is in charge of Government in-
dustrial undertakings for production of iron and steel and Govern-
ment-owned foundries. The correct position regarding the respon-
sibilities of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and this newly-
created Ministry of Iron and Steel in relation to production and dis-
tribution of iron and steel are as follows —
The Ministry of Commerce and Industry continues to be respon-
sible for the control and import of steel. It also continues to deal
with the two private steel producing units, the Tata Iron and Steel
Company and the Indian Iron and Steel Company, as also with the
Bhadravati Iron and Steel "Works owned by the Government of
Mysore.
The Minist^ of Iron and Steel which was created on June 16,
1955 is responsible for iron and steel projects and foundries in the
public sector.
ADMINISTRATIVE SET-UP — ^For the implimentation in day
to day administration of the Ministry, there are number of organi-
sations attached to it which work under its control and supervision
and in close collaboration with it. They include —
(1) Ofice of the Chief Controller of Imports and Exports,
New Delhi with branches in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras,, Cochin,
Amritsar, Shillong and Rajkot. The office is responsible for exer-
cising control over the foreign trade of the countrv.
(2) Textile Commissioner who apart from control over cotton
piecegoods, has now been made responsible for aU the textile indus-
tries other than jute industry.
(3) Development Wing consisting of two Industrial Advisers,
31
482
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
one dealing ■with engineering items and the other with chemicals and
other non-engineering items. Recently the Development 'SVing has
been made responsible for small scale industries.
(4) Iron and Steel Controller who exercises control over the
production, distribution and prices of iron and steel.
(5) Economic Adviser’s office which is responsible for the
study of price levels and undertakes economic research on matters
engaging the attention of the Ministry.
(6) Tariff Commission which enquires into claims for protec-
tion and other allied matters which may be referred to it by the
Ministry from time to time.
(7) Director-General of Commercial Intelligence and Statis-
tics who is responsible for the compilation and publication of com-
mercial statistics and other measures intended to help the trade and
commerce of the country.
(8) Director of Industrial Statistics who is concerned with the
statistics relating to the manufacture of different items.
(9) Controllers of Patents and Designs and Registrar of Trade
Marl^ who are respectively responsible for the administration of
Patents and Design Act and of the Trade Marks Act.
(10) Four Statutory Boards, namely. Central Silk Board, Cen-
tral Tea Board, Indian Coffee Board and Indian Rubber Board which
deal with problems of these particular industries.
INDUSTRIAL POLICY OF THE G017ERNMENT— The Indus-
trial Policy of the Government of India was first promulgated in
their Resolution on 6th April, 1948. This Policy was further widened
fay their revised Industrial Policy which the Prime Mim'ster of India
steted in the Lok Sabha on April 30, 1956. This Policy extensively
widens the sphere of State-owned industry. Seventeen key industries
are listed in the schedule of industries for whose development the State
will be exclusively responsible and twelve in the schedide (B) of those
which will be progressively state-owned. The remainder (not lirted)
will be left to the private sector. The statement promises private
industrial undertaking “as much freedom as is consistent with the
targets and objectives of the National Plan.” It assures fair and non-
discriminatoiy treatment in cases where both sectors exist in the same
industry.
Extension of the public sector is justified on grounds of policy
rather than expediency. Among the many new developments necessi-
tating the revision of the 1948 policy statement, special importance
is given to the Directive Principles of State Policy contained in the
Constitution and the acceptance of the socialistic pattern of society.
Except for a rigid State monopoly over railways and air trans-
port, arms and ammunition and atomic energy, the. statement allows
a measure of fluidity in the working of industries listed in separate
schedules. An area of overlapping is accepted.
Among the industries listed in Schedule A, in which all new
units are to be set up only by the State, an exception is made for those
private units which have already been approved and the expansion
of existing privately owned units.
INDIAN INDUSTRY
483
Provision is made for the State to start an industry among the
categories left for the private sector and to permit private units to
produce items ■within Schedule A.
Particular emphasis is laid on the importance of cottage and
■village small-scale industries. They are promised continued support
by differential taxation, subsidy and restrictions on the large-scale
sector.
In order to make them self-supporting, however, it is stated that
the State 'will concentrate on impro'ving production techniques and
providing technical and financial assistance. Mention is also made of
the need to develop the private sector along co-operative lines.
The statement makes it clear that no revision has been made in
the policies concerning division of responsibilities between the Centre
and State Governments and in regard to forei^ capital.
The Statement has dmded the industries into three categories —
first, industries, the future development of which would be exclusive
responsibility of the State (Schedule A); Secondly, industries which
■would be progressively State-o'wned and in which the State would
therefore, generally take the initiative in establishing new under-
■takings, but in which private enterprise would also be expected
to supplement the efforts of the State (Schedule B) ; and thirdly, all
the remaining industries, whose future development would in ge-
neral be left to the initiative and enterprise of the private sector.
SCHEDULE A — ^Arms and ammunition and allied items of de-
fence equipment, atomic energy, iron and steel.
Heavy castings and forgings of iron and steel, hea'vy plant and
machinery required for iron and steel production, for mining, for
machine tool manufactures and for such other basic indus'tries as may
be specified by the Central Government ; hea'vy electrical plant, includ-
ing large hydraulic and steam turbines.
Coal and li^ite, mineral oils.
Mining of iron ore, manganese ore, chrome ore, gypsum,
sulphur, gold and diamond ; mining and processing of copper, lead,
zinc, tin, molybdenum and wolfram ; minerals specified in the schedule
to the Atomic Energy (Control of Production and Use) Order, 1953.
Aircraft ; air transport, railway transport.
Shipbuilding ; telephones and_ telephone cables ; telegraph and
•wireless apparatus (excluding radio recei'ving sets) ; generation and
distribution of electricity.
SCHEDULE B — ^All other minerals except “minor minerals” as
defined in section 3 of the Minerals Concession Rules, 1949, aluminium
and other non-ferrous metals not included in Schedule A.
Machine tools, ferro alloys and tool steels.
Basic and intermediate products required by chemical indus-
'tries such as the manufacture of drugs, dyestuffs and plastics.
Anti-biotics and other essential drugs ; fertilizers, synthetic
rubber ; carbonization of coal ; chemical pulp.
Road transport, Sea transport.
DEVELOPMENT AND CONTROL OF INDUSTRIES— The in-
dustrial policy of the Government inunciated in 1948 and 1956 envi-
484
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
saged state regulation and control of industries. These powers of the
Government had to be acquired by legislation. The first step in this
direction was passing of Industries (Development and Regulation)
Act of 1951. This Act brings under Government supervision all the
more important industries of the country except the plantation in-
dustries and provides for the setting up of Development Councils to
promote efficiency in production and co-operation amongst aU those
interested in the industries covered. The Act is the keystone of Gov-
ernment policy towards private industry and gives wide powers of
direction and control to the Government. The Act includes industries,
such as aircraft, arms and ammunition, electric lamps, electric motors,
paper, and non-ferrous metals, petroleum products, ships, etc., al-
together 37 scheduled products. This Act provides for the licensing
of new industrial undertakings and a substantial expansion of the
existing imits. It authorises the Central Government to frame rules
for the (1) regulation of the existing undertakings, (2) regulation
of production and development in these industries, (3) consultation
with State Governments on these matters.
The Act also envisages the constitution of a Central Advisory
Council and Development Councils for selected industries or groups
of industries. The Central Advisory Council consisting of the repre-
sentatives of industry, labour, consumers and prima^ producers has
already been constituted. The Development Council comprises the
representatives of labour, technicians, and consumers. They will
draw up plans for development, determine targets of production and
forms of efficiency and formulate measures which would lead to the
fullest utilization of existing industrial capacity.
The Act empowers the Central Government to take over direct
control of industrial undertakings in an emergency. If the produc-
tion is appreciably falling or if the quah’ty of production is deterior-
ating in an industrial imit, the Government may conduct an enquiry
into its affairs and suggest smtable remedies. This Act will apply
to all factories which employ 60 or more workers and are run by
power. It is also applicable to a factory which does not use power
but employs 100 workers or more.
Other important Act for control of industries is Mines & Minerals
(Regulation and Development) Act, 1948 together with Mineral Con-
cessions Rules and the Petroleum Concessions Rules framed imder it.
It empowers the Central Government to frame mles for regulating
the terms and conditions of prospecting licenses and mineral leases,
the conservation and development of minerals and the modification
of existing licenses and leases on payment of compensation.
A Licencing Committee has also been set up to examine applica-
tion for licences of industries.
FINANCIAL AID TO INDUSTRY — Various credit institutions
have been started by the Central and State Governments in recent
years for the development of industries in the country. The Indus-
trial Finance Corporation of India started in July 1948 is the earliest
of such institutions for medium and long term loans to the
industrial concerns of India. Its authorised share capital is Rs.
INDIAN INDUSTRY
485
10 crores. The capital is guaranteed by the Government of India as
to the rapayment of the principal and of a minimum dividend at the
rate of p.c. per annum. The State Financial Corporation Act of
1951 envisages the establishment of industrial finance corporations
in the States with a view to financing medium and small scale in-
dustries which do not fall within the scope of All-India Industrial
Finance Corporation. It has been agreed that application for loans
npto Rs. 10 lakhs or 10 per cent of the paid-up capital of the State
Finance Colorations, whichever was less, should be dealt with by
the State Finance Corporations. There are now 13 State Financial
Corporations in India. The Industrial Finance Corporation of India
and the State Financial Corporations have been followed by the
National Indiistrial Development Corporation and the Small Industries
Corporation, Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation. National
Industrial Corporation has formulated projects for the establishment
of new industries and the development of new lines of production in
the private sector. It has also acted as an agency of the Government
for the grant of special loans for the rehabilitation of the cotton
textile and jute industries.
The Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation — The Indus-
trial Credit and Investment Corporation has been registered on Janu-
a^ 6, 1955. The primary object of the Corporation is to assist indus-
trial enterprise within the private sector of industry in India. Its
purpose generally is to assist the creation, expansion and modernisa-
tion of such industrial enterprises, to encourage and promote the
participation of private capital both internal and external in these
enterprises and to encourage and promote private ownership of indus-
trial investments. '
The Corporation will provide finance by way of long and medium
term loans or participate in the equity capital of industry or guaran-
tee loans for other private investment sources.
Private investors for India, the UK and the USA will subscribe
to the initial share capital of the Corporation, which will be Rs. 6
crores. The authorised capital of the Corporation will be Rs. 25
crores, divided into 500,000 ordinary shares and 2,000,000 unclassified
shares of Rs. 100 each.
The Government of India is crediting the Corporation with
Rs. crores free of interest for a period of 15 years and the Cor-
poration will have to return this amount in equal annual instalments
over a period of 15 years commencing from the end of the first 16
year period. The World Bank has given a loan of about Rs. 5
crores ($10 million).
Natioiial Industrial Development Corporation — was registered as
a private company on October 20, 1954, with an initial capital of Rs. 1
crore. The entire share capital is owned by the Government of
India. The principal objects of the Corporation are the promotion
and establishment of industries for the manufacture and production
of plant, machinery implements and goods of any description likely
to promote the industrial development and to aid and assist any
industrial undertaking owned by private companies also with capital
486
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
and other resources, for establishing new indostries or for nmning
their existing business.
The National Industrial Development Corporation will start new
basic industries in the public sector and will not take up the produc-
tion of consumer goods.
Besides promoting the establishment of heavy machinery indns-
trj% the Coiyoration -v^ also assist the large-scale expansion of some
of the existing industries. In the case of some industries, where some
progress has already been recorded by private and public enterprises,
such as aluminium and fertilisers, the Corporation will not compete
or interfere. The latest development is the starting of Small Indus-
tries Corporation.
FOREIGN CAPITAL — The necessity of the full flow of foreign
Capital to supplement domestic capital resources for a rapid indus-
trial progress was keenly felt. The Government’s policy in regard
to the foreign capital was enunciated in the Industrial Policy Reso-
lution of April 1948 which laid down —
(1) the participation of foreign capital and enterprise should
be carefully regulated in the national interest, for example, by en-
suring that the major interest in ownership and effective control
'should, save in exceptional cases, always be in Indian hands and 'that
the training of suitable Indian personnel for the purpose of eventu-
ally replacing foreign experts -Kill be insisted upon in all such cases ;
(2) there will be no discrimination between foreign and Indian
undertakings in the application of general industrial pofley ;
(3) reasonable facilities will be given for the remittance of
profits and repatriation of capital consistently with the foreign ex-
change position of the country ;
(4) in the event of nationalisation, fair and equitable compen-
sation would be paid.
The Planning Commission has also recommended the inflow of
foreign capital should be encouraged. With that end in view, it has
recommended that Indian and foreign capital should collaborate m
new ventures. Some foreign concerns have already been set up in
India in partnership -with Indian firms, on the other hand Govern-
ment have started big public concerns with the help and co-operation
of foreign firms.
_ RESEARCH — Cotaicil of Scientific a->id l7idiistrial Research — ■
This Council formed under the Centiul Government auspices, is the
&st organised effort in India to popularise and put into effective use
the application of science to industiy. It has under it 24 expert com-
laittees which survey the scientific needs of the various industries from
tinie to time and suggest the means of developing them. It has estab-
Imhed the 11 national research organisations. A committee, known as
the Industrial Liaison Committee, functioning under its auspices is
required to keep in constant touch with the industries on matters
relating to the utilisation of the results of researches carried under
Its auspices.
Directorate of Industrial Statistics brings out a hulletin which
INDIAN INDUSTRY
487
gives monthly statistics of production covering 92 select industries
divided into 19 groups.
Patents Advisory Committee grants patents to inventors in
various technical and research establishments and for commercial
exploitation.
Government have also established Handloom Development Board
in 1950 with a grant of Rs. 1,000,000 for distribution in different
States.
Cottage Industries Board was established in 1947 and reconsti-
tuted in 1950 to advise and assist the Government on the organisa-
tion and development of cottage and small scale industries.
Silk Board was constituted in May, 1949 for the development of
sericulture in India. The Government is encouraging the industry
by means of grants to States, establishment and development of
cocoon markets, importation of silk from Japan, cultivation and pro-
duction of mulberry.
A chain of National Laboratories has been set up under the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research to deal with the tech-
nical problems of industries.
Indian Standards Institution — Standards are required at every
step of production of goods — to grade raw materials, to
specify requirements for manufacturing equipment, processes and
finished products; and to lay down methods of test to determine
compliance with the requirement prescribed. Till 1947 there was
no organised activity in the sphere of standardization and different
organisations, both in the private sector as well as in Governmental
had their own machinery for this purpose. In 1947 Indian Standards
Institution (I.S.I.) was set up. The Indian Standards Institution is
the National Standards Organisation for India similar to the National
Standards bodies in other countries, such as British Standards Ins-
titution in the United Kingdom. Enrolled as a member of the Inter-
national Standards Institution, Geneva, this semi-official body has been
set up by the Government of India under its control with the object of
improving the standards of Indian^ products to bring them up to
quality levels competitive with foreign products and to standardise'
the quality of Indian goods for consumption at home and abroad.
Such an institution has of late been keenly required owing to the
fall in the marketability of Indian products in the absence of stand-
ard specifications and quality control.
It has produced so far nearly 400 standards which have been
adopted by different departments of the Government of India. Indian
Staiwlards Institution {Certification Marks) Act, 1952 has been
passed to help enterprising Indian manufacturers for the standardisa-
tion of their products. This Act has empowered the Institution to
specify Standard Marks for products conforming to the Indian
Standards and to grant licences to use Standard Mark on the products
after the Institution is satisfied that the manufacturer has necessary
machinery to ensure that the quality of the products is maintained.
NATIONALISED INDUSTRIES — During the last few years, the
Government of India and the State Governments have set up a num-
488
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ber of important industries as State enteiT)rises. Besides these new
State enterprises, the Government of India has been managing the
Eailways and the Posts and Telegraphs and the States like Hydera-
bad and Mysore have been managing a few industries producing
commodities like sugar and steel. From the point of view of manage-
ments, the existing State enterprises can, broadly speaking, be classi-
fied under three categories, namly (a) enterprises owned and managed
by the Government Department, (6) enterprises owned and managed
by public corporation and (c) enterprises owned by the Government
wholly or in partnership with private agencies and managed as
private limited companies. Railways, Posts and Telegraphs and
Chittaranjan Locomotive works are the instances of State enterprise.
The Airlines, D. V. C. and Shipping are run by public corporations,
while most of the industrial enterprises proper are run by private
limited companies.
STATE CONTROLLED INDUSTRIES
1. FERTILIZER INDUSTRY — Sindri Fertilizer Factory has
been constructed at Sindri at a cost of Rs. 23 crores and is equipped
to produce 350,000 tons of ammonium sulphate every year. It is
a State-owned private limited liability company formed in December
1951. The authorised capital is Rs. 30 crores, and all the shares are
held by the President of India except one which is held by the
Chairman of the Board. The factory was officially opened on 2nd
March, 1952. Sindri has a production target of 1,000 tons of ammo-
nium sulphate daily or about 350,000 tons a year. In the process
of manufacture of 1,000 tons of ammonium sulphate per day, about
900 tons of calcium carbonate sludge will be thrown up as a by-
product. Sindri’s new coke-oven plant which has been built at a
cost of two and half crores of rupees, was opened on Nov. 28, 1954.
It is estimated to produce annually two hundred thousand tons of coke,
valued at Rs. 70 lakhs. The project which is estimated to cost
about Rs. 10 crores, is expected to be completed by the end
of 1957.
Inspite of fertilizer supply from Sindri, there has been additio-
nal demand of fertilizers. This is to be met by the expansion of
Sindri and by the three new factories under the programme of
the Second Five-Year Plan. Additional production of Sindri is to
be obtained by utilising the gas from Sindri’s coke-oven plant. At
Rourkela, the gases released by the Rourkela Steel Plant will
be tapped to produce fertilizers. At Nangal electricity will be passed
through water and air will be liquidified to produce ammonia and
making it possible to produce heavy water required for the peaceful
use of atomic energy. A private limited company completely
owned by the Government as Nangal Fertilizers and Chemicals
(Private) Ltd. has been set up in charge of the Nangal Fertilizer
Project. The fertilizer plant is to be set up at Neiveli which will be
part of the giant lignite project in the South Arcot district of Madras.
2. AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY — ^The Hindustan Aircraft Factory
at Bangalore, in which the Government of India owns a two-thirds
INDIAN INDUSTRY
489
share, was so long engaged in overhauling, assembling and repair
work. After the war it was reformed into a limited company, with
Governments of India and Mysore as the only two share-holders. It
is now Government’s instrument for manufacturing aircraft under
the control of the Ministry of Defence. The factory caters to the
needs of the Indian Airlines and the Indian Air Force for repairing,
overhauling and servicing different types of aircraft. It builds H.'T.E,
a_ trainer aircraft for civilian and defence purposes. As a sub-
sidiary to aircraft manufacture the Factory has also designed and
manufactured all-metal rail coaches which have proved a great
boon to third class passengers on Indian railways. It also manufac-
tures bus bodies.
3. CHITTARANJAN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS— For lessening
the dependence of the Indian Railways upon foreign sources for loco-
motives, the Government have started at a cost of Rs. 15 crores a
Locomotive Workshop at Chittaranjan (Mihijam). It is designed to
produce 120 locomotives and 50 spare boilers per annum. This is in
addition to the existing railway workshops and repair establishments,
one of which at Tatanagar has been sold to the Tatas for develop-
ment as a loco building shop. The work was started early in 1948
and first India-made locomotive from assembled parts was produced
in 1950 and named Deshabandku.
4. NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS FACTORY— It was originally
started as the Mathematical Instruments Office over 100 years ago
for the repair and service of instruments used by the Survey of India.
It has steadily enlarged its field and has now developed into a full-
flodg'ed instrument factory. The Mathematical Jnstruments Factory,
Jadavpur, Calcutta, has now begun to manufacture all kinds of pre-
cision instruments — mechanical, optical, electrical, aircraft etc. The
factory is being reorganised for the manufacture of instruments re-
quired for health, education, defence and other pun)oses at a cost of
Rs, 1.82 crores. The manufacture of new items like the theodolites,
high temperature thermometers and rod stadia has been undertaken.
6. INTEGRAL COACH FACTORY, PERAMBUR— State-owned
Integral Coach Factory at Perambur in the north-west of Madras
was started on June 1, 1951 to manufacture all-steel light-weight in-
tegral rail coaches. The Perambur factory will be the largest of its
kind in Asia and one of the largest in the world. The factory has
taken its name from the “integral” coaches which it will manufac-
ture. Unlike the conventional type in which the coach-body is mere-
ly mounted and fixed to a separate steel under-frame, the integral
coach as its name suggests, will have its body and under-frame integ-
rated into a single unit, all made of steel, with several advantages
over the present type. It will have smoother riding qualities and
will, therefore, be much less jerky while on the run. Being seven
tons lighter than the conventional 42-ton coach, more coaches can be
hauled per locomotive. It has anti-telescopic device, which will afford
greater protection to passengers in case of an accident and its body
will not get smashed up as easily as in old type coach in which the
body, being a separate piece, gets pushed off and broken up in an
490
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
accident. The factory itself is a product of Indo-Svriss co-operation
in the technical field. As a result of an agreement between the Gov-
ernment of India and the Swiss Car & Elevator Manufacturing Cor-
poration Ltd., of Schlieren, Switzerland, the latter is providing the
technical “know-hovr" including specialised personnel as well as the
necessary training facilities at its works in Switzerland. The entire
cost of the factory is estimated at Es. 7.3 crore. The production
target is 550 broad gauge passenger coaches of a light-weight all-
welded integral disign coaches per year.
6. HINDUSTAN ANTIBIOTICS, Pimpri CPoona)— has been
started with the assistance of WHO and UNICEF. In 1951, the
Government of India entered into a contract with the two interna-
tional agencies, UNICEF and WHO/UNTAA. to put up a penicillin
plant now managed by the Hindustan Anti-biotics Ltd., Pimpri.
The UNICEF supplied equipment worth 850,000 dollars and the
UNTAA provided 350,000 dollare for securing the services of foreign
technical experts for designing, erecting and starting of the
operations and also to train Indian technical men abroad in penicil-
lin technology. The Government has met the cost of the land and
buildings, provided the services and also procured equipment
which was available locally, thus spending on the whole about
Rs. 1.5 crores. The project is now nm as a joint stock company
■with all the shares held by the President of India and his
nominees. The plant has gone into regular production from August,
1955. Streptomycin is of great value in the treatment of T3.
The Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd, is taking up the manufacture of
this antibiotic as part of their expansion under the Second Five-
Year Plan,
7. HINDUSTAN HOUSING FACTORY— The Hindustan Hous-
ing Factory Ltd., was incorporated on January 27, 1953 as a private
limited company ■with the Government of India and Basakha Singh-
Wallenborg Ltd., as equal partners. The company ■was formed
specially to provide for the utilization of the existing housing factory
for the production of foam concrete roofiing pannels, pre-stressed
concrete components, wood work for building, etc. This factory has
started production.
S. NAHAN FOUNDRY, Himachal Pradesh — ^Another smaU
unit, the Nahan Foundry (Himachal Pradesh), came under the owner-
ship and control of the Government of India on federal financial in-
te^ation. The Foundry manufactures sugarcane crushers, sug^ar
boiling pans and other miscellaneous articles required for giir manu-
facture. It has recently started producing centnfugal pumps, paddy
threshers and com shellers. A private limited company called the
Nahan Foundry Ltd., was incorporated on Oct. 20, 1952 for manage-
ment of the foundry,
9. EASTERN SHIPPING CORPOR.ATION— This Corporation
has been formed for increasing India’s overseas slapping, ^e esti-
mated cost of the enterprise is Rs. 1.48 crores. 74 per cent of the
subscribed capital is ovmed by the Government of India. Corpora-
INDIAN INDUSTRY
491
tion has purchased two ships for a total cost of Rs. 44 lakhs. It is
now engaged in the Indo-Australian trade.
10. SILVER REFINERY PROJECT — As regards this project,
the agreement for the supply of plants and equipments was executed
with the German fir-ms Demag in 1953-54. According to this agree-
ment, the plant is expected to be put into commission shoirtly.
11. HINDUSTAN MACHINE TOOLS FACTORY— The control
and the management of this factory is under Hindustan Machine
Tools Ltd., Jalahalli, Bangalore. The authorised capital of the
company has been fixed at Rs. 12 crores divided into 1,20,000 ordinary
shares of Rs. 1000 each. The issued and called up capital for the
present is Rs. 4 crores. The company will be mainly financed by
the Government of India. The Government of India has entered
into an agreement with messrs. Oerlikon Machine Tool Works, Zurich
under which the firm have to render all technical assistance for
20 years. The Oerlikons participate in the capital of the Company
to the extent of 10 per cent. The factory was inaugurated on the
6th October, 1955.
12. HINDUSTAN CABLES LTD., RUPNARAINPUR— The fac-
tory has been planned to meet the requirements of the Posts and
Telegraphs Department with regard to paper insulated, lead-covered
and armoured telephone cables ; at present the Department depends
for its supplies entirely upon imports. The Drum shop for the
manufacture of cable drums was completed and commissioned in the
middle of December, 1953. It has been built at a cost of 110 lakhs.
The Company is owned and financed entirely by the Government of
India and functions under the over-all control of the Ministry of
Production. It was formally opened on 26th December, 1954. The
factory has been planned to produce 520 miles length of cables of
different specifications a year.
13. HINDUSTAN SHIPYARD— In furtherance of the Govern-
ment’s plan to develop the ship building industry, the Hindustan
Shipyard has recently been taken over from the Scindia Steam
■Navigation Company and a new company has been_ formed. The
paid-up capital of the company will be over Rs. 30 million with the
Government holding the controlling two-third interest in it. Since
the consti-uction of vessels started in 1946, twelve cargo ships of
approximately 8,000 deadweight tons each have been built at the
Yard.
14. MACHINE TOOLS PROTOTYPE FACTORY— which has
been stated at Ambamath (near Bombay) in April, 1951 wnll
design special type of tools and machines required for use by ordnance
factories. This project forms a landmark in the development of
the nation’s defence industries. A novel feature of the facto^ is
a training school attached to it which will train 100 skilled artisans
every year. This factory will meet to a considerable extent the
need for the production of prototypes for the new defence equipment.
15. TELEPHONE INDUSTRIES— under the name of Indian
Telephone Industries Ltd., a telephone factory has been started at
492
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
Duravaninagar, six miles from Bangalore by the Government of India.
Though the industry was started as a purely Government owned
concern in 1950, it was converted into private limited company with
the Government of India, the Government of Mysore and the Auto-
matic Telephone and Electric Co. Ltd., of Liverpool as the partners.
The Union Government holds about 90 p.c. of the shares ; the holding
of A. T. E. is nominal, but under the 15 years agreement executed
in May 1948, they supply the technical “know-how” etc.
for the manufacture of automatic telephones and carrier equipment.
It is being now worked as a private limited company. The major
share of the capital of the company amounting to Es. 25 million is
j'ointly held by the Governments of India and Mysore and only 5 per
cent owned by the Automatic Telephones & Electric Co. of England.
The import of telephones into India has now been discontinued
altogether. The factory manufactures all the telephone parts with
the exception of dials and condensers. The factory at present pro-
duces a little over 1,000 telephones every year.
16. D. D. T. FACTORY, DELHI — ^This factory has been set up at
Delhi in 1955 with the assistance and technical collaboration of the
UNICEF and UNTAA. The recent production of the factory is li
tons daily.
17. D. D. T. FACTORY, ALWAYE (KERALA)— The Govern-
ment has decided to start a second D. D. T. Factory at Alwaye with a
capacity to produce 1,400 tons of D. D. T. per annum. This factory
will cost about Rs. 79 lakhs and is expected to be in production by
the end of the year 1958. The entire cost will be met by the Govern-
ment of India.
18. INDIAN EXPLOSIVES FACTORY— The Government of
India have entered into an agreement with Imperial Chemical Indus-
tries to set up a factory for the manufacture of India’s requirements
of commercial blasting explosives. The necessity for this has arisen
on account of the development of the mining industry, as also the
extension of irrigation works, road buildings etc. The agreement
provides for the registration of a new company called Indian Explo-
sives with an authorised capital of £40 million. The factory is to
be located in Bihar and the new company will handle the distrihudon
and sale in India of manufactured explosives and will give technical
service to consumers.
19. HINDUSTAN INSECTICIDES and other D.D.T. PRO-
JECTS — ^under an arrangement with WHO and TJNICEF on 19th
July, 1953, a factory for the production of 700 tons of D.D.T.
has been put up at New Delhi. The plant and machinery has been
supplied by the unicep at a cost of about Rs. 12,00,000 and WHO
(untta) has made available technical existance at a cost of
Rs. 4,75,000. The Government of India’s contribution was to
come in the form of building, services, auxiliaries and installation
of plant and equipment which is estimated to cost Rs. 35 lakhs. The
factory was built at Delhi in 1954 and the first D. D. T. was produced
on March 25, 1955. To attain self-sufficiency in regard to this
INDIAN INDUSTRY
493
essential insecticide, Government of India have decided to start a
second factory near Alwaye, Travancore-Cochin State.
20. NEW MINT — A modem mint has been constructed at Ali-
pur, Calcutta at a cost of Rs. 2.3 crores. This mint has started
work in 1953 and can turn out about 1.2 million coins daily.
21. BHARAT ELECTRONICS — ^The Government of India re^s-
tered on April 19, 1954 a company known as Bharat Electronics with
a nine-member board of directors to set up a large scale industry
for the manufacture within the country of a wide range of wireless
equipment capable of meeting major requirements of the Armed
Forces and other Ministries of the Central Government and States
in conjunction with a French firm Campaignie General De Telegra-
phie Sahs Fil with whom an agreement has been entered into by
the Government of India. The entire capital of Rs. 9 crores will be
provided by the Government of India. Jalahalli area, near Bangalore
in the area where the factory has been started. The factory began
production in December, 1955.
22. IRON AND STEEL PROJECTS— (1) An agreement
has been signed with Krupp-Demag Combine of Germany for finance
and technical collaboration in the execution of 600,500-ton Rourkella
Steel Plant in Orissa in 1953. The name of the Company
is Hindiistan Steel Ltd. Krupp-Demag will give technical assistance
and train Indian personnel. They will also invest in the capital of the
works. A private limited company has been started with an autho-
rised capital of Rs. 100 crore. The ratio of shares held by the
Government of India and the German Combine will be maintained at
four to one. (2) Another agreement has been concluded in 1955
with Soviet Government for the erection of a one-million steel plant
at Bhillai in Madhya Pradesh for the setting up of a modem integra-
ted Iron and Steel Plant with in initial capacity of one million tons
of ingots to be rolled into about 750,000 tons of rolled products. The
total cost of plant has been estimated at Rs. 110 crores. Of this, the
Indian expenditure on materials and construction would be Rs. 47
crores. Iron will be produced at Bhilai by the end of Dec. 1958 and
steel by the end of Dec. 1959. (3) The British Steel Consortium's
Project for one-million steel plant at Durgapur, Bengal, has since
been signed by the Government of India in March, 1956. To finance
the sterling expenditure, the Government shall get loan of £11.5
million from a syndicate or banks in the United Kingdom and a loan
of £15 million from the United Kingdom Government.
23. HEAVY ELECTRICALS (PRIVATE) LTD— The Govern-
ment of India have started in 1956 heavy electrical equipment project
and have entered into an agreement with Associated Electrical Indus-
tries Ltd and English Electric Co. Ltd. both of Great Britain as their
consultants for the establishment of this industry. The proposed fac-
tory will be located near Bhopal. Hea%'y transformers, industrial
motors and switch gears are likely to be made before the end of 2nd
Five-Year Plan. The overall investment over seven to eight years
is estimated afcRs. 35 crores exclusive of the new township for the
factory employees.
494
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
24. BOMBAY URANIUM-THORIUM FACTORY—The founda-
tion stone of the factory was laid in January 1954. The cost of the
factory is estimated at Rs. 45 lakhs. It will produce 205 to 228 tons
of thorium nitrate per annum. The factory will process indigenous
uranium and thorium ores, as well as uranium-bearing residues of
Indian Rare Earths Ltd. The uranium will be extracted, purified
and converted into metal for use in atomic reactors. A plant will
also be set up in the Bhakra-Nangal area to manufacture fertilize
and heavy water, the latter of which is essential in the production
of atomic energy.
25. HINDUSTAN COAL CORPORATION— has been registered
at Ranchi in 1956 with an authorised capital of Rs. 50 crores under the'
Ministry of Production to take charge of production of coal in the
public sector. The coal company has been formed to own and mana-
ge the existing State colieries as well as the new colieries to be
•established.
A multi-purpose lignite project is to be incorporated shortly for
the management and control of the Neiveli Project. The lignite
project at Neiveli, Madras, is estimated to cost about 68 crores.
DESCRIPTION OF INDIAN INDUSTRIES
1. TEXTILE INDUSTRY— The Textile Industry of India which
recently celebrated its centenary is believed to have started on 22nd
February, 1854. It occupies the foremost place among the organised
industries of India. It has the largest capital structure — ^the amount
invested being Rs. 110 crores — ^provides employment for nearly 800,000 "
people — ^which is almost equal to the employment accounted for by"
-the jute, iron, steel and engineering works — and produces goods of
the value of nearly one-third of the organised industries in the whole
•of India,
Although Bombay, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Kanpur, Nagpur,
Indore, Madurai and Coimbatore are the main centres of the indus-
try, the Bombay State counts for more than half of it. It is in
Bombay therefore that the Indian Central Cotton Committee main-
"tains its Technological Laboratory, complete with an experimental
spinning plant and a scientific laboratory together with a testing
house for research on cloth fibre. The Department of Chemical
Technology of the Bombay University is also carrying useful
research. Ahmedabad Mill Owners’ Association has also started
Ahmedahad Textile Industry’s Research Association which is the only
institution in the country which devotes its entire energy to the
•operational, applied and fundamental aspects of research.
Cotton Textiles Export Promotion Council has been formed in
1954 to organise and generally put the export trade in textiles on a
■stable footing^ in the face of increasing competitions from other
textile producing coimtries. The CouncU has received the entire
•support of the Government.
Cotton Textiles Export Committee was constructed by the Gov-
•emment of India in 1945 and it was reconstituted in 1949 for (1) pro-
INDIAN INDUSTRY
495
motion of tejrtile research, (2) stimulation of exports from India by
providing machinery for exports to ensure quality etc.
A feature of the cotton textile industry has been the levy of
excise duties since the year 1949. The duties were fixed on ad valo-
rem basis in earlier stages, but later on they were turned on square
yardage basis.
2. IRON AND STEEL — There are at present three main pro-
ducers of iron and steel, viz., the Tata Iron and Steel Co., the Indian
Iron and Steel Co., and the Mysore Iron and Steel Works at Bhadra-
vati. The total capacity for pig iron and finished steel is estimated
to be 1,878,000 and 1,050,000 tons per annum respectively. The in-
dustry is mainly concentrated at the present time in Bihar and West
Bengal. The Tatas were the first in the field of steel production.
They started in 1908 and gradually built up their production to the
present level of 800,000 tons per annum consisting mainly of rails,
structures, billets, bars, plates etc.
The important raw materials of the industry are iron ore,
coking coal, manganese ore, refractories made from magnesite,
dolomite, chromite, fire clay etc., and fluxing materials like silica,
limestone, flourspar. In regard to most of these raw materials, India
enjoys a favourable position. The deposits of iron ore, which is the
principal raw material of the industry are plentiful and of superior
quality. The average iron content of the ore is between 60 to 69
p.c. as compared to 40 p.c. in Europe, and 50 p.c. in United States.
The development of iron and steel has become so important that the
Government have established a separate Ministry known as Iron and
Steel Ministry to look after Government industrial undertaking for
the production of iron and steel and also for the management of
Government-owned foundries.
An agreement was signed on 15th August, 1953 between Govern-
ment of India and a German combine of two leading firms. Demag
and Krupp in order to build up a new steel plant. The plant, which is
to occupy a central place in India’s five-year plan, will have an initial
capacity of half a million tons, later to be expanded to one million.
The agreement provides for both financial and technical participa-
tion in the plant by the German combine. The estimated capital
cost of the new plant is 150 million with a German participation of
up to 20 million. This is to be located at Rourkela in Orissa.
Another agreement has been signed between the Government of
India and a Russian firm for starting second steel factory at Bhilai
in the Drug District of JIadhya Pradesh. Bhilai is a Railway Station
on the main railway line from Bombay to Calcutta. In the estab-
lishment of this plant, the Government of U.S.S.R. will give economic
and technical assistance. Except for such work as can be done
in India, the Government of U.S.S.R. will be responsible for design
and manufacture of the plant in that country. The Bhilai Plant will
produce heavy products like rails and structures and is expected to
go into production sometime in 1959.
The third steel works in the public sector will be located at
Durgapur in West Bengal. A contract has been signed on 31st
October, 1956 by the Government of India and a Consortium of
496
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
British manufacturers for setting up the Durgapur Steel Plant
The contract vras for a grand total of Rs. 138 crores. The company
was responsible for supply, construction and erection of the plant
in its entirety. .
AruAUaT~y Industries — ^The iron and steel industry in India may
be divided broadly into two categories — ^basic and re-rolling. The
main producers who may be placed in the first category is iron ore
which makes pig iron out of which they manufacture steel. Along-
side these, there is a wide range of subsidiaries. There are the re-
rollers who produce certain sections of steel machines from billets
and scraps supplied by the main steel producers. It is estimated that
there are about 95 steel re-rolling mills in India. Following are the
main ancillary industries — (1) Tinplate for the metal box and con-
tainer produced by the Tinplate Company of India Ltd., (2) Pro-
duction of wide range of light rod, hard bright, galvanized and bar-
bed wire, wire nails, bolts and nuts and rivets by Indian Steel Wire
Products Ltd. and others who can manufacture railway permanent
way equipment including steel sleepers, points and crossing rails,
signal materials, special bolts and nuts, (3) there is a steel processing
industry for construction of wagons and other railway rolling
stock. The most important among them is the Indian Standard
Wagon Co., Ltd., (4) there are companies producing machine tools.
3. JUTE — This important textile industry has the distinction
of accounting for approximately a quarter of the total export trade
of the country. The progress of the industry can be gauzed from the
fact that India has today become the chief jute manufacturer con-
suming more than 60% of the raw jute of this sub-continent. The
^tal capital invested in the industry is about Rs. 30 crores and the
industry employs more than 3 lakhs of workers on the average.
One peculiar feature of the industry is that since industry is
based not a little on the export demand, any slackness in it during
a year or a season causes the industry to close a portion of its ins-
talled capacity. This bespeaks among other things a complete neg-
ligence or lack of enterprise in finding out new uses for the golden
fibre. At present the nulls concentarte on producing mainly (1)
gunny bags or cloth used for packing rice, wheat, oil seeds etc. ;
(2) hessian cloth or bags used for bailing cotton, wool and other
fibres ; (3) coarse carets and rugs and (4) cordage.
With the partition, most of the sub-continent’s jute-growing
areas fell to Pakistan, while jute-manufactming industry remained
in India. But very considerable advances towards self-sufficiency in
raw jute production in India is being made with considerable success.
The production of raw jute in Inffian Union is now double what it
was in the time of partition.
All but one or two of India’s 112 jute mills are in West Bengal
in and around Calcutta on the Hooghly river. All the mills except
nine are members of the Indian Jute Mills Association.
COAL INDUSTRY-— Under the Coal 3Iines {Conservation
oflo Safety) Act, 1952 which was a positive step for the conserva^
tion of metallurgical coal, the production of coking coal was pegged
INDIAN INDUSTRY
497
from 1952, A Coal Mines Stoioing Board was created in 1939
under the Coal Mines Safety (Stowing Act), 1939 to admi-
nister the fund which is raised by the levy of cess on coal and
coke and to spend it on stowing of coal and other operations to pre-
vent fires in mines and to avoid wastage of coal. An Indian Bureau
of Mines was established in March, 1948. Its functions, among others,
are inspection of mines conversion of mineral wealth by planned
working, recovery of the largest possible quantity, probing of mine-
ral deposits by the use of modem methods of prospecting, advising
Governments on questions relating to mineral concessions, royalty,
rents, taxation and tariffs, export policies etc., and organising on
problem relating to mining. The Fuel Research Institute at Digh-
wadi helps to spread the knowledge of the composition of coal and
of factors that influence its behaviour when heated. A Fuel Econo-
my and Combustion Section is being organised by the Institute to
advise the consumers of coal on fuel economy, washabiiity of Indian
coals and blending of coal for cooking purposes.
Coal mines are largely in the hands of private enterprise. The
Government owns only eleven collieries which supply coal pri-
marily to the railways. Pakistan and Japan are the biggest pur-
chasers of Indian coal at the moment. As the Industry requires
very efficient personnel, the Government of India have already started
a School of Mines near Dhanbad.
6. ALLUMINIUM INDUSTRY— The internal primary produc-
tion in India began in a small way around 1942. India’s total bauxite
reserves arc estimated at about 250 million tons, but workable
deposits containing over 60 p.c. alumina are estimated only at 28
million tons. Even at this latter assessment, an annual output of
50,000 tons of finished aluminium could be mentioned for over 100
years. The chief producers are the Aluminium Corporation of India
(ingot alumium capacity 2,000 tons a year) and the Indian Alumi-
nium Company Ltd., Calcutta (5,000 tons a year). The latter Com-
pany started operations at its plant in Alupuram, Alwaye, on import-
ed alumina, but now has its own works at Muri in Bihar. Among
the non-integrated fabricators must be mentioned Venesta Ltd., Cal-
cutta who produce foil in sufficient quantity to supply practically all
the country’s requirements of tea-chest liners.^ Aluminium conductor
manufacturers besides the Aluminium Industries Ltd., are the Indian
(3able Co. Ltd., Tatanagar, National Insulated Cable Co., Shamnagar,
Electrical Manufacturing Co., Dum Dum and the Hindustan Conduc-
tors Ltd., Faridabad.
G, SUGAR — India is the largest sugar producing country in
the world ; after her comes Cuba. About 20 million cultivators in
India are engaged in growing sugarcane. The country has nearly
4,000,000 acres under cane, which constitutes 35 p.c. of the world’s
total area under cane cultivation. The per-acre yield in India is
14 to 15 tons, however, compares most unfavourably with the yields
of 62 tons in Hawaii and 56 tons in Indonesia. The more important
of cane-growing and sugar producing States in the country are
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Bombay, Andhra and Madras. The
32
498
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
first two alone contribute more tban TO p.c. of the total production.
Apprommately 55 per cent of the total cane produced in India is
utilised for the manufacture of Gur and KhandsarL Only 25 p.c.
goes to the miUs for the manufacture of crystal sugar. Sugar nulls
on modem lines were first started in India about the year 1903. Yet
the expansion of the industry began only after 1932 when it received
protection. Today (1956), out of 157 factories,'72 are in Uttar Pra-
desh, SO in Bihar, 15 in Bombay, 5 in Madras and 10 in Andhra,
the rest being spread over the other States. Government have
granted licences for establishing 37 new factories of which 15
will be in Bombay, the rest in Andhra, Madras, Punjab and
Hyderabad. It is India’s second largest industry next only
to textiles. The total capital invested in the industry _ is
estimated at Rs. 72 crores. Though the sugar industry was enjoying
tariff protection since 1932, it is strange that after 34 years of such,
help the industry not only refuses to stand on its own leg but has
not used its days of prosperity to take to more efficient methods of
production or to lower the cost.
Indian sugar is of three forms — jaggery, khartdsari, and
white sugar. Of these, the simpliest is jaggery, being merely cane-
juice boiled (to a temperature of 115‘c) and solidified. Juice is
boiled in open pans to solidify. Jaggery making is an important
cottage industry and 50 to 60 per cent of the cane produced goes
into its making. Khandsari su^r is made through an indigenous
process by the molasses being separated from sucrose. Its
output is small, being about li lakhs of tones compared to about
1.6 million tones of white sugar and 7.8 million tons of jaggery.
IVhite sugar is directly produced in the factories in India. Ordy
25 per cent of the total cane produced goes into the making
of white sugar.
The phenomenal growth of- the industry led to the establishment
of a net-work of sugar and cane research stations throughout the
country where some of the world’s most improved -varieties are now
cultivated in most of the areas imder the crop. In the development
of these research stations, the industry has a big hand -with the
funds raised from the industry in the shape of canc ccss, excise duty
etc. The responsibility of gffiding sugarcane research rests mainly
on the Indian Central Sugarcane Committee which has been financing
and guiding all sugarcane works in Ihdia. A chain of sugarcane
research statioim has been established in various states to test the
improved varieties under varying soil and climatic conditions and to
conduct research on agronomical problems. The establislunent in
1936 of the Indian Institute of Sugar Technology at Kanpur is an-
other great contribution made by the Government of India in the
cause of sugar industry. It is now proposed to shift this Institute
to Lucknow and to attech an Institute of Sugarcane Research, the
formdation stone of which was laid on 1952. The Development (lonn-
cil for tte Sugar Industry -was set -up by the Government of India
Industries (Development & Regulation) Act, 1951 early in
19o4. The functions are ; recommending targets of production,* co-
INDIAN INDUSTRY
499
ordinating production programme, improving the quality and reducing
the cost etc.
The three main by-products of sugar industi-y — bagasse, press-
mud and molasses — are used as raw materials by a number of indus-
tries. Bagasse is widely employed in the manufacture of paper pulp
and card board. Considerable work is being done in respect of extrac-
tion of wax from press-mud. Similarly, molasses is used in the
manufacture of aconitic acid, industrial and power alcohol, chemicals,
tobacco curing etc. There are 44 distilleries in India which distill
alcohol from cane molasses. Power alcohol is mixed with petrol
in a definite proportion before use as motor fuel.
The area under sugar cultivation in India is larger than in any
other country in the world. But the yield and quality of Indian
cane are at present among the lowest in the world. It is interesting
to see in this connection that the per capita sugar consumption of
the country (with gur) continues to be as low as 30 lbs. (gur account-
ing for 24 lbs.) compared to 112 lbs. in U.K., 114 lbs. in Australia,
115 lbs. in New Zealand, 128 lbs. in Denmark and 11 lbs, in Java.
Government Control — While there is no statutory con-
trol over the price of sugar, factories are obliged to keep 25 per
cent of their production in reserve, which may be requisitioned
by Government in times of need. Releases from factories are also
regulated by Government with an eye on the supply and demand
position in the country.
7. CYCLE INDUSTRY — Records indicate that first bicycle made
its appearance in India in 1890. The total number of cycles on the
road at present in this country is variously estimated at behveen 1.5 to
3 millions. The indigenous industry was sponsored first in 1926 in
Madras with German technical assistance but their efforts proved
abortive. Between 1938 and 1941 three manufacturing concerns were
started, namely India Cycle Manufacturing Co., Calcutta, Hindustan
Bicycle MamrTacturing Co., Patna, and Hind Cycles, Bombay, In
1949 Government of India gave permission to three new units to
establish manufacturing plants — (1) Sen-Raleigh Industries who
secured technical collaboration with Raleigh Industries, (2) T. J.
Cycles of India with technical co-operation of Tube Investment Ltd.,
and Hercules Cycle & Motor Co., of England and (3) Atlas Cycle
Industries. Since November 1953, the starting of 12 new units yvith
a sanctioned capacity of 3,05,000 cycles has been approved.
The cycle industry in the country comprises of two distinct parts — one
the manufacturers of complete cycles and the other of component
part and accessories. Besides units manufacturing complete cycles
there are a large number of small scale manufacturers of bi-
cycle parts, mainly in West Punjab and West Bengal. In addition
there is a large number of small units which produce these items.
8. ALCOHOL INDUSTRY — Alcohol is .available 'in three
varieties. It can be used as drink, secondly, it can be used for indus-
trial purposes, such as in the manufacture of a number of
chemicals. Thirdly, it can be iised as a motor fuel, for the produc-
tion of mechanical power which is called power alcohol. About
500
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
drinking alcohol we have many country produces, such as beer, toddy
and certain variety of foreign liquors produced in. distillaries
which are about 70 in number. Industrial alcohol is valuable in the
manufacture of chemicals like acetone, acatic acid, ether, chloro-
form etc. It is also necessary as a solvent in the manufacture of
fine chemicals, medical preparations and toilets etc. India is
mainly producing 4.5 lakh tons of molasses which is used
in the manufacture of power alcohol and rectified spirit.
Although the industry is of recent origin in this country,
there has been a steady increase in production from a
little over 2m. gallons in 1946 to 8m. gallons in 1954. There are at
present 19 units equipped with necessary facilities for the production
of power alcohol.
9. PAPER AND PAPER BOARDS — The first paper-mill was
started in India a century ago by Dr. William Carey, the famous mis-
sionary. It did not make much headway. With the help of protec-
tive tariffs from 1925 to 1947, industry made steady growth though
slow as yet to make the country self-sufficient even in paper and paper-
boards, not to speak of newsprint. The paper industry today is one
of the major industries and has made considerable progress since
Second World War. The paper industry at present employs 26,000
people. The installed capacity of the industry today stands well
excess of 1,60,000 tons with imports. The average per capita
consumption comes to about 1.4 lbs. compared to 160 lbs. in U. K.,
175 lbs. in Canada, over 300 lbs. in the U.S.A., 77 lbs. in Germany,
4 lbs. in Egypt and 85 lbs. in Sweden. Though as yet in insufficient
quantity, India produces varieties of paper and boards including
toilet paper,' craft paper, mill boards, corrugated boards, grey
boards, duplex and riplex boards, etc.
All the raw materials required by the industry like bamboo,
sabai grass, bagasse, rags, waste paper, miscellaneous fibres etc
are available in the country. In pre-war years, considerable quan-
tities of wood-pulp were imported. But in recent years, only _a
small quantity of materials required for the production of speci-
alised paper and viscose conversion is imported.
At present 20 units are engaged in the production of paper
with the annual installed capacity of 210,100 tons. The State
wise distributions of paper mills are as follows —
4 in Bengal, 4 in Bombay, 2 in U.P, 2 in Mysore, one each in
Bihar, Orissa, Punjab and Pepsu, Madras, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra, Hyderabad and Trivancore-Cochin.
The bulk of the production consists of the more common types
of paper, viz., printing and writing papers. Some quantities of
wrapping and craft papers and of superior varieties like bond, azure
laid, ledger, manifold and poster papers are also made.
At present the entire requirements of the country in respect of
newsprint are being met from imports. However a beginning is
being made in this country for the manufacture of newsprint. The
Natoinal Newsprint Paper Mills Ltd., which was established in M.P.,
nas gone into production in 1954.
INDIAN INDUSTRY
501
10. LEATHER, HIDES AND SKINS — Leather industry in India
ranks probably fourth in importance as an earner of foreign ex-
change. The leather goods industry with the exception of one or
two units is wholly a small-scale or cottage industry. Indian Union
produces annually 5.1 buffalo-hides, 16.1 million cow-hides,
22.9 million goat skins and 14.2 million sheep skins, besides a con-
siderable quantity of reptile skins, such as those of crocodile,
python, snake, lizard etc. that make pretty-looking fancy leathers.
The value of the raw hides and skins produced annually is estima-
ted at about Rs. 40 crores. Indian leather industry fetches
foreign exchange to the extent of Es. 23 to 25 crores annually.
West Bengal and Madras are overwhelmingly the largest pro-
ducers of cattle hides, Madras is the largest producer of buffalo hides
and sheep skins, and U. P. the largest producer of goat skins follow-
ed by Bengal and Bihar.
By far the largest utilisation of leather is in the production of
footwear. Footwear produced in this country may briefly be classi-
fied into trvo categories — (1) Western types, (2) Indian types. The
footwear producers are classified into three classes — (a) machine
made section, (b) small-scale section, (c) cottage industry section.
The small-scale section of the industry is mainly located in Agra.
Agra also is the main centre for footwear on a cottage industry
basis, although there is considerable production on this basis in Cal-
cutta and Bombay and on a small-scale in most parts of the country.
At the present moment, England is the main buyer of India's
half-tanned leather known as East Indian kips. Taimeries in
England retain East India kips and sell to world market.
To investigate the varied problems ivith which the Indian
leather industry is now faced, the Central Leather Research Insti-
tute has been established in Madras.
11. RAYON INDUSTRY — ^This industry has been started in
India after the War in 1950. The first mill to be started in India
was Travancoro Rayoiis Ltd., in 1950. In the following year, 1951,
National Rayon Corporation in Kalyan in Bombay came into exis-
tence followed by Sirsilh Ltd., Sirpur, Hyderabad and the Gwalior
Rayon Silk Manufacturing Co. Ltd., Nagdah. Now a fifth unit is
gradually coming into being. It is the Century Rayon Ltd., located
in Kalyan, Bombay, By way of assisting Indian rayon manufac-
turers, the Government have restricted the import of 150 denier
and 120 denier rayon yam (Denier is the weight of 9,000 metres
of rayon yam expressed in grams). Government has also removed
the 16 p.c. import duty levied on certain varieties of imported rayon
grade pulp.
12. PETROLEUM INDUSTRY — ^The Indian industry in oil is
at present confined to a relatively small area in Assam. India
raises no more than 8 p.c of total consumption and imports about Rs.
50 crores worth of crude oil and derivatives a year, hlineral oil
is mainly obtained from Digboi oil fields owned by Assam Oil
Company, subsidiary of the Burmnh Oil Co. It has a refinery at
Digboi and a tin factory at Tinsukia. A new oil field has however
502
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
been found at Nahorkatiya in the Brahmaputra valley 20 miles
to the west of Digboi and first flow of oil was released from 22nd
Nov., 1954. This oil-well at Nahorkatiya has a depth of 10,697 ft.
It has been recently announced that oil has been shruck by the
Assam Oil Company in the deepest (13,739 ft.) well ever drilled
in the South-East Area. This will be in addition to the oil found at
Nahorkatiya where 20 wells have already been completed.
Based on the present evidence, the oil from Assam is
expected to meet 56 per cent of India’s present crude requirements —
5 million tons per year.
The birth of oil refiinng industry in India goes back to 1899
when the Assam Oil Company built India’s first oil refinery to refine
crude oil from Assam oilfield. The industry has been given great
impetus by the starting of three new refineries. Oil refineries
by Burmah Shell, Stanvac and Caltex have been started in
India. A shining silver city has now been built up at Trombay
Island, Bombay for the two refineries by Stanvac and Burmah Shell.
Second refinery for Stanvac was completed in 1954. The largest of
the series, the Burmah Shell refinery came on stream in January
1955 and the fourth will be built at Visakhapatnam by Caltex. When
all these refineries are in full production at the end of 1957
they will have a refinery yield of approximately 3.5 million tones of
petrolium products a year. The refined products are of wide range
— ^motor spirit, kerosine, diesel oils, furnace oil, bitumen and wax.
The new refineries will not produce aviation gasoline at all. The
three refineries will, when they are under full production, turn
out over 90 per cent of India’s petroleum requirements.
Stanvac Oil Refinery started their refinery operation on 19th Nov.
1954. The work on the project was commenced on December 29,
1952. The Stanvac scheme has cost Rs. 17b crores. The benefits that
will result from the establishment of the refineries are far reaching.
Apart from the planned investment of Rs. 50 to 60 crores by the
oil industry, the installation of the refineries will have a psychologi-
cal effect on future foreign investments in India.
13. SILK INDUSTRY — The silk industry in India, which dates
from ancient times, was at one time of very great importance. It
reached its peak in about 1870 but decayed after 1900, until in 1939-40
exports totalled only Rs. 22-8 lakhs. The Second World War proved
grand incentive to revival. Sericulture industry occupies a promi-
nent place among the village and small-scale industries in India and
has an important place in the economy of the States of Madras,
Mysore, West Bengal, Assam and Jammu and Kashmir. The other
States which produce mulberry raw silk are East Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Bharat and Bihar.
_ Regarding raw silk production, India produces approximately 21
million lbs._ of mulberry raw silk valued between Ite. 65 to about
Rs. M million a year and about one million lbs. of non-mulberry silk
Muga valued at Rs. 20 million. The States
which produce fairly large quantities of non-mulberry silk are
Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and to some extent West
INDIAN INDUSTRY
503
Bengal. Bihar produces the largest quantity of Tassar silk in
India.
Raw silk whether mulberry or non-mulberry is in itself a raw
material. This raw material has to be thrown and twisted and silk
yam thus produced from raw silk is used for weaving silk textiles
and other silk goods. Non-mulberry raw silk is used almost wholly
for civilian fabrication purposes, whereas mulberry raw silk has vital
importance for Defence Services of the country as dropping silk
parachutes. A modern silk reeling factory is being established
at Malda in West Bengal for producing high grade raw silk.
The Government of India has been giving tariff protection to
sericulture industry since 1930. For the improvement of silk indus-
try in India under Central control, a Central Silk Board has been
established in 1949 under the Central Silk Board Act LX of 1948.
The functions of the Board are — (a) undertaking, assisting or en-
couraging scientific, technological and economic research, (b) devis-
ing means for improved methods of mulberry cultivation, rearing,
developing and distributing healthy silkworm seeds, reeling cocoons,
improving the quality and production of raw silk, if necessary, by
making it compulsory for all silk to be marketted only after the same
has been tested and graded in properly equipped raw silk condition-
ing houses. The Board is a joint organisation of the Central Govern-
ment and the State Governments and of the industry itself.
14. WOOL AND WOOLLEN TEXTILES— Wool is one of the
India’s principal sources of earning foreign exchange. On an average
25 million lbs. of raw wool worth about Rs. 6.8 crores are exported
annually. The indigenous consumption of raw wool is nearly 24
million lbs. per year. Due to the variations of climate, the produc-
tion of wool varies in different parts of India. The main areas
of wool production are Jodhpur, Bikaner, Uttar Pradesh,
Madras, Punjab, Hyderabad, Jaipur and Bihar. Indian wool is
roughly classified under — (a) Hill Wools used in the manufacture
of blankets, tweeds, overcoatings and lower quality of woollen shawls,
(b) Plain Wools, both of coarse-type and fine-type; coarse-type is
used for low grade blankets and rugs and fine types for better class
blankets, woollen broad cloths, tweeds and good grade carpets.
The main centre of woollen textile industry is in Bombay, after
which there are large concentrations at Kanpur, Dhariwal, Amritsar,
Jamnagar and Bangalore.
Woollen hand-loom industry is widely established throughout the
country. Seventy-five per cent of the industry is concentrated in the
colder parts of India, viz., U. P., East Punjab, Rajasthan and
Kashmir. The section of this industry produces a wide range of pro-
ducts, namely, blankets, durrees, carpets, tweeds, shawls, lohis, coat-
ings, pattus, scarfs, etc. There is also some production on a lesser
scale of knitted goods, c.g., socks, pullovers and jerseys. Certain of
the goods manufactured on a cottage industry basis are of special
quality and these have a considerable appeal abroad as well as in
the home markets. Among these rank Kashmir shawls, carpets and
namdas, carpets from blirzapur and Amritsar and druggets from
hlysore and Bellary.
504
HINDUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
15. CARPETS — ^The main centres of prodnction are Amritsar,
Agra, Grralior, and Jaipur for better class of carpets, Kashmir for
good class carpets and namdas, Mirzapur and Ehadohi for the
cheaper qualities, and Mysore, Bellary, Bangalore and other places
in the South for druggets. The industr^s raw material requirements
are met from local sources of supply. These goods find their outlet
predominently in the overseas marhet.
16. CEMENT — The South India Industrialists Ltd., vrhich was
established in 1879 was the first to start cement production in
India, The first production^ of this factory was in 1901. But it
was closed down shortly after its inception and there was again
a vacuum until the Indian Cement Co. Ltd., Porbandar started
manufacturing cement just before the beginning of "IVorld ITar L The
war gave a fillip to the industry and by 1924, there were in India
some 10 cement factories with a total installed capacity of nearly
600,000 tons. In 1924 Tariff Board imposed a dnfy of Bs. 9 per
ton on imports. The next stage in the development of the industry
was the formation in 1930, of the Cement Marketing Company of
India Ltd., which pooled the output of different cement concerns
and initiated a quota system for sales. In 1936 four different
controlling interests merged into one in the shape of the Associated
Cement Companies Ltd. In 1937 the Dalmia Gronp came into
existence with five cement companies. In 1941 the ACC and the
Dalmia group combined to market their produce jointly through
Cement Marketing Co. of India. The alliance lasted for seven
years till, in 1948, the groups broke away. Meanwhile more in-
dependent producers have come into being. The production of cement
today is of the order of 5 million tones per annum. .At present
in India there are about 11 different Companies manufacturing
cement of which the Associated C-ement Cos. Ltd. is the single
largest manufacturing group. The Dalmia group comes next and
then there are various other industrial manufacturing companies.
17. POTTERY — is said to be the oldest of industries, and is also
an ancient art in India. The industry in the modem sense, however,
is of comparatively recent origin, although a pottery and stoneware
works were established by Bum & Co., at Raniganj in 1860. There
are now some 53 ceramic factories in India including those producing
insulators, with a total capacity of over 70,000 tons per annum. They
are located over a fairly wide area but capacity is mainly centred in
Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Bombay, Aladras and Mysore.
Except for ball clay aU other raw materials required arc to be found
in India.
18. RUBBER — The raw mhher producing industry in South
India meets approximately 75 p-c. of the manufacturing demand.
Having started with the establishment of a general mhher goods
factory at Calcutta in 1920 the mhher manufacturing industry has
developed in a remarkahle way. At present the industry is 'made
up of nearly 100 units, big and small and 300 small units organised
on cottage industry basis with a total invested capita! of about
Rs. 13 crores and offering lucrative employment to well over
INDIAN INDUSTRY
505
18,000 people. But the production per acre in India is very low.
It is only_ 300 lbs. per acre_ today compared with Malaya’s BOO lbs.
The tyre industry of India is the principal consumer of raw rubber,
consuming almost 80 p.c. of India’s production. India’s advantage
lies in tliat she has her own rubber plantations concentrated in the
south, mainly in Travancore.
Indian Rubber Board has been constituted under the Rubber
(Production and Marketing) Act, 1947 for the development of the
rubber industry in regard to production and marketing of rubber.
It encourages research on rubber, supplies technical advice to rubber
growers, improves marketing and collection of statistics and advises
Government on all matters relating to development of rubber includ-
ing imports and exports of rubber. The price of rubber produced in
the country is fixed statutorily. The Board is financed by a cess
levied on all rubbers produced in the country and fees levied for
licences issued to dealers and manufacturers.
Rubber articles manufactured in India may be broadly classified
under the following categories — (1) tyres and tubes, (2) rubber foot-
wear, (3) rubber-covered cables, (4) proofed fabrics, (5) mechanical
rubber goods, (6) medical rubber goods, (7) miscellaneous such as
extrudeal and moulded articles and (8) latex and sponge rubber goods.
19. MATCH — Match manufacturing hardly existed in this coun-
try before World War I although the first factory, and with Indian
management, was started at Ahmedabad as early as 1895. A consi-
derable expansion of the industry was however made after the im-
position in 1922, of a revenue duty on imports which was converted
in 1928 into a protective duty. The effect was so conspicuous that
the foreign exporters found it so difficult that a big Swedish match
combine came to India and established many factories, at Bareilly,
Ambeiuath, Calcutta and Madras, under the name and style of the
Western India Match Co. Ltd. Despite a virtual gro-wth of mono-
poly by the company which supplies about 80 p.c. of the demand
now, there has been a considerable growth of indigenous factories.
There are at present about 50 match factories in India employing
about 16,000 workers and their installed capacity amounts to 80,000
cases. The installed annual capacity of the industry is 800,000 cases
of 50 gi'oss of 144 boxes each.
20. GLASS AND GLASSWARE — ^The Indian glass industry may
be divided into two categories — (1) cottage industry making mainly
glass b.angles in small furnaces from glass blocks produced in
factories. The main centre is Firozabad, U. P., (2) Modem factory
indu^ry^ the exception of soda ash, sulphur and certain colouring
materials, the raw materials of the industry, i.o., dolomite, limestone,
and saltpetre are all supplied from indigenous sources. The in-
dustry is widely dispersed and their distribution territorially is
as follows — , , . . . x , j.
There arc at present 225 glass factones in India, including 93
bangle factories. The largest number of factories are in West
Bengal (34), Bombay (32), and Uttar Pradesh (24), Madras (10).
506
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
According’ to authoritative estimates, the total capital invested
in this industry is nearly Es. 4 crores. It provides employment
to more than 20,000 -workers. The total annual output of the in-
dustry is estimated to Ks. 10 crores. It is equipped to produce table-
ware, lampware, bottles, sheet glass, scientific glass ware, neutral
glass, ampules and bangles. The manufacture of thermos flasks,
machine-made glass tubing, etc., has also begun.
21. PLYWOOD INDUSTRY— The ply^vood industry in
India came into existence during the Second World War
mainly to cater for the needs of the tea industry. There are
nearly 70 factories — big and small — on the approved Go’vt.
list. The majority of them are engaged in manufacturing tea-
chests and the big units are engaged in manufacturing various
types of plywood. The total annual production of tea-chests is
about 38 million sq. ft. in South India ; 30 million in Calcutta and
34 million in Assam.
22. SOAP — Industry had made remarkable progress even before
the war and had built an export trade of its own. India is largely
self-sufficient in raw materials except for caustic soda, soap colours,
some perfumes. The consumption of soap in India is estimated at
about 2 lb. per head per annum, about 120,000 tons yearly which
compares with 21 lbs. of Indonesia and nearly 3 lbs. in Ceylon. The
demands are met by local production. Imports are now negligible.
The industry is divided into an organised section which produces
about two-thirds of soap manufactured in India — and a very large
number of cottage units producing the remaining one-third, which
is mainly cold-process soap.
23. TEA — The tea industry is the foremost plantation industry
in India. Tea ranks after jute as the second largest item in
India’s export trade. Its tremendous growth may be realised from
the fact that in 1841 the acreage under tea plantation was about
2,500 acres, whereas the total acreage in India during the year-o
1953-64 and 1954-65 were 789,741.67 acres and 791^307.13 acres
respectively. The industry part of it lies in cutting,
drying and blending of the leaf and in that India
specialises unlike China, to whom she is second in the world in pro-
duction of black tea. It means that unlike the green tea, the black
tea is processed in factory through courses of -withering, fermenta-
tion and drying. It is well-kno-wn that the Northern India accounts
for about 80 p.c. of the total Indian tea production averaging about
550 million lbs, Assam producing over 70 p.c. of it. The tea plan-
tations in the South India are distributed among four States, Madras,
Travancore-Cochin, Mysore and Coorg, More than 76 per cent of
the production is exported chiefly to the United Kingdom, United
States, Canada, Australia and the Middle East countries.
One new fact about the industry has been the setting up of the
Central Tea Board in 1949, in place of the now defunct Tea Market
Expansion Board, -with headquarters at Calcutta. The new Board
IS composed of the representatives of the planters as -well as the
exporters, the trade, labour. Chambers of Commerce, the Central and
INDIAN INDUSTRY
507
State Governments of the tea-growing areas. Financed by a cess
collected on the export of tea, the Board is to arrange for research,
collection of statistics, fixing of grade standards, improving the mar-
heting of tea and bulk-buying of tea on behalf of the Government. It
carries on propaganda to increase the consumption of tea in the coun-
try and elsewhdre. The important points about Indian tea are — (a)
There are more than 6,500 tea gardens in India covering nearly
7.90.000 acres. Their total yearly production is over 630 million pounds
of tea. (6) Capital invested in Indian tea industry is estimated at
113.00 crores in 1954 (excluding small holdings below 100 acres) of
which Rs. 40.5 crores are Indian and Rs. 72.55 crores
non-Indians, (c) People of India consume about 176
million pounds of tea yearly, or at the rate of i lb. per head per
annum. (cZ) Tea gardens of India alone employ well over one million
y;orkers — ^thus tea industry is the largest single employer of labour
in India, (e) The Indian tea industry assists other industries like
plywood, ceramics, coal, cement, fertilisers, tea machinery and trans-
port. (/) India meets over 60 p.c. of the world demand for tea
which is estimated at over 1,200 million pounds a year excluding
China, Japan and the U.S.S.R.
24. COFFEE — is one of the major plantation industries of India.
Practically, all coffee is grown in South India in the hilly regions such
as Mysore, Coorg, Madras and Travancore-Cochin, only a very small
quantity being grown in Bihar and Assam. It is the most suitable
crop for the hills in south India. In India, Mysore is by far
the largest producer of coffee amounting for about 47 per cent of
the total area under coffee in the country. The State of Madras
comes next with about 28 per cent of the area, while Coorg contributes
nearly 22 per cent. India’s coffee is claimed to be of the
finest and the best quality. The industry provides employment
to over two lakh persons with an annual production of coffee
valued at about Rs. 10 crores. The industry contributes to the
central exchequer about Rs. 90 lakhs by the way of excise duties and Rs.
11 lakhs in income tax. India’s position in the world of coffee is how-
ever not important. The production of coffee in India is only
1.1 per cent of the total world production.
The main species of coffee that arc grown in India
are Cffca Arabica v/hich is noted for its quality and Coffca
Rohivsta which has better resistance to pests and diseases,
yields more and is cheaper to produce. The cultivation of Libcrica
coffee is negligible. The major part of the acreage under coffee, 73
p.c. approximately, is claimed by Arabica variety. The cultivation
of Robusta variety is now on the increase.
At present all coffee growers arc under statutory obligation to
deliver their entire crop to the pool administered by the Indian
Coffee Board excepting the quantity they are allowed for seed pur-
poses and domestic use. Under the Coffee Market Expansion Act
IV of 1947 Indian Coffee Board has been constituted which is res-
ponsible, under the guidance and support of the Central Government,
for evolving a system of regulated and co-operative marketing of
coffee. Indian Coffee Board has its own propaganda organisation.
508
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
The Board’s chief means of propaganda has been the India coffee
houses spread over the several states.
25. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY — India’s automobile industry is
still in its infancy. It was only in 1947 that the Goveminent of India
took up the question of manufacture of automobiles in right earnest.
Pre\uously India was importing fully assembled cars and other vehicles.
The year 1954 was an important land mark in the development
of motor industry in India. The Government of India took the bold
decision of restricting the manufacture and assembly of automobiles
to only a few recognised concerns who proved their bona fide by
agreeing to a definite phased programme of development of their
factories with the ultimate of objective of reaching the stage of com-
plete manufacture of all the important components. This resulted in
the closing down of certain assembly plants. Prominent among
these was the assembly plant of General ^lotors in Bombay.
Since then, the industry has been growing steadily. The demand
for cars has been increasing and at the present moment, the factories
are not able to meet the demand for automobiles and trucks from
ready stock. Following firms are manufacturing motor cars in
India — Hindustan Motors, Calcutta ; Premier Automobiles, Bombay ;
Standard Motor Products of India, Madras ; Ashok Motors, Madras.
Two other manufacturing operations sanctioned are the T?ata Lo-
comotive & Engineering Co. Ltd. which will produce Tata-Mercedes
diesel trucks and Mahindra and Mahindra Ltd. which will produce
'Willy’s jeep.
26. _ TOBACCO — is one of the leading Indian cash crops like
cotton, jute, sugarcane etc. The tobocco industry occupies a signi-
ficant place among the major industries of the countiy. It eariK
valuable foreign currency worth about Rs. 15 crores yearly, in addi-
tion to an income of Rs. 34 crores to the Indian Exchequer by way
of excise duty.
The introduction of central excise on tobacco in 1943, the rapid
rise in the production of high quality of cigarette tobacco in the
country, the setting up of an Inspectorate at Guntur for the compul-
sory grading of certain varieties of tobacco in 1945, and the consti-
tution of the Indian Central Tobacco Committee for promoting
research and developmental work in 1945 have resulted in marked
changes in the production and marketing of tobacco during the past
decade.
India stands third in the world in the matter of tobacco produc-
tion after United States and China. Area under tobacco represents
only 0.34 p.c. of the total crop average in India. Its annual output of
about 550 million ibs. is only about 0.24 p.c. of the country’s annual
agricultural production.
Tobacco production in India is concentrated in six different areas
detailed as follows :
!• Guntur area : Districts of Guntur, Krishna, East and "West
Lodavari in Andhra State and neighbouring portions of Hyderabad
State ; Virginia Fluecured and Natu (count^) tobaccos (Cigarette
manufacture).
INDIAN INDUSTRY
509
2. A^. Bihar and Bengal area : Districts of Muzaffarpur, Dar-
bhanga and Pumea in Bihar and Jalpaiguri, Malda, Berhampur and
Dinajpur in W. Bengal ; N. tobacum and N. rustica varieties locally
known as Vilayati, Motihari and Jati (Hookah).
3. UJP. and Punjab area : Farmkhabad district in U.P. and dis-
tricts of Jullundur and Ferozepur in Punjab ; N. tobacum and N. rus-
tica varities locally known as Calcutta (Hookah, snuff and chewing).
4. Cliarotar (Gujerat) area : Anand, Borsad, Petland and Nadi-
ad tatus of Karia district in Bombay State ; N. tobacum (Bidi
manufacture).
6. Nipani area : Belgaum and Satara districts in Bombay
State along with Kolhapur, Sangli and Miraj ; N. tbacum (Bidi
manufacture) .
6. 'Boiiihcm Madras area : Madura and Coimbatore districts
of Madras State ; N. rustica and N. tobacum (Hookah and chewing
tobaccos. For making cigarettes, bidis, cigars, snuff and chewing
tobaccos).
Nicotiana Tobacum and Nicotiana Rustica are the two most im-
portant species of tobacco grown in India. The Nicotiana Tobacum
is commonly cultivated all over the country, while the latter is mainly
grown in north and north-eastern regions. The different types of
tobacco grown are kno^vn by their local names — Jati in West Bengal,
bidi ‘in North Gujarat and Southern Maharastra in Bombay State,
natu in Guntur area of Andhra State, lanha in East and West Goda-
vari districts of Andhra and cheroot and chequing in Tiruchirapalli,
Madurai and Coimbatore districts of Madras State. Two exotic types
of Nicotiana Tobacum, namely Virginia tobacco and White barley are
grown extensively in the Guntur district and are well-known in the
international market. About 95 per cent of India’s total Virginia
cigarette tobacco is produced in the area comprising the districts of
Guntur, Krishna, East Godavari, West Godavari and Nellore. Prin-
cipal varieties of Nicotiana Rustica are motihari in Bengal, vilayati in
Bihar, Calcuttia in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. These are used for
hookah, chewing and snuff. Bidi tobacco is mostly produced in the
Charotar and Nipani zones of Bombay State and to a smaller extent in
Muzaffarpur-Dharbhanga block in the Bihar State and Furrukhabad,
Sitapur and Meerut districts of Uttar Pradesh. Cigar and cheroot
tobacco are mostly produced in Madras and Bengal States, whereas
hookah tobocco is mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Bihar.
Snuff and chewing tobacco is largely cultivated in Madras, Bombay,
Uttar Pradesh and Orissa States. Export of Indian variety has con-
tinued to grow. Imports have correspondingly gone down. The im-
ports consist mostly of Virginia tobacco from U. S. A. for blending
purposes.
The main manufactured products of _ tobacco in India are
cigarettes, cigars, cheroots, bidis, snuff, chewing and hookah tobaccos.
Apart from the cigarette factories and to a limited extent cigar fac-
tories, the manufacture of tobacco products, namely bidi, hookha,
chewng and snuff is essentially a cottage industry. Most of the
cigarettee factories are located in the big cities like Calcutta, Bobmay,
Baroda, Allahabad, Slonghyr, Jullundur, Hyderabad, etc. The most
510
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
■widely used variety of tobacco used for cigarette is Virginia leaf. The
former composite Madras state alone produces about 75 per cent of
the country’s output of -Virginia tobacco. Manufacture of cigars is con-
centrated in Madras State. Orissa and West Bengal also make some
cigars and cheroots. The country produces almost all the tobacco it
needs. The cigarette paper, a special variety of tissue paper for
rolling of the cigarettes is being produced by Eastei-n Tissues Ltd.f
Raniganj and Trebeni Tissues Ltd., -which no-w meet the full require-
ments of the country.
28. COIR INDUSTRY— Coir means fibre obtained from the
hask of the coconut fruit. India is the world’s chief producer of
coir and coir products, her yearly output being around 130,000 tons.
More than the half of this output is exported, earning about 10 crores
of rupees in foreign exchange. The coir industry -which is exclu-
sively South Indian, is concentrated in Kerala area and employs over
six lakhs of workers. There are two principal types of coir fibre —
the mat fibre and cuiied fibre. The bulk of the output consists of
mat fibre. The coir industry is organised partly on cottage industry
basis and partly in factories.
29. SPORTS GOODS — Sialkot (West Pakistan) was the main
centre for the manufacture of sports goods in undi-vided India. With
the partition of the country, the industrialists came to India from
Sailkot and succeeded in re-establishing manufacturing centres in the
northern region of the country. At present sports goods industry of
the country is predominently concentrated in the northern region
of the country, specially at Jullundur and Meerut. Other centres of
the industry in the northern region are Delhi, Batala and Patiala
(Punjab), Agra, Lucknow and Allahabad (U. P.), and Jammu &
Kashmir. The only other centres of the industry are : Calcutta.
Bombay, Madras and Bhopal and these account for hardly 10 p.c.
of the output. There are 258 manufacturing units in the northern
i-egion and 17 in other regions. The manufacture of sports
goods is essentially a cottage industry. The capital investment
required is not large. Following goods are being produced
in different centres in India — (o) Footballs, volley balls, basket
balls, (6) Cricket balls and hockey balls, (c) Badminton rackets, (d)
Shuttle-cocks, (e) nets, (f) gut for badminton and tennis rackets,
(p) Cricket bats, hockey-sticks, (h) Soft leather sports goods, (i)
Sports and athletic wear, (f) other miscellaneous articles, such as
billiard cues, fishing rods, etc.
30. VANASPATI INDUSTRY — was first introduced into India
after World War I by imports from Eui’ope. The first vanaspati
factory was established in India in 1930. The Government helped
the industry by giving it protection. Vanaspati is mainly made from
groundnut oil and also from cotton seed oil. In 1944 the Government
of India introduced legislation to control the industry by establishing
an office of the Vegetable Oil Products Controller and also promul-
gated the Vegetable Oil Products Control Order. Under this regula-
tion, the quality of production was standardised and new factories had
to obtain permits before starting production. The prosperity of
INDIAN INDUSTRY
511
this industry can be ascertained from the fact that production
capacity in 1956 was about 412,000 tons and the actual production
was 300,000 tons. The statewise distribution of these factories with
their capacities are given below —
Anntutl
•Annual
No. of
capacity
No. of
capacity
factories
{tons)
factcmes
{tons)
Bombay
10
114,600 Aoidhra
3
18,000
West Bengal
8
60,500 Punjab
2
21,000
Madras
6
22,900 Delhi
2
42,000
Uttar Pradesh 5
54,000 Other States
5
2’7,500
Saurashtra
4
10,800
3Iysore
4
10,800 Total
51
412,100
The vanaspati industry is the second largest food-processing
industry, next only to sugar industry. It is the largest of its kind
in Asia,
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTIONS
Textile Industries
Cotton
Jute manu-
- Woollen
Colton yarn
doth
factures
goods
Belting
(lakh lb.)
(lakh yds) (000 tons)
(000 lb)
(tons)
1951
. . 13,044
40,764
874.8
17,700
675.6
1952
. . 14,496
45,984
951.6
16,584
709.2
1953
. . 15,060
48,780
868.8
19,248
765.6
1954
. . 15,612
49,980
927.6
18,756
838.8
1955
. . 16,344
50,928
1,027.2
20,700
825.6
Iron
& Steel
Steel ingots Semi finish-
Finished
Pia iron Ferro alloys & met-als
cd steel.
steel
(000 tons) (000 tons) (000 tons) (000 tons) (000 tons)
1951
. . 7,708.8
24.0
1,500.0
1,240.2
1,076.4
1952
. . 1,684.8
40.8
1,578.0
1,308.0
1,102.8
1953
. . 1,654.8
12.
1,507.2
1,230.0
1,017.6
1954
. . 1,792.8
40.8
1,684.8
1,452.0
1,243,2
1955
. . 1,756.8
12.0
1,704.0
1,456,8
1,260.0
1951
1952
1953
1954
3955
^ s: cfj
CC
i Si Sr ^
C go
p ei
S
to — ^
^ U
i.' —
^ .rj si o
AiSS
-M “ P.
Hi
P
44,400
50,040
62,424
80,196
101,472
7.248
4.248
3,720
8,652
10,044
48.0
32.4
25.2
28.8
34.8
2.12.4
1.95.6
2.06.6
2.36.4
2,82.0
82,788
71,496
56,268
58,692
80,832
512
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
o
r* —
« s
-5’§ §
£■=>
^ o
<5
1951
. . 1,06,932
5,77^
1952
96,084
6,08.4
1953
. . 1,08,092
5,90.4
1954
. . 1,48,816
5,40.0
1955
. . 1,65,072
6,14.8
Tea
Coffee
(million
(tons)
lbs.)
1951
. . 18,096
868.8
1952
. . 21,096
614.4
1953
. . 22,572
608.4
1954
. . 29,364
642.0
1955
. . 24,948
662.4
rr-
•« , c
Soapi
(tons
2-2
So
Vhea
flour
0 to
— o
o
83,436
3,195.6
486.0
86,376
3,537.8
512.4
82,200
3,780.8
438.6
79,512
4,398.0
442.8
98,148
4,416.0
463.2
Salt
Cigarettes
Sugar
(000 mds.)
(lalcFs) 1
(000 tons)
74,376
214,488
1,114.8
76;860
201.192
1,494.0
86,316
198,330
1,291.2
73,908
206,352
1,008.0
81,072
209,016
1,594.8
Plywood
Paper {all
varieties
Automo-
biles, cars &
Cycles
{complete)
(000 sq. ft.)
(tons)
ij~i(cks
(Nos.)
1951
. . 70,848
131,916
(Nos.)
22.272
114,276
1952
. . 90,540
137,508
15,288
196,956
1953
. . 61,200
139,704-
13,920
264,168
1954
. . 77,268
145,328
14,460
372,360
1955
. . 110,412
184,884
23,088
491,172
FOREIGN F1R3IS
Position of Indians and no7i-Indians on salaries of Rs. 1000 and above
in foreign firms.
Year
No.
of Indians
No. of foreigners
Total
1947
504
5,844
6,348
1948
742
6,360
7,102
1949
1,085
6,709
7,794
1950
1,406
6,871
8,277
1951
1,784
6,953
8,737
1952
2,290
7,104
9,394
1954
3,346
7,008
10,354
1955
3,995
6,810
10,805
1956
4,685
6,566
11,251
COTTAGE & SMALL SCALE
INDUSTRIES
The small scale and cottage industries in our country are in
many cases functioning as independent and isolated units wthout
the aid of any mechanical or electrical appliances. Most of them
do not yet possess any adequate assistance either in production
methods or in sales organisation. The inherited skill of the artisans
appears to be the main factor that is now largely responsible in many
cases to sustain these industries at the present moment.
Development of industries, more particularly cottage and small
scale industries, is the primary responsibility of the State Govern-
ments. According to item 52 of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitu-
tion, however, industries, the control of which by the Union is declared
by Parliament by law to be expedient in public interest, are in the
Union List. According to the Industrial Policy Resolution of the
Government of India, dated April 6, 1948, the development of some
large scale industries and the co-ordination of cottage and small scale
industries have been recognised to be a part of the Central Govern-
ment responsibility. The Planning Commission has not only endor-
sed the above recognition, but, has laid down the sphere of responsi-
bility of the Central Government in respect of cottage industries,
stressed the importance of such industries in the agricultural economy
of the country and recommended the setting up of an organisation
by the Central Goverament for the implementation of the various
programmes.
The Government of India, having recognised the need for the
development of various small scale industries and cottage industries
from the point of view of employment potential, are taking some ac-
tive steps for rehabilitating them on a sound basis. The Government
have opened a separate department under the Ministry of Commerce
and Industry to look after the development of cottage industries and
arc helping them in many ways. The Government are assisting the
handloom weaving industry by subsidsing it from out of the cess levied
on the production of mill cloth. The production of khadi is encouraged
by subsidsing it at double the rates applicable to handloom goods.
The Government are also giving preference to the products of small-
.scale units in the matter of purchases required for various departments.
They are also granting loans repayable in easy and convenient instal-
ments to those engaged in cottage industries. There is a separate
Board to look after the development of handicrafts ; the articles are
now being exhibited in the different emporia in foreign countries.
A large number of small scale industries are now being actively
encouraged in the Community Development Projects and National
Extension Sendees blocks, under the guidance and supervision of
33
514
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
officers specially appointed to look after the development of small-
scale and cottage industries.
The cottage industries broadly includes occupations, mainly allied
to agriculture, handicrafts pursued by specialised artisans, processing
industries carried on with human or animal power chiefly in cottages,
industries operated in domestic units principally without the aid of
power, and small-sized enterprises making some use of power, but
lying outside the perview of the Factories Act.
In February, 1955 a Small Industries Corporation, designed to
assist small industries, was registered as a private limited company
under the auspices of the Government of India. The Corporation
will accept contracts for supplying orders to Government. _ The
Corporation has introduced a scheme for hire purchase of machinery
and equipment needed by small units. ,
In the Report on the First Year Plan, the view was expressed
that the development of cottage industries should be as much a
matter of State action as the increase of agricultural production,
which may be mentioned, recevied in that Plan, the highest order of
priority. So since the inauguration of First Five-Year Plan, various
measures are being taken for the development of cottage industries.
The main directions in which action is being taken are —
(1) The setting up of specialised Boards to plan for and assist
in the execution of programmes,
(2) The provision of financial and administrative aids for the
reorganisation of the different types of industries constatuting this
sector.
The bodies that are charged with the work of promoting this
development are : —
1. All India Handloom Board (1952).
2. All India Handicrafts Board (1953).
3. All India Khadi & Village Industries Board (1953).
4. Central Silk Board (1952).
6. Coir Board (1954).
6. Small Scale Industries Board (1955).
AU-India. Handloom Board was constituted by a Government
notification in 1952. Its main functions are '.—development of inter-
nal markets, proper organisation of the industry and publicity. A
cess of three pies per yard has been levied on all mill-made cloth con-
sumed within the country for development schemes of khadi and hand-
looms to be financed out of this source. The Board provides for
various forms of aid being extended to handloom weavers who are
organised in cooperative societies, so that they can bring about im-
provements in their looms, obtain regular supply of yam, secure in
common facilities for rmdertaking finishing processes and get access
to wider markets.
_ The All-India Khadi and Village Industries Board was cons-
tituted in January, 1953. The Board is responsible for preparing and
or^nising programmes for the production and development of khadi
and village industries, including training of personnel, manufacture
and supply of equipment, supply of raw materials, marketing and
COTTAGE & SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
515
research and study of the econoxiiic problems of different village
industries. The_ Board also functions as a clearing house of informa-
tion and experience relating to these industries. The Board will
assist in the implementation of the programme indicated in the Five-
Year Plan on following industries — (1) soap-making with neem oil,
(2) leather industry, (3) handmade paper, (4) paddy husking, (5)
bee-keeping, (6) khadi, (7) cottage match industry, (8) gur ana
khandsari, (9) .palm gur, (10) village oil industry, (11) woollen
cottage industry.
Further, the Government have been directly, or through the
agency of State Governments, assisting in the development of the
following 12 industries : (i) sports goods ; (ii) glassware • (iii)
footwear and leather goods ; (iv) leather tanning ; (v) brush manw-
facUiro ; (vi) cutlery ; (vii) cycle parts ; (viii) carpentry and wood-
working ; (ix) locks ; (x) steel wire products ; (xi) simple types of
mathematical instruments ; and (xii) blacksmithy,
All-India Handicrafts Board : The All-India Handicrafts
Board was set up in 1952 and is associated with the Ministry of Pro-
duction, Government of India. The functions of the All-India
Board are to advice Government generally on the problems of the
handicrafts industry and in particular, to improve and develop produc-
tion and promote sales in India and abroad. The Board is also to
advice the Government on grants and loans to State Governments
and private organisations and institutions for financing activities
in the development and improvement of handicrafts.
The Board has also set up the nucleus of an All-India Museum
to display and popularize handicrafts goods. It has published lite-
rature on cottage industries.
The Board works through an Executive Committee which carries
out its decisions and more than 10 other smaller committees to deal
with special subjects.
The Government has formed the National Small Industries Cor-
poration (Private) Limited, (1) for procuring government contracts,
(2) for supply of machinery on hire-purchase basis, (3) for market-
ing service for small scale industries products, (4) for starting
wholesale deposits etc.
Haoidicrafts Design Centres — ^Design Centres have been opened
at Bombay, Bangalore, Calcutta, Delhi and Lucknow for the depart-
ment of handicrafts. These Centres evolve new designs and improve
existing designs in some of the important handicrafts in each region
so as to make the products more attractive. 1
Ford Fojmdtttion & Small Scale Industries — Ford Foundation
International Planning Team on small scale industries which was!
invited to formulate plans for the development of village and small,
scale industries, submitted their report in 1954. The Government of
India has implemented some of the recommendations, such as — (1)
Four Regional Institutes of Technology for small industries are
established which would act as service agencies and would assist
small industries in improving their technique of production and
management. (2) A'small Industries Corporation to organise produc-
tion for meeting Government orders has been established.
516
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
MARKETING OF HANDLOOM AND COTTAGE PRODUCTS—
The All-India Cottage Industries Board recommended the starting
of Government emporia at all important toiivns. Central Cottaye
Industries Emporium v?as established by the Government of Inma
at New Delhi. Some of the State Governments have already hunt
up emporia in their States.
The Government have sanctioned a scheme for setting up an
Exteo-nal Marketing Organisation for ^promoting sales of handloom
cloth. Four marketing officers are being appointed at Colombo,
Baghdad, Rangoon and Singapore and these officers will act as a
liason beUveen the Indian exporters and the overseas importers and
also canvas sales for Indian handloom cloth. Seven Emporia are
being opened at Colombo, Rangoon, Singapore, Karachi Chittagong,
Aden and Bangkok. The scheme is being supervised by the All-India
Handloom Board. _ . , •
Indian Trade Missions have opened show-windows for displaying
samples of handloom and other cottage industries products and such
articles are also being displayed at eidiibitions abroad in which India
has participated. The Government have recently sanctioned the
provision of special show-cases .in the Office of the Indian High
Commissioner in London for display of handloom fabrics.
The following steps have also been taken to promote the export
of cottage industries products and handicrafts : —
(i) Permanent show-rooms for display of handicrafts in
foreign countries such as U.S.A., U.K., Thailand and Mauritius etc.
iii) Cottage industries products including handloom and handi-
crafts have been included as an item of export trade in our Trade
Agreements.
(iii) Official participation in various exhibitions and fairs which
are generally held abroad.
(iv) Mobile exhibition units have been sent round the country
and funds allocated for the exhibition of metalware, bambooware
etc.
SPECIAL COTTAGE INDUSTRY PRODUCTS OF INDIA
Bidri work — ‘Bidri’ is so called after the ancient of Bidar, the
place of origin. The basic material employed in the^ manufacture
is an alloy consisting^ mostly of zinc and copper. Pure'gold or silver
m sheets or wires is hammered and inlaid into carves of inlaid
design. The alloy which is of leaden colour turns into jet black and
forms a contrasting background to the silver or gold design. Articles
of modem use such as cigar and cigarette boxes and cases, ash
trays, vases, powder boxes, trinket boxes, fruit bowls, etc. are being
manufactured.
Plmlhari — is the general name given to the famous Punjabi
shawls known as Bagh and Phulkari. Phulkari means flowercraft
2.” • i j ® garden. The embroidery is done with soft un-
Uvusted silk called pat, on plain coarse kbaddar. The motifs and
both rich, colourful and attractive with ends or Pallas
1 exquisite workmanship. The whole sheet of khaddar gets covered
COTTAGE & SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES 517
like a garden in full bloom and presents a gay and floral appearance.
FUigree — Fili^ee work is an indigenous art of Orissa State. It
is now prevalent in Orissa, Hyderabad, Kashmir and West Bengal.
Pure silver wire of different shapes and gauges are used for filigree
work. Charcoal and silver solder are utilised for soldering the
filigree work. The types of products are — ash trays, bangles, betel
boxes, buttons, caskets, cigarette boxes, flower vases, necklaces,
ear tops, powder boxes etc.
Horn articles — The horn industry, like the filigree industry has
been an indigenous cottage industry of Orissa. It is now largely
found in Travancore-Cochin, Orissa, Bombay, Hyderabad and West
Bengal. The main raw meterial is buffalo horn and horn of deer and
bisons are also used for some special types.
Ivory work — Ivory carving is an outstanding handicraft in
many states of India, chief of them being Travancore-Cochin, Hy-
derabad, Mysore, Madras, West Bengal, Delhi and Rajasthan.
Nimial work — The toy industry of Nirmal is peculiar to the
Hyderabad State. These toys are made of ‘burgu’ and ‘runki’ wood
which are very light in weight and easily workable. The products
consist of vegetable and fruit trays, bangles, lamp stands, cigar and
cigarette boxes, ladies shoe hills etc. The industry is carried on in
the small village of Nirmal in Adilabad district, Hyderabad.
Metal Art Wares — ^The polished brass with engraving or enamel-
ling of Jaipur, Kashmir, Moradabad and Banaras, the brass, copper
and bronze cast images and wrought pieces of Madura and Tanjore
with edged or encrusted mythological motiff are only some of the
numerous instances of the distinguished art of the country in this
field. The other articles manuifactured are — flower vases, candle
sticks, decanters, finger bowls, tumblers, fruit dishes, powder pots,
etc., etc.
Handlooms & Textiles — ^The handloom textile industry is wide-
spread in India. It consists of cotton wools, wool and silk-spinning
and weaving and dyeing and printing, such as famous cotton sarees
and dhoties of Madras, hladhya Bharat and West Bengal. Famous
furnishing fabrics are made at Orissa and Bihar, gorgeous brocades
of Banaras and Hyderabad, scarves of Banaras, famous prints of
Murshidabad, Furrukhabad, Jaipur and_ Bombay, Batik of Santineke-
tan, Kalmakari (pen work) of Masulipatam, tie & dye of Jaipur,
hlysore. West Bengal and Kashmir silk sarees and dress material,
woollen fabrics of Kashmir, and carpets, rugs and druggets of Mir-
zapur, Bhadohi, Ellore, Kashmir, Bangalore and Jaipur.
STATE COTTAGE INDUSTRIES
Ajmer — The most important cottage industry of this State is
handloom weaving. Other industries are leather goods, toys, soaps,
furniture, buttons and moodhas.
AtS-sam — Sericulture and handloom weaving industries are the
most important industries in this State. These industries are mostly
pursued by women. Sericulture industry_ is an_ important and
valuable cottage industry in Assam, playing a vital role in the
518
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
economic life of the rural people. Assam is noted for her non-
mulberry silk, vis., Eri and Muga from time immemorial. The
culture of Eri and Muga until recently was unknown any where in
the world. About 1.2 millions people work in these as subsidiary
occupation. Among the other cottage industries are ivory, bamboo
and canework, bell-metal work and bee-keeping.
Bhopal — The hand weaving industry is the only important cottage
industry of the State.
Bihar — The cottage industries in this State in their order of im-
portance are handloom weaving, steel goods and cutlery, tanning and
leather manufacture, pottery, jewellery, nonferrous metal wares.
This is the only State which produces shell buttons from the mother-
of-pearl. _ ,
Bombay — ^Handloom weaving industry is the most important
cottage industry of Bombay. There are about two lakh handjoor^
maintained in the 27 districts of the State. The other industries in
the order of their importance are tanning and leather, village oil,
hand-made paper, ivory, horn and wood-carving, non-ferrous metal
wares and cane works.
Coorg — ^There is only one cottage industry in this State, namely,
bee-keeping.
Delhi — ^Among the important cottage industries of Delhi are
leather industries, gari and zardozi, ivory carving, cane and bamboo
basket making, calico printing, plastic goods, paper products, brass
wares, wood work, artificial limb making, sola hats, imitation
jewellery, gold and silver jewellery, lock making and tin containers,
button making, soap making, tazi-dermy, thread ball, gas mantle,
wooden scales, surgical goods and sports goods.
Himachal Pradesh — ^The only cottage industries reported from
this State are cotton hand-spinning and handloom weaving and
woollen hand spinning and hand-weaving. Sericulture industry
exists in all districts.
Hyderabad — Handloom is the most important industry and also
the State’s special products such as Himroo, Mashroo and Kamkhab.
Besides textile industry, the most noted industries of the State are
bidri ware, brass ware, filigree, ivory and horn and laquer_ work. _
Jammu & Kashmir — ^The cottage textile industry covering main-
ly wool and silk is an important industry. In the textile industry,
tiie products worth mentioning are tweeds, gabba, pattu, pile carpet,
namdas and shaivls {pashmina & toosh). The other industries in
the State are furniture made of walnut, cane and willow work, wood
carving, papier machie work, jewellery and stone polishing.
Kutch — ^The important industry of the State is handloom weav-
ing. The other industries are cutlery, jewellery, non-ferrous metal
ware, tanning and match.
Madhya Bharat — ^The most important cottage industry in the
State is the handloom weaving industry. The products well-known
even outside the State are the chavdcri and mahcswari sarces. The
other industries are hosiery, wool weaving, dyeing and printing, sports
goods, steel safes, leather goods and food processing.
COTTAGE & SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
519
Madhya Pradesh — Handloom is the most important industry in
the State. The other industry of some importance are tanning and
leather work, confectionery, fruit canning, brass and copper utensils
and oil and soap.
Madras — This is the most important handloom weaving State
in the country with 841,140 handlooms and 1,395 powerlooms. The
most noted of its handloom cotton products are sarees, dhoties, towels,
sheetings and coatings and shirtings. The other industries in order
of merit arc hosiery, carpets and druggets, blankets and cumblies,
printing, tanning and leather goods, food processing, non-ferrous
metal ware, steel goods, matches, toys etc.
Manipur — Handloom weaving industry is the most important
cottage industry.
Mysore — is one of the leading States in the field of cottage in-
dustries as well as large scale industries. Handloom industry is the
leading industry with 35,000 handlooms and 1,042 powerlooms. The
most famous of its textile products are silk sarees, blankets, carpets,
and druggets and silk in running length. The other industries in the
order of their importance are sericulture, art products including
carving and inlay in ivory, sandal wood, rose wood and metal, glass
bangles, incense and perfumery, leather goods, steel goods, soap,
wooden, clay and lacquered toys and food processing.
Orissa — ^Handloom industry is a noted industry of Orissa. The
other noted industries are silver filigree, ivoiy, horn and soap stone,
tanning and leather goods and wooden utensils.
Pepsu — TTie handloom weaving industry is at the top. Other
industries of the State arc hosiery, calico printing, zari work, iron
and steel fabrications, non-ferrous metal ware, leather goods and
bangles.
Punjab — ^The important industry of the state is handloom indus-
try. The most noted textile products are furnishing fabrics, blan-
kets and hosieiy. The other impoTtant industries are furniture,
wood carving, jewellery, food processing, sports goods, non-ferrous
metal ware and a variety of steel and engineering goods. Sports
industry has been revived at Jullundur and hosiery industry has been
restored to its former leading position. Carpet making is also a
flourishing industry of Punjab.
Rajasthan — The handloom industry is of course the most impor-
tant of all. Its noted textile products are printed sarees and scarves,
tie and dye carpets and niwar. Eajasthan is the biggest wool-pro-
ducing state of India, Jodhpur and Jaipur are famous for the
manufacture of embroidered shoes. Jaipur produces the best
type of brass work in the whole of India. The other industries are
art products, papier machic, marble stone and ivory work, leather
goods and toys.
Saurashtra — The State has 20.000 handlooms and 3.000 power
looms weaving cotton and wool. Other industries are tanning and
leather goods, brass utensils and iron and steel articles.
Travancorc-Cnchin — Great stride has been made with regard to
some cotton industries, such as, handloom textiles, coir and coir
mattings, grass and screw pine mats, ivory, horn, wool products etc.
520
HINDUSTAls’ YEAE-BOOK
Tripura — ^Besides handloom textiles, the other industries are
cane and bamboo _\rotk, coir matting, oil pressing, carpentry, smithy,
pottery, tiri making.
U. P. — Silk industry is engaged in the production of gold and
silver thread broacades, sUk sarees and scarves. Mlrzapur carpets are
produced in wide and varied designs. Dying and cloth-printing is
a flourishing industry in Lucknow and Furakhabad. Moradabad is
famous for ornamental brassvjare. The manufacture of glass
bangles is one of the important cottage industries in this State, is
made at Ferozabad. Khurja glazed pottery is now known all over
India. Other important industry is fibre industry such as making of
baskets, chicks and cane furniture. Gur making is the biggest
cottage industry in U. P.
Vindya Pradesh — ^Besides handloom textiles, the other industries
are oil pressing, steel products, wooden toys and biri making.
TFcst Bengal — There are 97,151 handlooms and 1,198 power
looms in the State. The most famous textile products are silk and
cotton sarees and dhotics. The other industries are jute and wool
weaving, sericulture, tanning and leather goods, brass and bell metal
utensils, steel and engineering goods, sports goods, ceramics, cutlery,
furniture, art products including horn, ivory and wood.
MASS COJIJIUNICATIONS IX IXDIA
The present total circulation of Indian newspapers is about three
million which comes to about 8 for every thousand population, whereas
the circulation in U. K., U. S. A. and Japan is 570, 339 and 400 respec-
tively for every thousand population.
In India there exist only two radios for every thousand population,
whereas it is 800 radio sets for everj’^ thousand population in U.S.A.
Second Fi%'e-Year Plan has provided an expenditure of Es. 40
lakhs for introduction of television in In^a. In Asia there are only
four countries — Japan, Philippines, ITiailand and Turkey which have
television.
BHOODAN MOVEMENT
The BoooclaTi movement, started in 1951, is a unique movement of
great social significance in India. It seeks to bring about what we
may call a peaceful agrarian revolution in the country. The move-
ment consists in the collection of land from land owners as ‘^ts’
and distribution to the landless. India’s efforts to solve her gigantic
land problems through a peaceful revolution is now engaging world-
wide attention.
The idea of this voluntary donation of land to landless peasants
was initiated by Acbarya Vinoba Bhave, a sincere disciple of
Mahatma Gandhi during one of his visits to the Hyderabad State on
18th April, 1951, where he had gone to attend a conference of
Gandhian workers. On April 18, 1951 at Telangana, a district of
Hyderabad which was a centre of a strong communist-sponsored
movement for the redistribution of land, some landless workers
came to him and complained that though they were willing to work,
they had no land to work on. An idea suddenly flashed in the mind
of Vinoba Bhave who at once told the assembled people whether any
one among them would be willing to donate land to the poor landless
people. A man sitting silently among the assembled people at once
stood up and said that he had been looking for an opportunity to
give away one-half of his 200 acres of land all these years. So,
this little incident gave start to this agrarian revolution in India.
Describing the aims of his movements Vinoba Bhave says, "In
a just and equitable order of society, land must belong to all. That
is why we do not beg for gifts but demand a share to which the poor
are rightly entitled. The main objective is to ‘propagate right
thought,’ by which social and economic maladjustments can be
corrected without serious conflicts.” Vinolia Bhave has also said,
"this Bhoodan Yajna is an application of non-violence, an experiment
in transformation of life itself. I am only a tool in His hands who
is the Lord of all ages, like even those who give and those who
will receive the gifts. It is a phenomenon inspired by God,”
From now on Vinoba ^ Bhave started his nation-wide campaign
with the aim of distributing 50,000,000 acres i.e., one sixth of India’s
cultivatable land among country’s 10,000,000 landless families. He
undertook a propaganda tour on foot for this purpose, holding prayer
meetings at which he appealed for gifts of land.
Under the scheme which was intended to apply the Gandhian
principle of non-violance to social and economic problems — a target
was fixed for a district and when this had been reached, the land was
distributed among the landless families (the minimum amount given
being five acres of dry or one acre of wet land) on condition that
the recipients had no other means of livelihood and were prepared
to cultivate it -with their own hands. Distribution took place at
village meetings at which villagers decided whose need was the
522
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
greatest : if disagreement arose or insufficient land had been allo-
cated, lots were drawn. The land was given in trusteeship, on the
understanding that it would not be sold, mortgaged, rented or left
fallows, and that, if misused, it should return to the ‘pool’ for re-
distribution. According to the plan ‘Harijans’ will be given one-third
of the entire land collected. In the redistribution of land, above
conditions should be fulfilled. The distribution takes place at public
meetings in the villages.
An appeal was also launched for money to provide agri-
cultural implements for beneficiaries of the scheme. A gift of
Es. 1, 200,000 from the Gandhi Memorial Fund for this purpose was
announced on July 9, 1955. Several State Governments have enacted
the necessary legislation to facilitate such grants by exempting
them from stamp duties.
Along with this land-gift movement, Vinova Bhave has started
other movements to enlarge the concept of Bhoodan movement.
These movements are Sampattidan (wealth gift), Shramdan (labour
gift), Buddhidan (intelligence-gift), Jivandan (gift of one’s
whole life to the cause) and &ravidan (gift of entire land of the
■vdllage).
ALL-INDIA FIGURES OF BHOODAN
(Up to March 1956)
Land collection Land Sampattidan
(Acres) distribution (Annual amount
(Acres)
in
Rs.)
JivandanUs
Assam . .
*
6
Andhra
50,754
. .
U. P.
6,76,728
1,14,174
24,188
9
9
179
Orissa
2,85,029
41,387
36,222
7
0
106
Karnatak
3,729
559
1,212
8
0
10
Kerala
28,465
1,420
4,379
7
0
103
Gujarat
44,252
10,886
7,682
0
0
19
Tamil Nad
47,092
4,582
17,271
2
0
50
Delhi
9,388
157
14,899
2
6
6
Punjab-PEPSU ..
16,497
1,010
53,705
6
0
16
Bombay
678
1,26,553
9
0
4
Bihar
24,41,684
85',690
10,680
5
0
1,289
Bengal
11,580
1,963 '
20,817
5
6
40
M. P.
1,35,265
41,907
19,324
14
6
78
Madhya Bharat . .
47,605
678
14,651
6
3
34
Maharashtra
30,840
3,983
42
0
0
50
Mysore
9,065
100
424
6
0
8
Rajasthan
3,74,667
18,049
48,511
10
6
41
Madhya Pradesh
8,370
927
4,393
8
6
3
Saurashtra
30,819
6,818
6
Himachal Pradesh
1,564
21
1,050
0
0
3
Hyderabad
1,62,664
37,044
25,229
4
9
16
Total
48,05,544
3,70,365
4,30,249
10
3
2,074
INDIAN EDUCATION
THE PRESENT SET-UP — Education is a State subject, but
Union Government is responsible for the administration of institu-
tions of national importance for scientific or technical education,
financed wholly or in part by it. The Indian Government through the
Education Ministry is also responsible for the administration of four
Central Universities namely, Banaras University, Aligarh University,
Delhi University and the Visva Bharati and a number of institutions
of higher learning. The Archaeological Survey of India, Anthro-
pological Survey of India, National Archives and National Library,
Calcutta are under the Education Ministry.
In addition the Union Government deals with central agencies
and institutions for (a) professional, vocational or technical train-
ing including the training of police officers, (b) promotion of special
studies or research, (c) scientific or technical assistance in the in-
vestigation or detection of crime.
The Government of India is directly responsible for education
in the Part C States and Part D territories. The Ministry of Edu-
cation at the Centre consists of an Educational Adviser and Secre-
tary, an Additional Secretary, a Joint Educational Adviser and
ex-officio Joint Secretary, two Deputy Secretaries and four Deputy
Educational Advisers who are in-charge of different divisions. It
has also offices at Washington, London, Bonn and Nairobi.
The work of the Ministry has now been split up into six divisions
— (1) Administration and University Education, (2) Hindi and Cul-
tural Relations, (3) Technical and Scientific Education, (4) Scholar-
ships and Information, (5) Basic and Social Education and (6) Secon-
dary Education.
The task of bringing education to the masses is the immediate
responsibility of the States. In the States, the “Education” is in
charge of a minister. The Secretary of the Department of Educa-
tion is the permanent head of the Department and the Director of
Public Instruction acts as an expert adviser to the Minister of Edu-
cation. The Director controls the inspecting staff and the teaching
staff of the Governmental institutions. In some States functions of
the Director are discharged by the Educational Officer in others by
the Educational Secretary.
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN INDIA— At the lowest level
of our educational system are Nursery Schools for children of age-
group 3 — G. Then come the Primary or Elementary Schools for
children of age-group C — 11. These schools are called Junior Basic
Schools. The Secondary Schools which follow next are of two cate-
gories — the middle of the Senior Basic Schools and the High Schools.
These cater to the needs of children of roughly the age-groups
11 — 14 and 11 — IG respectively. In some States, the Secondary
Schools are called Higher Secondary Schools and cater to the needs
524
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
of children of roughly the age-group 11 — VI. In general education
next to High Schools are the Intermediate Colleges or the Interme-
diate Classes of Degree Colleges. These generally cover the age-
group 16 — ^18. After passing the Intermediate, the students enter
Degree Colleges or the Universities and the age-group covered here
is roughly 18—24.
In professional education, the Polytechnics or Vocational and
Technical Schools are of a mixed type in the sense that the diplomas
and certificates awarded together are of both an undergraduate and
higher standard. The professional and technical colleges are at par
in standard with other Colleges and award University degrees.
The Neio Plan — According to the Government’s new educational
Plan, a child will begin his education in the junior basic school,
pass on to the senior basic stage and through it to four years of
high school education. The present Intermediate Education will
be abolished and high school students will pass directly into the
University. There will be a three-year course for the Bachelor’s
degree and the Universities will lay greater emphasis on the teaching
of_ subjects like agriculture, medicine, engineering, technology and
science. At the same time, it must not be assumed that this will be
done at the expenses of the humanities. They will in fact, continue
to enjoy their proper place in the curricula of all the Universities.
Pattern of Basic Education — One of the important developments
in the field of education in recent years has been the acceptance by
the Central and State Governments of basic education as the pattern
of education for children.
_ Basic education is imparted through productive or creative
activity in the form of crafts and centres around the physical and
social environments of the child. Emphasis on productive activit 5 ',
however, does not imply the elimination of the humanizing influence
of the ordinary school subjects.
_ Only such crafts as have significance from the point of view
of intellectual content and provide scope for progressive development
of knowledge and practical efficiency are chosen for imparting basic
education. Another consideration is that the basic craft should be
such as would fit into the natural and social environments of the
school.
Recently the Government of India set up a National Centre for
Research _ in Basic Education. The Centre will deal, among other
things, with research in the field of basic education, curriculum con-
struction, _ correlation and other problems of teaching methods,
research in crafts, improvement of crafts equipment and materials
and production of literature for children and teachers. The Centre
will also train basic education workers at the higher level.
Secondry Education — can be said to consist of two well-defined
stages (1) middle stage and (2) high school stage. This middle
stage or senior basic_ education is complementary to junior basic edu-
cation. The instruction in the senior basic schools would have a bias
towarts the crafts. High School Stage is knoum in different names
in different states. The students who pass the higher secondary
stage are admitted to degree classes of the universities, where the
INDIAN EDUCATION
525
duration of instruction for a pass degree is three years. In all other
cases students have to spend another two years in the intermediate
classes. The Government of India have set up an All-India Council
for secondary education to assist and supervise the progress of
secondary education.
So the present educational structure in India may be summarised
as follows — (I) Primary Schools which impart instruction through
the regional language or the mother tongue of the child, (2) middle
schools which impart instruction through the regional language and
English or only through the regional language, (3) secondary schools
which provide instruction up to the matriculation or an equivalent
standard, (4) intermediate colleges aflUiated to boards or univer-
sities, (5) degree colleges affiliated to the universities and (6) post-
graduate and research institutions.
Technical & Professional Education — ^The All-India Council of
Technical Education composed of representatives of the Central and
State Governments, Parliament and Associations in the field of
commerce, industry, labour, the professions and education was set up
in November 1945 to advise the Government of India on the co-ordina-
tion and development of technical education in the country. The
Council has set up seven boards of studies and four regional
committees.
Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur (Bengal) which
started functioning in 1952 is one of the four regional institutes for
higher technology started on the lines of the Massachusetts Institute
of U.S.A. It is the most advanced technical institute of the country.
A Western Institute of Technology is to be set up at Bombay. A
School of Town and Country Planning has been established at Delhi
to provide training in urban, rural and regional planning. On the
recommendation of the All India Council of Technical Education, it
has been decided to establish an Administrative Staff College in
India to promote and provide for the study of principles and tech-
niques of organisation and administration in various spheres of
national life and of cognate subjects. Three Regional Schools of
Printing at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras have been started.
University Education — After passing the matriculation or School
final and intermediate examination, students are admitted to degree
courses in the arts, science, commerce, agriculture, engineering,
medicine, etc. The degree awarded as those of B.A., B.Sc., B.Com.,
B.Ag., B.E., M.E., B.S. The post graduate degrees are M.A., M.Sc.,
IM.Com., 5I.D., SI.Ed., LL.D. and L.L.5I., and the higher research
degrees are Ph.D., II.Sc,, D.Litt., LL.D., etc. The Universities of
India can be classified according to their constitution into four
categories — (1) Residential and Teaching, (2) Affiliating and Teach-
ing, "(3) Affiliating. (4) Teaching and Federal.
Social Education — The idea of social education embodies five-
point programme dealing with the provision of — (1) literacy, (2) a
knowledge of the rules of health and hygiene, (3) training for the
improvement of the adults’ economic status, (4) a sense of citizen-
ship with an adequate consciousness of rights and duties and (5)
healthy forms of recreation suited to the needs of the community and
526
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
tlie individual. The actual responsibility for the execution of these
various schemes rests "with the State Governments. The Central
Government helps "with financial assistance and guidance. The
Central Welfare Board has been set up to increase the activities of
various bodies working for social welfare by giving grants. Another
very interesting development in the sphere of social education is the
establishment in co-operation with Ford Foundation, of four
Literary Workshops for producing reading material specially suita-
ble for neo-literates.
Some of the outstanding agencies of social education are —
(a) Audio-Visual Education — Audio-Visual Education _ is an
important adjunct of social education. The Ministry of Education has
set-up a National Board for Audio-Visual Education to co-ordinate
the work done in this field and to advise the Centre and_ the Stete
Governments. With the help of mobile vans equipped with projec-
tors, films, gramophones, and magic lanterns, the work of social edu-
cation is carried far into the interior. Programmes for rural areas
are broadcast by All India Radio. Several State Governments have
introduced musical and dramatic entertainments as an integral part
of social education.
(b) Education of the Handicapped — Schools of the handicapped
are classified as follows — (I) Schools for the blind, deaf and dunih
and (2) schools for the mentally handicapped. There are fifty insti-
tutions for the blind and forty-two for the deaf and dumb. There are
only two institutions for the mentally handicapped — one in West
Bengal and the other in Bombay. In all States blinds are educated
through Braille Code. The first centrally-controlled training insti-
tute for the blind in India was opened at Dehra Dun on 28th June,
1954. The Institute consisting of a Braille Press and a workshop
will provide remunerative employment to some blind men and women
in the country.
(c) Adult Eudeation — There are various types of adult educa-
tion centres in the country which provide both short term and compre-
hensive courses. The shorter courses are mostly confined to the
promotion of literacy, but in a few states there are courses of longer
duration for health, sanitary and civics. Education through audio-
visual side is an important aspect of social education in the country ;
•mobile vans, are equipped with projectors and films, gramophones
;and magic lanterns. Facilities for education and training in the
visual arts and crafts, agriculture, music, dancing are being p_ro-
■vided in schools and colleges. Facilities for this class of training
Are given in_ some universities such as Hiswa Bharati.
Non-University Education — Apart from the universities, there
nre number of institutions that offer under-graduate, graduate and
post-graduate research and training facilities. They are classified
•under the following heads — (a) humanities, (6) scientific research,
(c) engineering and technology, <d) apricultiire and (e) medicine,
if) Indology, ig) Orientalia, (ft) Philosophy, (i) Social Sciences,
(i) Scientific Institutions and Laboratories. They are classed under
•(1) National Laboratories established by the Council of Scientific
•.and Industrial Research ; and (2) other institutions.
INDIAN EDUCATION
527
SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION— was appointed by
the Govemment of India in 1952 with Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Muda-
Uar as Chairman. The terms of the Commission were (1) to enquire
•on the present position of secondary education in India and (2) sug-
gest measures for its reorganisation and improvement. The recom-
mendations of the Commission (1953) were as follows —
(1) Education at high school stage should commence after four
or five years of primary or junior basic education and should consist
of such diverse studies as language, social studies, general science
and craft. (2) Regional language should be the medium of
instruction while the national language and a foreign language
should also be taught at the middle school stage. (3) In
matters of public examinations and promotion, school records
should be taken into consideration. (4) Multi-purpose schools
should be opened to encourage technical education at an early stage.
(6) There should bo separate grades of training for secondary school
teachers and for graduate teachers. (6) There should be boards of
secondary education, boards for teachers' training and state advisory
boards. (7) Every school should have a managing board registered
under the Companies Act with Head Master as ex-officio. The report
of this committee was generally eccepted by the Central Advisory
Board of Education in Nov. 1954.
.To carry out the recommendations of the Secondary Education
Commission, the Govemment of India has finalised the following
scheme — (1) Establishment of 600 multi-purpose schools, (2) Assis-
tance to 300 additional schools for improving facilities for teaching
of science, (3) Improvement of 2,000 school libraries, (4) Introduc-
tion of crafts in 2,000 middle schools, (6) Training of teachers.
Another development in the field of Secondary Education was
the institution of Headmasters’ Scminars-cum-Camps for pro-
gramme of reforms in the schools.
SARGENT SCHEME — In 1944 Central Board of Education drew
up a national scheme of education, generally known as the Sargent
Scheme. "This scheme envisaged the establishment of elementary
schools and high schools (junior or senior basic schools) by providing
universal compulsory and free education to all boys and girls between
the ages of G and 14. It also included a six-year course
for children between ages of 11 and 17. The high school were to be
two types, namely, Academic and Technical or Vocational. The
scheme recommended the abolition of the intermediate course and the
addition of an extra year each at high school and college. This plan,
in the main, has been accepted by the Government of India. The
Sargent Scheme envisaged a 40-ycar educational reconstruction plan
for the whole country. It was later reduced to 16 years by the Kher
Committee.
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION— A Commission
under Dr. S. Radhakrislman as chairman in 1948, recommended the
following in 1949 —
The commission declared that universities must meet the increas-
ing demand for every type of higher education, literary and scientific,
52S
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
teclmical and professional. The commission laid particnlar stress on
agricultural education and suggested the agricultural colleges should,
■wherever possible be located in rural areas in order to enable the
students to participate directly in rural life and to acquire a first
hand kno-wledge of the rural environment. The falling standards ox
umversity educa'tion vras due partly to defective teaching in s^n-
dary schools and partly to over-emphasis on examinations in umyer-
sities. The need for reconstructing and strengthening the examina-
tion system by incorporating modem scientific methods of educational
testing and appraisal and for remo'ving the undue stress on the posses-
sion of a university degree in competitive examinations •was_ also
stressed by the Commission. For the purposes of co-ordinating
university education, the establishment of a University Grants
Commission ■was recommended.
ASSOCIATED BODIES
Central Advisory Board of Education — ^which ■was abolished
in 1923 as a measure of economy was revived by the Government 0i
India in August 1935. It consists of all State Ministers of Educa-
tion or their Directors of Public Instruction, Representatives of the
Inter-University Board, Indian Parliament nominees of the Govern-
ment of India. Its main functions are to serve as a clearing ho^e
of idea and to act as a distributing centre of educational information
for India.
Bureau of Education — ^There is also the Central Btireau of Edu-
cation established in 1915. Its main duty is to collect and collate
information about education in India and abroad and to arrange for
publication of educational reports etc.
National Archives of India — ^It is a Department of Education
Ministry which receives for custody all records of the Government
of India which are over five years old and are no longer required for
immediate consultation and reference. Its origin goes back to the
year 1891 when Imperial Records Department ■was established in
Calcutta. This name has been changed into National Archives of
India.
Inter-University Board — The need of co-operation in the work
of Universities in India was expressed by the Calcutta University
Commission. The Inter-University Board acts as an advisory body
and provides a forum for the discussion of university problems. It
helps Indian universities to obtain recognition for their degrees and
diplomas in other countries.
Central Advisory Board of Physical Education & Recreation — ^Thc
Gk)vemment of India have established a Central Advisory Board of
Physical Education and Recreation to draw up a plan *01 physical
education for schools and colleges. For the present the Board
considered it advisable to concentrate for the time being, on athletic
camps. For this purpose the country is divided into five zones, each
zone to have a three-vveek camp. The object of this is to raise the
standard of athletics in schools and colleges and to strengthen the
INDIAN EDUCATION
529
sense of unity in the minds fo the youth who would come from
different parts of the country and live together.
All-India Council for Secondary Education — ^has been set up in
1955 on the lines of the All-India Council of Technical Education,
consisting of 22 members. It will serve as an expert body, advising
the Government on improvement and expansion of secondary educa-
tion in all its phases. Besides acting as an advisory and reviewing
body, the Council will examine and approve proposals in the field
of secondary education referred to it by the Government of India and
the State Governments and assist in the implementation of approved
programme. The Council will also initiate proposals for the im-
provement of secondary education. The Council has power to
appoint ad hoc committees to help it in the attainment of any of its
objectives.
Central Educational & Vocational Guidance Bureau — was set up
in 1954. State Governments are also setting up similar bureau
in their regions. The main function of these bureaus will be to
provide educational and vocational guidance with other agencies.
The Central Bureau serves as a clearing house to the States.
Social Welfare Board — has been set-up which is intended to sti-
mulate and co-ordinate the activities of the various bodies working
for social welfare and to give financial assistance for clearing
organisations.
Anthropological Department — is an another Department of the
Education Ministry. Field work is undertaken amongst various
tribes on social and physical anthropology, linguistics, folk-lore, nu-
trition and psychology. Systematic investigations are instituted
particularly in Assam, Tripura and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Two sub-sections of the Department have been opened —
one at Port Blair and other at Shillong.
Department of Archaeology — An important Department under
the Ministry of Education which looks after all archaeological monu-
ments and sites of national importance. The Department also
carries out excavations and explorations and maintains museums.
National Council for Higher Education in Rural Areas — has been
constituted for supervising the actual implementation of approved
programmes i.c. developing ten existing rural institutions.
Indi.m National Commission — was established in 1950 for co-ope-
ration with UNESCO. The establishment of National Commission
was a visible symbol of the importance of international exchanges in
the field of culture and of the recognition that the cause of freedom,
peace and progress depends upon the education of younger genera-
tion. This Commission will serve the Government of India in an
Advisory capacity in matter relating to UNESCO. It has three Sub-
Commissions — (1) Education and Social Sciences Sub-Commission,
(2) Science Sub-Commission and (3) Communication Sub-Commis-
sion. Government of India have started a pilot library project in
co-operation with UNESCO. The information and literature which
the Commission needs is supplied by UNESCO. The publications
of the Ministry and other literature are also sent to the Clearing
34
530
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
House of UNESCO. In collaboration with. UNESCO, the Commission
organises various seminers.
National Book Trust — ^The Government has established a
National Book Trust to encourage the production of good literature
at moderate prices.
Sangit Natak Akadami — was linangurated in 1953. The
objective of the Akadami is to preserve our heritage in dance, drama
and music and to enrich the same.
Sahitya Akadami — has been established to work actively for
the development of Indian letters and to set high literary standards to
■foster and co-ordinate literary activities in all Indian languages and
to promote through them, all the cultural unity of India.
Lalit Kala Akadami — has been started in 1954 for the advance-
ment of Indian Art. Its function is to encourage and promote study
■and research in the field of painting, sculpture and applied arts.
Academy of Hindustani & Kamatak Music — ^For the study and
research of Indian music the Ministry of Education -with the help of
State Governments have set-up National Academy of Hindustani MttHo
at Lucknow. It undertakes instruction in northern style of Indian
music. In co-operation with the Madras Government it has started
Kamatak school of music in Madras where southern style of music
is being taught.
University Grants Commission — ^In the field of university educa-
tion, the most important development in India was the establishment
of the University Grants Commission. It was set-up in Nov. 1953,
as recommended by the University Education Coromission.
The primary function of the University Grants Commission is
to take suitable steps for the promotion, development, and co-ordina-
tion of University education and for the determination and main-
tenance of proper standards in teaching examinations and research.
"With this object in view, the Commission has been entrusted with the
allocation of funds to the Universities. The Commission is respon-
sible for guiding the expansion of University education on right lines.
MEDIUM OF INSTBUCTION — ^The question of medium of
instruction in educational institutions especially in schools has always
been a controversial point. In a sub-continent like India not only
are there many languages but people speaking different languages
have settled in the same State. Consequently, in iimumerable cases,
children with different mother tongues go to the same school. The
Government of India, therefore, called a Conference of State educa-
tion ministers to arrive at a tangible decision on this knotty point.
The Conference was held in August 1949. It was unanimously
agreed that the medium of instruction and examination in the jumoi
Basic (Primary) stage must be the mother tongue of the <iild and
where the mother tongue was different from the regional or State
language, arrangements should be made -to impart instruction in
the mother tongue provided there were not less than 40 pupils speak-
ing the same language in the whole school or 10 such pupils in a
class. "I^e regional or State language should, however, be introduced
not earlier than Class HI and not later than the end of the Jumot
Basic stage.
INDIAN EDUCATION
531
The conference also decided that in the Secondary stage, if the
number of pupils whose mother tongue was a language other than
the regional or State language, it was sufficient to justify a separate
school in an area, the medium of instruction of such a school should
he the mother tongue of the pupil. In case of such private societies
they should be entitled to recognition and grants-in-aid from the
State Governments. The regional language should be compulsory
throughout the secondary stage.
As regards the medium of instruction at the university stage,
the University Education Commission have recommended that
English which is at present the medium in most universities should
be replaced as early as practicable by an Indian language. This re-
commendation of the Commission has been approved by the Gov-
ernment of India.
FEDERAL LANGUAGE — The Constitution of India has laid
down that Hindi in Devnagri script should be the official language
of the Union within 15 years. The Ministry of Education has adopt-
ed a 15-year plan which is divided into three stages of five years
each for the propagation of Hindi.
The propagation of Hindi has now become one of the activities
of the Educational Department. A Hindi Shiksha Committee has
been formed consisting of 24 members. To prepare technical terms
in Hindi 19 Terminological Expert Committee have been set up by
the Government. Hindustani Culture Society of Allahabad has been
entrusted to bring out an English-Hindi Dictionary. A sum of
Es. 16,000 has been given to the Nagari Pracharani Sabha for pre-
paring a detailed history of the Hindi language and literature. A
Hindi .encyclopaedia, Gyan Sarovar is also being published. A
number of grants has been made by the Centre to non-Govemment
organisations for the propagation of Hindi. A provisional lists
of technical terms in Hindi have been printed in many subjects.
ACTIVITIES OF THE EDUCATION MINISTRY
(1) Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries — under this head,
the activities of the Education Ministi^ fall broadly into two divi-
sions — (i) Institution of scholarships for the promotion of cultural
contacts and (ii) general cultural activities. Under the first head
may be mentioned the Government of India’s Reciprocal Scholarship
Schemes, Fellowship to French Nationals, Modified Overseas Scholar-
ships Schemes, and the Indo-German Industrial Co-operation Scheme.
During 1954-55 the Government of India instituted the Foreign
Languages Scholarship Scheme for a period of three years in the
^^*’UndCT^*general cultural activities, may he mentioned the Indian
cultural delegation to foreign countries and the visit of foreign cul-
tural delegation to India.
(2) Scholarship for Scheduled Castes and backward tribes was
instituted in 1944-45, Its scope has been widened to include
students of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other backward
classes.
532
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
(3) Central State Scholarship Scheme — ^TMs scheme is lestrict-
ed to students belonging to Centrally administered areas.
(4) General Cultural Scholarship Scheme — In pursuance of the
policy of promoting cultural contacts with other countries, the
Government of India started a scheme for awarding about 70 scholar-
ships every year to students of Indian origin domiciled abroad and
to indigenous students of certain African and Commonwealth
countries.
(5) Indo~German Industrial Co-operation Scheme— Under^ th«
scheme, post-graduate studies at West-German universities and insti-
tutions and for practical training in German industries has been
offered by West Germany. As a reciprocal measure, the Govern-
ment of India offered fellowships to German nations for study in
India.
(6) Public School Scholarships — In 1947, there were_ about 35
public schools in India that were run on the lines of English Public
Schools. In order to make available the benefits of _ Public School
education to poor but able students, the Govt, of India instituted in
1953 a scheme of scholarships tenable at schools that are membera
of the Indian Public Schools. The awards are made on an All-India
basis and are open to all children.
(7) Scholarships for Research in Humanities, Science & Techno-
logy — ^There has been a marked trend among students to shift from
arts to natural sciences. This emphasised the dangers to which
society stood exposed by an unbalanced development of material
knowledge, power and energy with a more or less complete absence
of a widespread influence or Humanities. So Government of India
instituted a scheme in 1953 to award research scholarships on huma-
nities. The scheme envisages the grant of not more than 100 scholar-
ships under Humanities of the value of Rs. 200 per month each.
(8) Publications — some useful and interesting publications
have been brought out by the Education Ministry, such as Archaeo-
logy in India, Facilities for advanced sUtdies abroad, etc. History
of Philosophy ^ (Eastern and Western) were completed. It is pro-
posed to publish a history of the struggle for freedom in India.
(9) Overseas Information Bureau has been started with three
sections, namely, information service, publications and library.
(10) Training Institutions — following are the training insti-
tutions under the Education Ministry — Central Institute of Educa-
tion and Lady Irwin College.
(11) Social Welfare Fellowship — ^under the programme of the
Social Activities Division of the United Nations’ Organisation, fellow-
ships are awarded to Indian candidates to observe social welfare work
overseas.
(12) National Museum is being established at New Delhi where
Hs. 42,24,531 has been given for tbe construction of the building.
The foundation stone of the Museum was laid by the Prime Minister
in May 12, 1955.
(13) National Art Treasures Fund was finalised in 1951 with
the object of purchasing and securing art treasures of India from
India and abroad. It has been created and is maintained by contri-
INDIAN EDUCATION
533
butions from Central and State Governments, from private organi-
sations and individuals.
(14) An Advisory Board of Social Welfare was set up to sanc-
tion grants-in-aid to institutions and associations for social welfare,
to nominate representatives on national bodies for social welfare and
to serve as listen between the Government of India and local Govern-
ments on the one hand and non-official bodies on the other. The
Board co-ordinates social welfare reform intiated by various minis-
tries, State Government and non-official bodies.
(15) Central Hindi Organisation — has been set up under the
Ministry of Education for the development and propagation of Hindi
so that English might be replaced within the stipulated period of
15 years as provided in the Constitution,
(16) In connection with the establishment of the National
Cultural Trust, a scheme of five arts scholarships of the value of
Rs. 3,500 each for the survey of any research in selected local arts
has been initiated in co-operation with State Governments,
(17) A National Academy of Letters known as Sahitya Aka-
dami has been established to work actively for the development of
Indian letters and to set high literary standards to foster and co-
ordinate literary activities in all Indian languages and to promote
through them all the cultural unity of the country.
(18) National Art Gallery of modern art was inavgvrated at
Jaipore House in New Delhi, to stock and display masterpieces of
modem Indian painting.
(19) Youth Welfare Physical Education Section was organised
by the Education Ministry to draw up a programme of youth activities
and co-ordinate the work of various agencies engaged in this field.
Inter-University youth festival is being held every ye.ir. Grants are
being given to parties of students for tours to places of historic,
scenic and cultural interest.
(20) All-India Council of Sports was set up by the Government
and an honorary adviser of games, sports and physical education
appointed. Training camps for sports have been started. Grants
have been made to various Sports Federations.
(21) Publications — ^There is a Publication Section of the Edu-
cation klinistry which brings out publications concerning education
and publishes magazines and statistical datas.
(22) Libraries — Union Government sanctions large sums to
various State Governments for assistance to Stat^ regional and
district libraries. Under the Integrated Library Service Scheme
within compact selected areas Union Government sanctions large
sums to various States to set up circulatory book service for Com-
munity Centres and other libraries within select areas.
(23) Financial Assistance to Eminent Writers — financial assist-
ance are being given to writers in their indigent circumstances.
Literary persons are granted monthly allowances ranging from
Rs. 60 to 150 per month.
534
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Students in Recognised Institutions in India
(7m thotisands)
College Education 1953-5U
Intermediate 328
B. A., B. Sc. 124
M. A., M. Sc. 20
Researcli _ 2
Professional & Special 120
Total 594
School Education
1953-5J^
Pre-primary
43
Primary
21,382
Secondary
5,922
Professional & Special
1,606
Total
28,953
Number of Educational Institutions
{All types — 1953~51f)
No. of Institutions 3^1,405 Direct Expenditure
No. of Students (lakhs) 295.35 (crores of Rs.) 121.05
Total ^penditure Indirect Expenditure
(Crores of Rs.) 149,40 (crores of Rs.) 28,35
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Govt. Industrial Museum, Cal.
■Victoria Memorial Hail, Calcutta.
Royal Asiatic Society (1844),
Calcutta.
Bangiya Sahitya Parisad, Cal.
Ashutosh Museum, (Cal. Univ.).
Natural History Museum, Dar-
jeeling.
Malda Museum, Malda.
Patna Museum, Patna.
State Museum, Lucknow (1863)
ArchEeological Museum, Samath.
Curzon Museum, Mathma (1875).
Albert Museum, Jaipur.
State Museum, Udaipur.
State Museum, Baroda.
Rajasthan Museum, Ajmer.
State Museum, Hyderabad.
Prince of "Wales Museum, Bom.
Central Museum, Nagpur (1863).
Govt. Museum, Madras.
Mysore Govt. Museum, Bangalore.
(1865).
Archseological Museum, Gwalior.
State Museum, Bikaner.
National Archives of India, New
Delhi.
Port St. George Museum, Madras.
Indore Museum, Indore.
Sardar Museum, Jodhpur.
Jardine Museum (1919), Kha-
juraho.
Palace Collection, Aundh._
Archaeological Museum, Himmat-
nagar (Idar).
St. Xavier’s College Museum,
Bombay.
Puddukottai Museum, Puddu—
kottai.
State Museum, Trichur, Cochin.
Junagadh Museum, Junagadh.
Nawanagar Museum, Jamnagar
Victoria Jubilee Museum, Bez-
wada.
Archaeological Museum, Bijapur.
Trichur Museum, Trichur.
Archaeological Museum, Nagar-
junakonda.
Taj Museum, Agra.
State Museum, Bhuvaneswar.
Museum of Archeology, Sanchi.
Central Asian Antiquities Muse-
um, New Delhi.
Red Port Museum, Delhi.
National Museum, New Delhi.
Archseological Museum, Nalanda.
Museum, Vijayawada.
Museum, Dhar.
Museum, Kolhapur.
INDIAN EDUCATION
535
Museum, Padmanabhapuram. Kondapur Museum, Kondapur
Museum, Rewa. (Hyderabad).
Museum of Bharata Itihasa Sanchi Museum (1919), Sanchi.
Samsodhaba Mandal, Poona. Trivandrum Museum, Trivandrum.
Museum of Tbeosopbical College, 'Khicbing Museum, Mayurbbanj.
Madanapalle. State Museum, Gauhati.
Kausambi Museum, All. Univ., Municipal Museum, Allahabad.
Allahabad. Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba.
Vaisali Museum, Vaisali. Faizabad Museum, Faizabad.
Gaya Museum, Goya. Bharat Kala Bhawan, Banaras.
Rajaraia Museum in Brihadis- Sri Pratap Singh Museum,
vara Temple, Tanjore. srinagar (1886).
Museum of Srirangam Temple. Watson Museum, Rajkot.
Museum of Minakshi Temple, Barton Museum, Bhavnagar.
Madurai. Sir Salarjang Museum,
Saranath Museum, Saranath Hyderabad.
Amaravati Museum, Amaravati
(Andhra).
VICE-CHANCELLORS OF UNIVERSITIES
Name
Calcutta (1867)
Bombay (1857)
Madras (1852)
Allahabad (1886) .. -
' Lucknow (1920)
Nagpur (1923)
Patna (1927)
Bihar University (1952)
Aligarh Muslim (1920)
Delhi (1922)
Agra (1927)
Banaras Hindu (1916)
Andhra (1926)
Annamalai, Chidambaram (1929)
Mysore (1916)
Osmania, Hyderabad (1918)
Travancore (1938)
Utkal University (1944)
Jammu & Kashmir Univ. (1949)
SaugoT, M.P. (1946) _ -
Jamia Millia Islamia (Muslim
National Univ.), Delhi (1921)
Rajputana Univ., Jaipur (1947)^
Ind. Women’s University (1902)
Poona. .
Gauhati University (1948)
Bisvabharati (1921)
Vice-Chancellors
N. K, Siddhanta.
T. M. Advani.
Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami
Mudaliar.
Bhairon Nath Jha.
Acharya Jugal Kishore.
K. T. Mangalamurti.
S. N. Sahay.
Cor. B. H. Zaidi.
Dr. Zakir Hussain.
Dr. G. S. Mahajani.
K. P. Bhatnagar.
Dr. V.S. Jha.
Dr. V. S. Krishna.
T. M. Narayanaswami Pillai.
Dr. K. V. Puttappa.
Dr. S. Bhagavantam.
Sir A. Ramaswami Mudaliar.
Dr. Prankrushna Parija.
Janaki Nath Wazir.
Dr. Ram Prasad Tripathi,
M. Mujeed.
G. C. Chatterjee.
K. hi. Jhavari. _
Sri K. K. Handique.
S. N. Bose.
686
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Madhya Bharat University (In-
dore) (1948)
Punjab University, Simla (1947)
Karnataka University (1948)
Baroda University
Gujarat University (1949)
Poona University (1949)
University of Engineering, Roorkee
(1949) ..
Sri Venkatswara University,
Andhra (1954) •.
Jadavpur University (1955) ..
Gorakhpur University (1956)
Dewan Anand Kumar.
D. C. Pavate.
Mrs. Hansa Mehta.
Harishad Devitia.
Dr. M. R. Jayakar.
A. N. Khosla.
S. Govindarajulu Naidu.
Dr. B. C. Boy, (President).
B. N. Jha. ■
UNIVERSITIES OF INDIA
Agra University, Agra : founded 1927 : Type Affiliating ;
Jurisdiction Uttar Pradesh (excluding areas of Aligarh, Allahabad,
Banaras and Lucknow Universities), Ajmer, Bhopal, Madhya Bharat
and Vindhya Pradesh ; Affiliated Colleges 63. Medium of Instruc-
tion ; English and Hindi in B.A. and B.Com., English in others.
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh : founded 1921 : Type
Residential and Teaching ; Jurisdiction within a redius of 15 miles
from the University Mosque ; Teaching Departments 26 ; Co-Mti-
tuent College 1. Medium of Instruction ; Urdu in Unani Medicine
and Sxirgery, English in others.
Allahabad University, Allahabad : founded 1887 ; reconstitu-
tion 1921 ; Type Residential and Teaching ; Jurisdiction within a
radius of 10 miles from the University ; Teaching Departments 19 ;
Constituent Colleges 3. Medium of Instruction : English and Hindi
in B.A., B.Sc., and B.Com., English' in others.
Andhra University, Waltair : founded 1926 ; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Andhra State (excluding area of Sri _Ven-
kateswara University) ; University Colleges 31 ; Recognised Oriental
Colleges 10. Medium of Instruction : English.
Annamalai University, Annamalainagar : founded 1929 ; Type
Residential and Teaching ; Jurisdiction within a radus of 10 miles
from the University. Teaching Departments 19. Medium of Instruc-
tion : English.
Banaras Hindu University, Banaras ; founded 1916 ; Type Resi-
dential and Teaching ; Jurisdiction within a radius of 15 miles from
the main Temple of the University ; Constituent Colleges 14 ; Aff^
Hated Colleges 5. Lledium of Instruction : English and Hindi in
lA.., I.Sc., I. Com., B. Com, English in others.
Baroda University, Baroda : founded 1949 ; Type Residential and
Teaching ; Jurisdiction within a radius of 10 miles from the Univer-
sity office ; Constituent College 1 ; Affiliated College 1. Medium of
Instruction : English.
Bihar University, Patna: founded 1952; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Bihar (except Patna Corporation area) ;
Teaching Departments 7 ; Co'nstituent Colleges 2 ; Affiliated Colleges
INDIAN EDUCATION
537
38. Medium of Instruction : Hindi in Intermediate B.A., BHc., and
B. Com., English in others.
Bombay University, Bombay ; founded 1857 ; Year of recons-
^iction 1928, 1953; Type Teaching and Federal; Jurisdiction greater
Bombay ; Affiliated Colleges 26 ; Teaching Departments 3. Medium
of Instruction : English.
Calcutta University, Calcutta : founded 1857 ; Year of recons-
truction 1951 ; Type Teaching & Affiliating ; Jurisdiction West Bengal
(excepting area of Biswavarati and Tripura) ; Teaching Departments
35 ; Affiliated Colleges 101 ; Recognised Institution 1. Medium of
Instruction ; English.
Delhi University, Delhi : founded 1922 ; Year of reconstruction
1952 ; Type Teaching and Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Delhi State ;
Teaching Departments 17 ; Constituent Colleges 18 ; Affiliated
College 1. Medium of Instruction : English.
Gauhati University, Gauhati : founded 1948 ; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Assam and Manipur ; Teaching Depart-
ments 11 ; Constituent College 1 ; Affiliated Colleges 21. Medium of
Instruction : English,
Gujarat University, Ahmcdabad ; founded 1950 ; Type Teaching
& Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Saurashtra and Districts of Ahmedabad,
Amreli, Banas-Kantha, Baroda (excluding the area of Baroda Uni-
versity), Broach, Kaira, Mehsana, Panch Mahals, Sabar Kanths and
Surat ; Affiliated Colleges 26. Medium ,of Instruction : English.
Jammu & Kashmir University, Srinagar ; founded 1948 ; Type
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Jammu & Kashmir State ; Affiliated
Colleges 13. Medium of Instruction ; English.
Jadavpur University, Jadavp'ur Calcutta : founded 1908 ; start-
ed as Statutory University in 1965 ; Type Residential and Teaching.
Karnatak University, Dharvrar : founded 1950 ; Type Teaching
and Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, Dhanvar
and Karwar in Bombay State ; Teaching Departments 6 ; Affiliated
Colleges 15. Medium of Instruction ; English.
Lucknow University, Lucknow ; founded 1921 ; Type Residential
and Teaching ; Jurisdiction within a radius of 10 miles from the Uni-
varsity. Teaching Departments 38 ; Constituent Colleges 6. Medium
of Instruction : Hindi in B.A., B.Sc., B. Com., English in others.
Madras University, Madras : founded 1857 ; years of reconstruc-
tion 1904, 1923 ; 1929 ; Type Teaching and Affiliating ; Jurisdiction
States of Madras (except area of Annamalai University) and Coorg ;
Teaching Departments 25 ; Constituent Colleges 21 ; Affiliated
Colleges 68 ; Approved College 1 ; Recognised Oriental Colleges 26.
Medium of Instruction : English.
Mysore University, Mysore : founded 1916 ; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jtirisdiction Mysore State ; Affiliated Colleges 14, Me-
dium of Instruction : English. „ , .
Nagpur University, Nagpur : founded 1923 ; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Districts of Akola, Amaravati, Bhandara,
Buldhana, Chanda, Nagpur, Yeotmal and Wardha in Madhya Pradesh;
Teaching Departments 6; Constituent Colleges 3; Affiliated
588
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Colleges 18. Medium of Instruction *. Hindi or Marathi upto the
Bachelor’s Degree Stage ; English in others.
Osmania University, Hyderabad : founded, 1918 ; Type Resi-
dential and Teaching ; Jurisdiction Hyderabad State ; XJniversxty
Colleges 25 ; (7 of them affiliated). Medium of Instruction :
English or Hindustani.
Punjab University, Solan (Simla Hills) faulted 1947 ; Typo
Teaching and Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Punjab, Himachal Pradesm
Bilaspur, PEPSU ; Teaching Departments 17 ; Constituent Colleges.
4 ; Affiliated Colleges 72. Medium of Instruction ; English.
Patna University, Patna : founded 1917 ; Year of reconstruction
1952 ; Type Residential and Teaching ; Jurisdiction Patna Corpora-
tion area ; Teaching Departments 26 ; Constituent Colleges 10. Me-
dium of Instruction ; English.
Poona University, Poona : founded 1948 ; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Districts of Ahmednagar, East^ Elhandesh,
Kolaba, Kolhapur, Nasik, North Satara, Poona, Ratnagiri, Sholapur,
South Satara, Thana and West Khandesh in Bombay State ; Consti-
tuent Colleges 11 ; Affiliated Colleges 15 ; Teaching Departments 12.
Medium of Instruction : English.
Rajputana University, Jaipur: founded 1947 ; Type Teaching
and Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Rajasthan State ; Teaching Departments^
5 ; Affiliated Colleges 44. Medium of Instruction : English and Hindi
for I.A., B.A., 1. Com., and B. Com., English in others.
Roorkec University, Rootkee : founded 1948 ; Type Residential,
and Teaching ; Jurisdiction not defined ; Teaching Departments 3.
Medium of Instruction : English.
Sagar University, Sugar ; fotmded 1946 ; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Districts of Balaghat, Betul, Bilaspur,'
Ghindwara, Drug, Hoshangabad, Jabalpur, Mandla, Nimar, Raipur,
and Sugar in Madhya Pradesh; Affiliated Colleges 21; Teaching.
Departments 17. Medium of Instruction : English in B.VJSc. ; B.E.
(Hotis.) ; M,A., M.Sc., M. Com ; Hindi in others.
S. N, D. T. Women’s University, Bombay: Started 1916 ; founded
as Statutory University 1951 ; Type Affiliating ; Jurisdiction not
defined Constituent Colleges 2 ; Affiliated College 4. Medium of
Instruction : A Modern Indian Language.
_Sti Venkateswara University, Tirupati : founded 1954 ; Type
Residential and Teaching ; Jurisdiction vrithin a radius of ten miles
from Tirumalai, Tirupati ; Teaching Depts. 6. Medium of Instruc-
tion : English.
Travancore University, Trivandrum : founded 1937 ; Type
Teaching and Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Travancore-Cochin ; Teaching
Department. 1 ; University Colleges 11 ; Affiliated Colleges 29.
_Ut_kal University, Cuttack : founded 1943; Type Teaching and
Affiliating ; Jurisdiction Orissa ; Teaching Departments 2 ; Affiliated
Colleges 16. Medium of Instruction : English.
INDIAN EDUCATION
539
Biswavarati University, Santineketan : founded in 1921 ;
founded as Statutory University 1951 ; Type Residential and T^cn-
ing ; Jurisdiction Santineketan Area in Birbhum District of West
Bengal ; Constituent Colleges 6 ; Teaching Department 1. Medium
of Instraction : English.
SCIENTIFIC, RESEARCH INSTITUTES & LABORATORIES
Ahmedabad Textile Industry’s Research Association, Naurangpura,
Ahmedabad.
Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Sabour, Bhagalpitt._ .
B.C.G. Laboratory, King Institute of Preventive Medicine, Guinuy,
Madras. i
Bengal Immunity Research Institute, 39, Lower Circular Rd., Calcutta.
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknoi^ j i
Bose Research Institute, 93/1, Upper Circular Road, Calcutta.
Botanical Survey of India, Royal Botanical Garden, Sibpur, Howran.
Central Building Research Institute, Roorkea
Central Coconut Research Station, Kasaragod, S. Kanara, Maoras.
Central Coconut Research Station, Kayangulam.
Central Drugs Laboratory, 110, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta.
Central Drugs Research Institute, Lucknow. rrMarro
Central Electro-Chemical Research Institute, Allagappa college,
Karaikudi.
Central Sugarcane Research Station, Pusa.
Central Leather Research Institute, P.O. Saidapet, Madras.
Central Food Technological Research Institute,
Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute, Calcum.
^ntral Inland Fisheries Research Station, 47 / 1 . Strand Rd. Calcu^
Central Laboratories for Scientific & Industrial Research, P.O, Jumai
Osmania, Hyderabad. ,, ,
Central Marine Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam, Madras.
Central Potato Research Institute, Patna.
Central Research Institute, Kasauli. PiUnTii
Central Electronics Engineering Research Medicine
Central Institute for Research in Indigenous Systems .
Centemvestock Research & Breeding Station, Haringhata, Nadia.
Central Road Research Institute, P.O. Okhla, New De
Central Salt Research Station, Bhavnagar. Rpn«il
Central Sericultural Research Station, Bertempt^, • o
Central Vegetable Breeding Station, Kulu, Punjao.
Central Water & Power Research Station, Poona. „ ,
Deep Sea Fishing Station, Sir Pheroze Shah Rd., B y.
Drug Research Laboratory (Govt.), Jammu.
Forest Research Institute, Debra Dun. .Ip-o
Forest Research Laboratory, Mallaswaram, Bangai
Fuel Research Institute, P.O, Jealgora, rMcutta.
Geological Survey of India, 27, ChoTOnghee Road, Calcutta.
Government Cottage Industries Institute, Patna.
Government Silk Institute, Bhagalpur.
540
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Government Textile Institute, Kanpur.
Haffkine Institute, Parel, Bombay.
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpnr, Calcutta.
Indian Cancer Research Centre, Bombay.
Indian Dairy Research Institute, Bangalore.
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Indian Central Cotton Committee Technological Laboratory, Bombay.
Indian Institute for Medical Research, Calcutta.
Indian Lac Research Institute, Ranchi.
Indian Meteorological Department, New DelhL
Institute of Nuclear Physics, 92, Upper Circular Road, Calcutta.
Institute of Plant Industry, Indore.
Ionospheric Research Station, Haringhatta, Calcutta.
Jute Agricultaral Research Institute (Central Jute Committee),
Barrackpur.
Jiwanji Industrial Research Laboratory (Govt.), Gwaliar.
Jute Technological Research Laboratoiy, Tolly^nj, Calcutta.
Maharashtra Association for Cultivation of Science, Poona.
Malaria Institute of India, Delhi.
National Chemical Laboratory, Poona.
National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur.
National Physical Laboratory, Hillside Road, New DelhL
Nutrition Research Laboratories, Goonor (Madras).
Pasteur Institute & Medical Research Institute, Shillong.
Pasteur Institute of Southern India, Coonoor.
Pasteur Institute, Patna.
Pathological Laboratories, Sir Pheroze Shah Road, Bombay.
Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.
Raman Research Institute, Habbal, P.O. Bangalore.
River Research Institute, Anderson House, .flJipur, Calcutta.
Eeseach Ovservatory, Gulmarg, Kashmir.
Sri Ram Institute of Industrial Research, Civil Lines, Delhi.
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, Madras.
Sugarcane Research Station, Shahjehanpur.
Taraporawala Aquarium & Marine Biological Research Station
(Govt.), Bombay.
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, AppoUo Pier Rd., Bombay.
Tocklai Experimental Station (Tea), Cinnamara P.O. (Assam).
Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta.
HUMANISTIC INSTITUTIONS
Andhra
Vankateswara Research Institute, Timpati.
Assam
Dept, of Historical & Antiquarian Studies, GauhatL
Bihar
Hindi Vidya Pith, Deoghar.
K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna.
Jlandar Vidya Pith, Bhagalpur.
Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies & Research in Sanv
krit Learning, Darhhanga.
INDIAN EDUCATION
641
NalatiJa Pali Institute, Nalanda, Patna,
Vaishali Prakrit Institute, Muzaffarpur.
Bombay^
Anjuman-i-Islam Urdu Research Institute, Hornby Road, Bombay.
Anthropological Society of Bombay, 136, Appollo St., Bombay,
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona.
Bharatiya Itihasa Samshodhaka Mandala, Sadasiv Peth, Poona,
Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Chowpetty, Bombay.
J, B. Institute of Learning & Research, Bhadra, Ahmedabad.
B. M. Institute of Child Development, Pharmacy College, Nava-
rangpura, Ahmedabad.
D. A. Memorial Institute, Poona.
Dharmakosha Mandal, Wai, Dt. North Satara.
Deccan College of Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Poona,
Gokhale Institute of Politics & Economics, Poona.
Gujarat Research Society, Bombay.
Indian Institute of Education, 11, Homiman Circle, Bombay.
Indian Institute of Philosophy, Amalner, E. Khandesh.
K. R. Cama Oriental Institute, 136, Apollo St., Fort, Bombay.
Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar.
Marathi Sanshodhan Mandal, Thakurdwar, Bombay.
Raj-wada Samshodhan Mandal, Dhulia.
Sheth Bholabhai Jeshingbhai Institute of Learning and Research,
Bhadra, Ahmedabad.
Shri Forbes Gujarati Sabha, Bombay.
Sri G. K. Institute of Rural Education, Gargoti, Kolhapur.
Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay.
Vaidika Samshodhan Mandal, Poona.
Vachana Mantapa (Kannada Research Institute), Belgaum.
Delhi
Department of Archaeology, New Delhi.
National Archives of India, New Delhi.
Madhya Bharat
Scindia Research Institute, Ujjain.
Madras
Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Mylapore, Madras.
Mysore
Oriental Research Institute, Mysore.
Punjab
Vishveshwaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur.
Rajasthan
Rajasthan Vishya Vidya Pith, Udaipur.
Uttar Pradesh
Bureau of Psychology, Allahabad.
Ganganath Jha Research Institute, Allahabad.
B'cst Bengal
Bangiya Sahitya Parisad, 243/1, Upper Circular Rpad, Calcutta.
Dept, of Anthropology, Indian Museum, 27, Chowringhee, Cal.
Asiatic Society, 1, Park Street, Calcutta.
S42
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
FIRST DEGREE COURSE IN ENGINEERING'S
TECHNOLOGY
Andhra University , „ „ „
J.D.V. College of Science & Technology, Waltaix ; B.Sc. Hons.
(Chemi., Tech.). _ -m -r j.
University College of Engineering, Waltair : B.E. (Cml, Elect,
and Mech.).
College of Engineering, Anantapur : B. E. (Mech.).
College of Engineering, Kakinada : B, E. (Civil, Elect, and
Mech.).
Bihar University
Bihar Institute of Technology, Sindri ; B.Sc, (Engg.).
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra (Ranchi) ; B. E. (Elect. &
Mech.).
Indian School of Mines and Applied Geology, Dhanbad : Diploma
in Mining and Applied Geology.
Tirhut College of Engineering, Muzaffarpur : B. E. (Civil),
Patna University
Bihar College of Engineering, Patna ; B. E. (Civil, Elect. &
Mech.).
Baroda University
Faculty of Technology {including Engg.), Baroda : B. E, (Civil,
Elect, and Mech.).
Bombay University
Department of Chemical Technology, Bombay : B.Sc. (Tech.),
B. Chemi. Engg., B.Sc. (Tech.).
Sir J. J, School of Art, Hornby Road, Bombay ; B. Arch, r
Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute, Matunga, Bombay : B.E.
(Civil & Elect,, Mech., B. Text).
Gujarat University
Birla Vishwakarma Mahavidyalaya, Vallabh Vidyanagar ; B.E.
Engineering College, Ahmedabad : B.E.
Kamatak University
B. V. B. College of Engineering & Technology, Hubli : B.E.
(Civil).
Poona University
College of Engineering, Poona ; B.E.
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli : B.E.
Madhya Pradesh
Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Nagpur : B.Sc. (Tech.).
•Saugor University
Government Engineering College, Jabalpur : B.E, (Hons.).
Aimamalai University
Dept, of Engineering & Technology, Annamatai Vniv., Arma-
. malainagar : B.E. (Civil, Elect. & Mech.).
Madras University
Dept, of Technology (Dr. Alagappa Ckettier College of Techno-
logy) Madras University, Madras ; B.Sc. (Tech.).
College of Engineering, Guindy, Madras : B.E. (Civil, Elect.
Mech., Highways and Telecommunication),
INDIAN EDUCATION 543
Alagappa Chattier College of Engineering & Technology, ICarai-
kudi : B.Sc. (Civil, Elect, and Mech.).
Govt. College of Technology, Coimbatore ; B.E. (Civil, Elect. &
Mech.).
P. S. G. and Sons Charities College of Technology, Peelamedu,
Coimbatore : B.E. (Civil, Elect. & Mech.).
Punjab University
Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh : B.E. (Civil, Elect. &
Mech.).
Technological Institute of Textiles, Bhiwani : B.Sc. (Text.).
Agra University
Engineering College, Dayalbagh, Agra : B.E. (Elect. & Mech.).
Aligarh JIuslim University
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh : B.Sc. (Civil, Elect, &
Mech.).
Allahabad University
Agricidtural Institute, Allahabad : B.Sc. (Agri. Engg,).
Banaras Hindu University
College of Mining & Metallurgy, Banaras : B.Sc. (Min. & Met.).
College of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras :
(Chemi. Engg. & Silicate Tech,).
Engineering College, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras ; B.E.
(Civil & Municipal, Elect, & Mech.).
Roorkce University
Roorkee University, Eoorkee ; B.E. (Civil, Elect. & Mech.).
Calcutta University
Bengal Engineering^ College, Sibpur, Howrah : B.E. (Civil Elect.
Mech., Met. & Mining).
. Jadavpur University
College of Engineering & Technology, Jadavpur, Calcutta ; B.E.
(Elect. & Mech.).
Osmania Uiuversity
College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad : B. E,
(Civil, Elect. & Mech.).
University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad ;
‘B. Chemi., Tech. & B. Chemi. Engg.).
Mysore University
B, M. Srccnivasiah College of Engineering, Bangalore : B.E.
(Civil, Elect. & Mech.).
College of Engineering, Bangalore : B.E. (Civil, Elect., & Mech.).
College of Engineering, Davengere ; B.E. (Civil).
Sri Krishnarajendra Silver Jubilee- Technological Institute,
Bangalore : B.Sc. (Text.).
National Institute of Engineering, Mysore: B.E. (Civil).
Rajputana University
Birltt College of Engineering, Pilani : B.E. (Mech., Elect,).
M. B. M. Engineering College, Jodhpur ; B.E. (Civil). •
544
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Saurashtra UniTersity
Lukhdhirji Engineering College, Morvi : B.E. (Civil, Elect,, &
^ Mech.).
Travancore University
College of Engineering, Trivandrum : B.E. (Civil, Elect., and
Mech.).
Delhi University
Delhi Polytechnic, Delhi : B.E. (Civil, Elect, and Mech. Test. &.
B. Arch.).
Non-AfSIiated Institutes
Harcoiirt Butler Technological Institute, Kanpur : Associate-
ship of H. B. T. and Fellowship of H. B. T. I. '
Indian Institute of Sugar Technology, Kanpur : Associateship
of I.I.S.T. and Fellowship of I.I.S.T.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur : B.Sc. Tech. (Hons.),
Civil, Elect., Mech., Agri. Engg., Architecture, Naval Architec-
ture.
DO YOU KNOTV
That India produced 889 lakh maunds of salt in 1956 and is now
exporting quite large quantities to Japan and other countries?
* *
That the telephone industry is now producing l,t)00 telephones and
750 Exchange lines per week?
» * *
That there are now 5,000 telegraph offices in India, which handle
nearly 3 crore messages each year?
* * *
That in the last five years, the annual consumption of ghee and
oil per person has increased from 10.5 lbs to 11.5 lbs ?
ART & LITERATURE IN INDIA
Since Independence, the Government of India and the State Gov-
ernments have been devoting considerable attention to the develop-
ment of art and culture. The Central Government have established
three Academies : (1) Sahitya Akadami, (2) Sangit Natak Akadami
and (3) Lalit Kala Akadami for the furtherance of this cause.
SAHITYA AKADAMI
Sahitya Akadami or the National Academy of Letters was for-
mally inaugurated by the Government of India on 12th March, 1954.
The Government of India Resolution which set forth the constitution
of the Akademi described it as “a National organisation to work
actively for the development of Indian letters and to set high lite-
rary standards, to foster and co-ordinate literary activities in all
the Indian languages and to promote through them all the cultural
unity of the country.” Though set up by the Government, the Aka-
dami is to function as an autonomous organisation.
The President of the Akadami is Shri Jawaharlal Nehru and
Vice-President Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. The supreme authority of the
Akadami vests in the General Council which consists of 67 members,
made up as follows : The President the Treasurer, five persons
nominated by the Government of India of whom one shall be a repre-
sentative of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and one of
the National Book Trust, one person from each of the following 13
States ; Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal and one from the State of Jammu & Kashmir;
fourteen representatives of the fourteen languages enumerated in the
constitution of India, twenty representatives of the universities of
India ; eight persons nominated by the Government of India for their
eminence in the field of letters and two representatives each of thd
Academy of Dance, Drama and Music and the Academy of Art.
The immediate programme of the Akadami as laid down by the
General Council for implementation consists of the following :
1. The Akadami will publish a national bibliography of contem-
porary works of literary merit in Indian languages.
2. The Akademi will sponsor publication of anthologies of
select contemporary writings in the various Indian languages.
3. The Akademi will sponsor publication of standard works on
the history and development of modem Indian literatures.
4. The Akadami will sponsor a scheme by which books of real
merit and wide appeal in any Indian language are made available
in translation in other Indian languages as well.
6. The Akadami will select ten best books in each Indian lan-
guage with a view to their being ultimately sponsored for transla-
tion in other Indian languages. ,
35
546
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
6. The Akadami will publish a Quarterly Bulletin giving fac-
tual record of the Akadami’s activities as well as a factual survey
of works of literary merit in the various Indian languages published
during the period under review.
7. The Akadami will inquire into the difficulties experienced by
Indian writers in getting their books published or translated and
will suggest measures for helping them.
8. The Akadami will co-operate with the Indian National
Commission for UNESCO in furtherance of the UNESCO scheme for
translating and publishing selected Indian classics into foreign
languages and foreign classics into Indian languages.
9. The Akadami may give awards to outstanding books publish-
ed in Indian languages.
10. The Akadami will ,set up Advisory Boards consisting of
eminent writers and experts in each Indian lang:uage so that their
advice may be constantly available to the Akademi in the execution
of the above programme.
Address of the Akadami : 74, Theatre Communications Building,
Connaught Circus, New DelM.
Current Programme — ^The Akadami has proposed to undertake
the task of compiling the following —
(1) Bibliography of books of literary character in all the major
languages including English (limited to books written by Indians or
published in India).
(2) Critical Edition of Kalidas’s work.
(3) Anthology of Sanskrit literature.
(4) Anthologies of Indian Poetry.
(5) Bharatiya Kavita, 1953 ; the second volume covering the
years 1954 and 1955 is under preparation.
(6) Histories of Literature — ^Histories of regional languages
•will Ije published.
(7) Whos’ Who in Indian Literature — ^A comprehensive whos’
who of Indian Writers in all Indian languages is under preparation.
(8) Indian classics for translation into foreign lan^ages — At
the request of UNESCO, the Akadami has selected 29 Indian classics
for recommendation to unesco.
(9) Selections from Adi Granth — At the request of unesco, the
Akadami imdertook to select and get translated into English about
500 hymns from Adi Granth for publication by Unesco.
(10) Selection from Kamba Ramayana — Rajagopalachari’s
English rendering from Tamil classic, Kamba Ramayana has been
sent to Unesco for publication.
(11) Translation of foreign classics into Indian languages — one
hundred foreign classics to be selected for translation into the major
Indian languages.
(12) Russian-Hindi Dictionary is being published by the Sahitya
Academy at the request of the External Affairs Ministry.
(13) Symposium on Contemporary Indian Literature — ^A smaU
readable volume surveying the present position of literature in the
major Indian languages is being published in English.
ART AND LITERATURE IN INDIA 547
(13) Exhibition of Books — Sahitya Academy is organising an
exhibition of books published in Indian languages.
(14) Buddha Jayanti — ^The Marathi classic “Bhagwan Buddha”
by Dhamananda Kosambi is being translated into all other Indian
languages as the Sahitya Alcadami’s offering to the memory of the
Buddha,
(15) _ Awards— Awards of Rs. 5,000 each is given for the most
outstanding book in each of the fourteen major languages during
three years.
(10) Tagore Centenary — The 100th anniversary of the birth of
Tagore will fall in 1961 — various suggestions are being made by the
Akadami for nationv/ide celebrations.
(19) An exhaustive bibliography of the works of Rabindranath
Tagore is under preparation on behalf of the Akadami by Pulinbehari
Sen of Bisvabharati.
SANGIT NATAK AlfADAftll
An Indian Academy of Dance, Drama and Music, to be called
“Sangit Natak Akadami,” has been constituted by the Ministry of
Education in Jan. 1953. The chief objective of the Akadami is to
foster and develop Indian dance, drama (including films and music)
and to promote through them the cultural unity of India.
Organisation and function ; — The Acadami shall have the
following powers and functions, namely : —
(i) to co-ordinate the activities of regional or State Akadamies
of dance, drama and/or music ;
(11) to promote research in the fields of Indian dance, drama
and music & for this purpose, to establish a library and museum ;
(iii) to co-operate with such similar academies as there may
be and other institutions and associations for the furtherance of its
objects and for the enrichment of Indain culture as a whole ;
(iv) to encourage the exchange of ideas and enrichment of
techniques between the different regions in regard to the arts of
dance, drama and music ;
(v) to encourage, where necessary, the establishment of
theatre centres, on the basis of regional languages, and co-operation
among different theatre centres ;
(vi) to encourage the setting up of institutions providing train-
ing in the art of theatre, including instruction in actor’s training,
study of stage-craft and production of plays ;
(vii) to encourage and assist production of new plays by
awarding prizes and distinctions ;
(viii) to publish literature on Indian dance, drama and music
including reference works such as an illustrated dictionary or hand-
book of technical terms ;
(ix) to give recognition and otherwise assist meritorious
theatrical organisations, where there are no State or regional orga-
nisations ;
(x) to encourage the development of amateur dramatic acti-
vity, the children’s theatre, the open air theatre and the rural theatre
in its various forms ;
548 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
(xi) to revive and preserve folk dance and'folk music in diffe-
rent regions of the country and to encourage the development of
community music, martial music etc. ;
(xii) to sponsor dance, drama and music festivals on aU-India
basis, and to encourage regional festivals ;
(xiii) to award prizes and distinctions and to give recognition
to individual artists for outstanding achievement in the fields of
dance, drama and music ;
(xiv) to promote cultural exchanges in the fields of dance,
drama and music with other countries ;
(xv) in furtherance of its objects, to purchase land, own pro-
perty in its various forms and to maintain, sell, mortgage or other-
wise dispose of it ; and
(xvi) to do all such other acts and things, whether incidental
to the powers aforesaid or not, as may be required in order to further
the objects of the Akademy.
Present Programme — The main task undertaken by the Akadami
is the establishment of regional acadamies in the States. Akada-
mies have already been formed in Assam, Bhopal, Bihar, Hyderabad,
Madhya Bharat, Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Saurashtra and Rajasthan.
It has accorded recognition to more than 100 institutions and given
generous grants to various organisations.
Akadami holds National Musical Festival every year. A Na-
tional Dance Festival of classical, traditional and modem ballet
dances are being held every year. The Akadami has instituted
awards for films for every year.
Chairman ; Mr. Justice P. V. Rajamannar, Chief Justice, Madras
High Court, Madras-1.
Treasurer : Sri M. S. Bhatnagar, Delhi.
Secretary : Nirmala Joshi.
LALIT KALA AKADAMI
This acadamy was inaugrurated at Delhi on August 5, 1954.
This is a corporate body and would work through a General Council,
an Executive Board, a Finance Committee and any other Committee
or Committees set up by the General Council or Executive Board.
Chairman — Sri D. P. Roychawdhuri.
The primary object of the Lalit Kala Acadami (National Aca-
demy of Art) is to encourage and promote study and research in the
fields of painting, sculpture, architecture and applied arts. It will
also co-ordinate the activities of the regional or State academies,
promote co-operation among art associations, encourage exchange
of ideas between various schools of art, publish literature on art, and
foster national and international contacts through exhibitions, ex-
change of personnel and art objects.
The Akadami’s activities are of a varied nature and fall into
several heads viz., (1) National Exhibition of Art, (2) Exhibitions
from abroad, (3) Indian Art Exhibitions abroad, (4) Survey of
Folk Arts and Crafts, (5_) Copying of frescoes, (6) Publications Pro-
gramme and (7) Recognition and aid to art organisations.
CINEMA IN INDIA
549
National Exhibition of Art — ^This is an annual event of the
Akadami and is one of the most important items of the Akadami's
programmes.
Exhbiition from Acroad — ^The first ever Exhibition to be orga-
nised by the Akadami was an Exhibition of Canadian paintings. This
was followed by the Exhibition of Hungarian Folk Arts and then an
Exhibition of Chinese Handicrafts.
Exhibition of Indian Art Abroad — Art exhibitions and delega-
tions have been already sent to London, Afganistan, Egypt, Turkey,
Iraq, China, Japan, Australia, U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Poland, West Ger-
many, Italy and Yugoslavia.
Survey of Folk Art and Crafts — The Akadami has prepared a
comprehensive programme of surveying of folk arts and crafts in the
various regions of the country.
Publications Programme — Alveary following art publications have
come out — (1) Portfolio of contemporary paintings (2) A set of 12
picture postcards (3) Mughal miniatures (4) Mewar paintings (2)
Krishna Legend.
InstitiUions or Organisations recgnised by the Akadami — (1)
Indian Institute of Architects, Bombay, (2) Art Society, Bombay, (3)
Art society of India, Bombay (4) Sarada Ukil School of Art, New
Delhi, (5) Indian Academy of Fine Arts, Amritsar, (6) All India Fine
Arts and crafts society. New Delhi (7) Academy of Fine Arts, Cal-
cutta, (8) Indian Sculptors’ Association, Bombay, (9) South Indian
Society of Painters, Egmore, Madras, (10) Progressive Association,
Madras, (11) National Art Gallery, Madras, (12) U. P. Artists'
Association, Lucknow, (13) Kala Kendra, Dehra Dun, (14) Hydera-
bad Art Society, Hyderabad, (15) Shilpa Kala Parishad, Patna,
(16) Panjab Lalit Kala Akadami, Slorrvn, Simla, (17) Madhya
Bharat Kala Parishad, Gwalior, (18) Sourashtra Kala Dlandal,
Rajkot.
CINEMA IN INDIA
HISTORY OF THE FILM INDUSTRY— S:nce the day Dada
Saheb Phalke produced the first Indian film Harishchandra in the
year 1912, the cinema industry has been making steady progress in
India. By 1928, production had reached 80 full-length films per year.
The movie gave place to the talkie in the year 1931 'vhen the first In-
dian talking picture Alani Ara was presented to the screen by the Im-
perial Film Co., Bombay. The conversion of the Indian film industry
to sound was more or less complete by 1935- To-day India now
produces 250 to 280 pictures a year and she is the third largest
producer of films in the world, but it must be admitted that this huge
production is not correlated to a high level of creative excellence.
Indian film industry consumes about 200,000,000 feet of raw film
every year and employs about 70,000 people in this industry. Besides,
it has produced a good field for several auxiliary business like publi-
city, make-up etc. Cinema industry occupies eighth place among the
industries of India.
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras are the main centres of film pro-
duction. Over 50 per cent of the pictures are produced in Bombay,
the share of Calcutta and Bladras vary from 20 to 25 per cent. There
are about 65 studios, most of which are located in Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras. The producers in India number 600. About 19 million
feet of raw film valued at over one crore are consumed here annually.
The picture in Hindi generally costs from Rs. 3 to 5 lakljs.
Cost of a Bengali or Marathi film normally does not exceed Rs. one
lakh to Rs. one lakh Twenty-five thousand. There are 3,250 cinema
houses scattered all over India. It is estimated that about 2,000,000
people see cinema every day all over India.
Language difficulties have always been a major problem. But
pictures are generally produced mainly in the following languages
i.e., Hindi, Bengali, Tamo and Telugu, Marathi and Gujarati. Hindi
pictures which have an aU India market, are mostly produced in
Bombay, Bengali films are made in Calcutta, some of which find their
way to East Pakistan where majority of the people speak Bengali.
Madras is turning out Tamil and Telugu pieties for the vast
South Indian markets.
FILM ENQUIRY COMMITTEES— In 1928 first Film Enquiry
Committee was appointed by the Government of India with Dewan
Bahadur T. Rangachari as Chairman. This committee made the
following recommendations — (1) Constitution of All India Board of
Film Censors, (2) Formation of a Central Bureau of Advisory
Committee, (3) Financial aid to producers, (4) Abolition of Import
Duty on raw films, (5) Construction of more theatres, (6) Reduction
of entertainment tax etc.
The second_ Film Enquiry Committee was appointed by the Gov-
ernment of India in 1949 with S. K. Patil as Chairman and the report
was issued on October, 1951.
CINEMA IN INDIA.
651
This Report stated that the industry is not in a position to under-
take reform of its own, evils having crept far too deep into the system
and defects being far too widespread.
The technical elements in the films have improved in standards,
but where intellect and art are involved, the films to-day exhibit
poverty as the themes are stereotyped and plots monotonously uniform
in pattern.
The following are the recommendations of the Committee — (1)
the creation of an autonomous statutory Film Council of India.
The proposed Film Council of India will act as the industry’s
‘friend, philosopher and guide’ and will provide the necessary inspi-
ration to conduct its affairs on healthy and constructive lines. The
Council would set up panels to deal with different activities of the
indust^ as well as research, the manufacture and supply of raw
materials. The statutory nature of the Council will enable it to
intervene effectively in disputes between different branches of the
industry ; in regard to standards of production, however, the Council
should function through the Production Code Administration.
Funds for the Council will be raised mainly through a cess on
raw cinema film imported into or manufactured in this country, ex-
posed cinematographic film from abroad and 10 per cent of the net
income derived from the levy of entertainment tax on the exhibition
of films. The proceeds of the cess will be utilised in research and
training institutions for the industry.
The Council will run institutes for training of film artistes and
technicians. To give a fillip to improved production standards, the
Council will award annual prizes for the best story, best direction,
best review and the best film.
An Educational Panel of the Council will be charged with the
task of encouraging production of educational and children’s films.
(2) Production Code — ^As an adjunct to the Film Council, _ the
Committee recommends the setting up of a Production Code Adminis-
tration. Its Panel of Experts will scrutinise every script and
exercise some control over the production. In particular, the PCA
will have to approve the films for export and will have branches at
Delhi, Madras, Calcutta and Bombay and will be run by the Govern-
ment in the initial stages.
(3) Film Finance Corporation — ^The Film Finance Corporation
proposed by the Committee will have an initial capital of Rs. 10
million subscribed by the State, industry and public. It may borrow
an equal sum, with the approval of the Reserve Bank. “If the film
industry is to be rehabilitated, the Committee sees no escape for
regulated finance being made available to film producers through
the Film Finance Organisation."
(4) Taxation Relief — The adoption of a uniform entertainment
tax tariff at 20 per cent of the gross takings has been stressed as
a dire need by the Committee, with a view to aiding the industry.
It has also proposed a review of other miscellaneous fees, like licence
fees for operation of cinemas and storage of films.
The Committee has recommended placing on O.G.L. raw film
552
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
imports np to 240 million feet per annum. The distribution \rill be
done through film associations.
Prorision has been made for import also of studio equipment up
to Rs. 45,00,000 a year and projection apparatus for replacement and
expansion.
(5) Foreign Markets — ^The Committee believes that in addition
to expanding present overseas markets for Indian films, it might be
possible for them to get into the English-speaking regions. An ex-
port corporation has been envisaged to look after this aspect. _
No unprocessed film is to be allowed to be sent abroad without
approval of the Production Code Administration.
(6) Short Films — In the absence of any regular prospects of
the industry producing and exhibiting ‘approved films’ voluntarily,
the Committee feels that the present system of production and dis-
tribution of shorts and news-reels by Government should be conti-
nued in view of their proved usefulness.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA’S CONTROL— -Department of Infor-
mation and Broadcasting which for many years a part of the Depart-
ment of Home Affairs in the Government of India, has been separated
in 1949 under the control of a separate Minister of State. This
department is now known as Ministry of Information and Broadcast-
ing and controls everything concerning films in India including Films
Division of the Central Government.
FILMS DIVISION — Initially started in 1942 under the name of
Information Fibns of India for keeping the war effort, the organisa-
tion ceased to operate in 1946. It was revived in 1948 by our
National Government. The Film Division which is a branch of the
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting has its head quarters at
Malabar Hill, Bombay. There are two distinct departments of the
Films Division ; one is the documentary section, known as the Docu-
mentary Films of India and the other is the Indian News Review.
The Indian News Review produces one news reel of about 1,000 ft.
every week. The Documentary Section is concerned with the pro-
duction of short films of instructional, cultural and educational value.
The documentaries and news-reels produced by the Film Division
deals with various aspects of Indian life. History, culture, social and
economic progress as well as current events are covered by these
films.
The Division consists of the following five distinct sections — Docu-
mentary Section, Newsreel Section, Distribution Section, Public Rela-
tions Section and Administrative Section. The films are produced
in five languages — English, Hindustani, Tamil, Telegu and Bengali
and are released simultaneously all over India. The exhibition of
these films is made compulsory under a condition in the exhibitors’
license and rental is charged approximately on the basis of 1 p.c.
of the collections of cinemas. The films are produced in Bombay
and are submitted to the Film Advisory Board for approval after
wmch they are censored.
Besides weekly news-reels released in India, a special edition of
selected documentaries are sent to the Indian Missions abroad for
CIl^MA IN INDIA
553
non-commercial exhibition and are also used in television circuits in
U.S. and U.K. Apart from Indian news stories, the weekly news-
reel includes foreign news items as well. These stories are received
in exchange from U.S.A., U.K., Prance, Holland and other countries.
Events in India thus get publicity abroad through the medium of
films and television.
CHILDREN’S FILMS — The Government of India is taking
special interest in the production of films suitable for children. For
this propose Children’s Film Society has been registered with the
Government patronage. The policy of subsidising children’s films
produced in India is also a part of the developmental programme, for
which money is being paid to the producers for the production of
children’s films.
FILM ADVISORY BOARD — Government of India have cons-
tituted in 1949 a Film Advisory Board to advise the Film Division of
the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. This body has been
formed to recommend documentaries and newsreels produced by
the Films Division and by the other private producers for certifying
them as “approved films’’ which are required to be shown at every
performance by each and every exhibitor in the country. The
F.A.B. also acts as an advisory body to the Films Division as regard
matters connected with the production of documentaries.
NATIONAL FILM BOARD — A bill for the constitution of the
National Film Board has been introduced in the Parliament in
1956. The bill provides for the constitution of a National Film
Board for the purpose of promoting the development of films as a
medium of culture, education and healthy entertainment and for the
regulation of exhibitions fay means of cinematograph. The Film
Board is to have three constituent units — Film Certification Bureau,
Film Production Bureau and the Film Institute. Film Certification
Bureau will take over the work of the present censorship
organisation. Film Production Bureau will be a new unit and is in-
tended for giving on a voluntary basis, advice and assistance in
matters connected with the production of films. It will scrutinise
scripts and give advice about them to the producer. The Film
Institute will not only impart technical training in various aspects
of film production but also conduct research. The’ Film Institute
will cost Rs. 30 lakhs spread over a four-year period and will give
training not only in the technical side of the film-making but in
script-working, confirming and audience research. It will arrange
for practical work in 'studios and confer deplomas on successful
candidates.
CENSORSHIP OF FILMS — The system of film censorship in
India was first evolved under the Indian Cinematograph Act, 1918.
By the amendment of this Act in 1949, censorship was made a central
subject. Government of India have taken over the film censorship
which was States' subject from 15th Jan., 1951 and constituted a
Central Board of Film Censors which is charged with the responsi-
bility of formulating and enforcing an all-India policy for censorship
554
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
of motion pictures produced or imported in the country. Besides
Chairman, the Board consists of six honorary members.
The department consists of a Central Board with its head-
quarters at Bombay and two regional officers in Calcutta and Madras.
Each picture presented for censorship is examined by a committee,
consisting of the Regional Officer and some advisers of the panel. K
the picture is unanimously pased by this committee, a certificate is
issued forthwith. If the decision of the examining committee is not
unanimous, or if the producer is not satisfied with its decision, the
picture will be examined by the regional advisory panel. If the
decision of this body is unanimous and acceptable to the producer,
a certificate will be issued. However, if the decision of the commit-
tee is not approved by the producer, the picture will be examined by
the Central Board and a decision given. The producer may appeal
against this decishm alsc to the Government of India.
The Board issues two kind of certificates ; one' for films for un-
restricted exhibition and the other for those to be restricted to
adults only ; they are respectively referred to as ‘U’ and ‘A’
certificates. Advisory Parels attached to the Regional Offices of the
Board were reconstituted with a tenure of two years. The examini-
ing of foreign films, excluding shorts other than news reels and
trailers has been centralised at Bombay.
TAXATION — The industry is now under the following taxa-
tions — Central Government Taxes — (1) Import duty of raw films
at the rate of 3 pies per foot, plus 5 p.c, surcharge on the total,
(2) Import duty on cinematographic equipment at the rate of 5 p.c.
ad valorem on larger equipments and 10 p.c. on the smaller ones,
plus a 5 p.c. surcharge, (3) Fees for storage of films for license
from chief inspector of explosives. This fee is leviable in respect of
films with nitrocellulose base, (4) Rentals on Government approved
films, the showing of which is compulsory. The exhibitors are re-
quired to pay rentals ranging from Rs. 5 to Rs. 150 per week
on Film Division shorts, (5) Fees for censorship of films at Rs. 40
per 1000_ ft. (6)Income tax. Taxes by States — (1) Entertainment
tax. This is a tax on admission. The tax is levied on the slab
system except in Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The rates of tax
varies from 25 p.c. to 75 p.c. on the cost of admissions, (2) Theatre
Tax — It is a flat rate tax on each show or performance levied in
some states. (3) Sales Tax, (4) License fee for operating cinemas
and storage films, (5) Electricity tax, (6) Property tax. Munici-
pal Taxes — Octroi Duty and Terminal Taxes, (2) Property taxes and
license fees etc., (3) Taxes on posters and other advertisements, (4)
License fees & storage of films including safety base films.
INDIAN FILM PRODUCTION TO-DAY— The production of
films has now levelled to an annual average of 250 to 280. On a con-
servative estimate, the daily attendance at Indian cinema houses
averages between a million and a half to two million, while annual
attendance is placed at 60 crore of people and the annual expenditure
of an Indian cinema amounts to Rs. 1-2-0. There are about 330
producers, 60 studios, 40 laboratories and nearly 6,600 distributors
CINEMA IN INDIA
555
and sub-distribntors in this industry. It is understood that the in-
dustry employs about 70,000 people. The total capital investment in
the Indian film industry is estimated at more than Rs. 42 crore and
the gross revenue is nearly Rs. crore a year.
India has 3,250 cinema houses, of which about 850 are mobile.
If expenditure on picture is a guide to enthusiasm for cinemas,
the South Indian stands first, spending on an average Rs. 1-10-0
annually, while his counterpart in Central India spends Rs. 1-6;
"West India Rs. 1-5-0 ; North-west India Re. 1-0-0 ; North India
Re. 0-15-0 and East India Re 0-12-0.
Since 1947 production of Hindi films has been steadily on the
decline and that regional language films have been steadily increas-
ing.
The film production is virtually confined to Bombay, West Bengal
and Madras. Bombay produces films in Hindi, Marhathi and Gujarati.
Bengal produces chiefly Bengali films and in a lesser extent Hindi.
Madras produces films in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam.
In the film industry in India, large number of independent new-
comers crop up every year who have neither their own studios, nor
any previous connection with the industry. So the mortality among
them is very large.
FILJI FEDERATION OF INDIA — This has been established to
promote commerce in general and in particular, to promote, protect
and watch over the interests of the Indian Film Industry and persons
thereof ; to regulate their method of doing business, to maintain
uniformity in rules, regulations and userges of film industry, to
settle disputes by arbitration or otherwise ; to take all steps for
promoting, supporting or opposing legislation or executive action
affecting the economic interest of the film industry and of those
engaged thereon.
STATE AWARD FOR FILMS — ^with a view to encourag-
ing production of films of a high aesthetic and technical standard and
of educative and cultural value, the Government of India have ins-
tituted a scheme of State awards for feature films, children's films
and documentaries in 1954. These awards are on All India basis for
the best feature film and special award for the best childrens films and
the best documentary film. For feature films, besides an All India
Award, Regional Award is on the annual basis. Certificates of merit
may also be given to films each among the features, documentaries and
children’s films. The Awards are as follows — (A) All India Awards
— (1) President’s Gold Medal for the best feature film, (2) Presi-
dent’s Gold Medal for the best documentary, (3) Prime Minister’s
Gold Medal for the best children’s film, (4) Certificates of Merit for
the next best in these categories. (B) Regional Awards — (1) Presi-
dent’s Silver Medals to the best in each regional language feature,
the total production of which in the year was not less than a dozen
and also one to the best in the group of languages in which the year’s
production was less than twelve. (2) Certificates of Merit to the
next best in each language.
WORLD FILhI PRODUCTION— According to UNESO’s report
556
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
in their magazine Courier (April, 1955) — ^India has become world’s
third biggest producer of films with America and Japan first and
second respectively. In 1953 America produced 360 feature films,
Japan 302, India 2*59, Hong Kong 200, Italy 150, Britain 138, France
111 and West Germany 101. The demand for films in Chinese was so
intense in the Far East that to carter for it Hong Kong film industry
had almost overnight become one of the world’s largest.
INDIA’S FILM INDUSTRY
1. Capital Investment — Crores
Estimated total capi- Es.
tal invested in film
industry Rs. crores 42
Estimated capital in-
vested in studios, la-
boratories, equipment,
etc. do 6
Estimated capital in
production and distri-
bution do 10
Estimated capital in-
vested (in total) cine-
ma houses . . do 26
2. Animal output, pro-
duction and distribu-
tion units —
Annual output (About) 256
No. of Studios . . 65
No. of laboratories (in-
cluding those attach-
ed to studios) . . 40
Estimated average
cinema . . 25,00,000
No. of cinemas show-
ing foreign films ex-
clusively . . 50
3. Exhibition —
No. of Cinemas over
(out of which 800 are
touring or temporary) 3,600
Estimated total seating
capacity of all cine-
mas 22,75,000
Average seating capa-
city per Cinema 650
No. of towns served by
cinema . . 1,600
No. of cinema per
million people . . 10
Average time tahen to
complete a full length
feature film is about 6-12
months
4. Employment —
In production . . 25,000
In distribution . . 7,000
In exhibition . . 50,000
In allied establishments 8,000
90,000
5. Costs, Incomes and Taxes —
Lakhs
Rs.
Average cost of pro-
duction of feature film 4 to 5
Estimated total gross
box office collections
(including tentertain-
ment tax) Rs. crores 30
Estimated total enter-
tainment tax paid
Total No. of Sound
Es. 7
Stages
Average area per stage
150
sq. ft.
Approximate number
5,600
of producers
Do. Do. existing
300
distributors
6. Averaye Footage of
feature films —
600
Picture produced in
Calcutta or Bombay
12,000
Do. in Madras
7. Imports of Raw
16,000
CINEMA IN INDIA
657
films and Equipments — Lakhs, Average annual import
Ks. of sound equipments
Average annual import & accessories . . 12
of raw films (200 Average annual import
million ft.) . . 140 of projection equip-
ments & accessories 60
FOREIGN FEATURE FILMS IN INDIA
1947 .. 813 1960 240 1953 .. 247
1948 291 1951 .. 315 1954 .. 235
1949 301 1962 .. 316
BIPORT OF FILMS
Raw Films Exposed Films
Footage Value Footage Value
(m. feet) (Rs. in lakhs) (m. feet) (Rs. in lakhs)
1948-49
. . 156.42
77
12.39
1949-50
. . 178.75
95
14.63
1950-51
. . 208.50
126
14.54
36.06
1951-52
. . 198.17
136
10.60
28.01
1952-53
. . 247.64
166
12.95
39.69
INDIAN FEATURE FILM, 1934-54
1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943
Hindi
. 154
135
102
88
82
86
79
97
108
Gujarati
1
3
—
1
1
1
—
Marathi
9
6
11
14
12
10
14
13
5
Bengali
19
19
16
19
16
16
18
18
21
Tamil
. 38
38
37
39
35
36
34
19
13
Telegu
7
12
10
10
12
14
16
8
6
Kannada
1
1
3
—
—
—
2
2
4
Punjabi
1
1
—
1
7
7
2
6
—
Malaj'alam
.
—
—
1
—
1
4
6
2
Others
3
2
—
—
1
—
3
1
2
233
217
179
172
165
171
170
163
159
1944
1045
1946 1947 194S
1949
1050
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
Hindi
8G
73
165 ISO 14S
157
lis
100
102
97
118
126
Gujarati
—
—
1
11
28
17
13
G
2
—
—
3
Marathi
4
—
2
6
7
16
19
16
17
21
18
12
Bcnjrali
14
9
15
38
37
02
42
38
43
50
47
50
Tamil
13
11
IG
29
32
21
19
26
32
42
38
46
Tclccu
C
5
10
6
7
T
IS
20
25
29
27
24
Kannada
—
1
—
G
2
6
1
2
1
7
10
16
Punjabi
o
—
1
—
I
1
4
4
—
3
3
—
Malayalam
—
—
—
—
1
1
6
7
11
7
8
7
Others
1
—
—
7
2
2
4
_1
l4
5
2
12S 89 200 2SS 265 2S9 241 221 235 260 274 2SS
558
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
CINEMA CIRCUITS
Central Circuit — M.P., Madhya Bharat, Rajasthan, Ajmer,
Bhopal, Vindya Pradesh and East & West Khandesb, Districts
of Bombay Presidency.
North Circuit — Delhi, U.P., Punjab, Pepsu, Himachal Pradesh,
and Jammu & Kashmir.
Bengal Circuit — West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Tripura,
Berhampur (Ganjam), Andaman Islands and Nepal.
South Circuit — Madras, Andhra, Mysore, Travancore-Cochin,
Hyderabad and Coorg.
Bombay Circuit — Bombay, Saimashtra and Kutch.
FACTS OF CINEMA IN INDIA
1896 First exhibition of cinema in India by Lumiere Brothers, July
7, 1896.
1907 First cinema house opened in Calcutta by J. F. Madan.
1913 First Indian film, Harishchandra produced by D, Phalke of
Bombay and released at Bombay on April, 1913.
1917 First Indian film produced in Bengal is Nala Damayanti by
J. F. Madan.
1918 Indian Cinematograph Act passed.
1920 Censorship of films started in India at Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras.
1921 First picture produced in South India is Bhishma Pratigna,
by Star of the East FUm Co.
1922 Entertainment tax introduced in Bengal.
1927 Government of India appoints a Cinematograph Enquiry
Committee.
1929 First talkie exhibited in India was Universal’s Melody of
Love at Elphinstone Picture Palace, Calcutta.
1931 Alam Ara is the first Indian talkie by Imperial Film Studio,
Bombay released on 14th March, 1951. The second talkie was
Shirin Farhad by Madan Theatre,^ Ltd., Calcutta.
1931 Prabhat Studio’s Sairendhri is the first Indian colour film
though it was coloured in Germany. First cine-colour picture
done in India was Imperial’s Krishan Kanya.
Karma is the first Indian-English film (talkie) by Himansu
Eai, the founder of Bombay Talkies but produced mainly in
England under European supervision
1939 Silver Jubilee of the Film Industry in India.
1940 Court Dancer is the first full length sound Indian English film
made in this country under purely Indian supervision.
1943 Information Films of India set up by the Government of India.
1949 Appointment of the Film Enquiry Committee by the Govern-
ment of India.
1949 Gensophip of films was included in the Union List in the new
Constitution. — By amendment of the Cinematograph Act
pictures were classified ‘A’ (for adults only) and ‘U’ (universal
exhibition).
CINEMA IN INDIA
559
1951 Central Board of Film Censors at Bombay -was established
from 15th January.
1952 First International Festival sponsored by the Government of
India in Bombay on January 24, 1962.
1954 Film Awards inaugurated by the Govt, of India.
1955 Film Seminar inaugurated at Delhi.
1959 Silver Jubilee of Indian Talkie celebrated throughout India.
LEADING INDIAN PRODUCERS
Bombay
Wadia Movietone.
Shorey FUms.
Pancholi Productions.
Hindusthan Chitra.
Raikamal Kalamandir.
Bombay Talkies.
Kardar Productions.
Sri Ranjit Movietone,
Filmistan.
Sahu Films.
Hemlata Pictures.
Sadiq Productions.
Guru Dutt Films.
Naya Sansar.
Mars & Movies.
Kashyap Pictures.
Ratnadeep Pictures.
Prakash Pictures.
Mehboob Productions.
Asokelcumar Produc-
tions.
Atre Pictures.
Basant Pictures.
Basu Chitra Mandir.
Famous Pictures.
Chandrakala Pictures.
Filmkar.
Jayant Desai Pro-
ductions.
Kuldip Pictures.
R. K. Films.
Nav Ketan.
Bimal Roy Production.
Rup Kamal Chitra.
Habib Productions.
Talwar Films.
Minerva Movietone.
Sippy Productions.
Calcutta
Aurora Film Corpn.
Chitra Bharati.
Emer Pictures.
National Progressive
Pictures.
Production Syndicate.
S. B. Pictures.
Sri Bharat Lasmi
Pictures.
Srimati Pictures.
Vasumitra.
New Theatres Ltd.
Radha Films.
Bimal Roy Produc-
tions.
Devaki Bose Produc-
tions.
Indrapuri Studios.
Sircar Productions.
S. M. Productions.
Sunrise Film.
M._P. Productions.
Chitramaya.
Poona
Prabhat Film Co.
Ranjit Movietone Co.
Alhad Chitra.
Mangal Pictures.
Navayug Chitrapat.
Madras
A. V. M. Productions.
Bhamhi Pictures.
Jupiter Pictures.^
Prakash Productions.
Prativa Productions.
Ragini Films.
Rohini Pictures.
Shobhanachala Piets.
Vauhini Productions.
Gemini Studios.
Modem Theatres.
Narsu Studios.
Vijoya Productions.
FILM STUDIOS IN INDIA
Bombay
Bombay Talkies.
Famous Cine Laboratories.
Filmistan.
Jupiter Studios.
Kardar Studios.
Prakash Studios.
Raj Kamal Kalamandir,
Central Studios.
M. & T, Films.
Sri Ranjit Movietone Co.
Basant Pictures Studios.
Mohan Pictures Studios.
Prakash Studios.
Premier Studios.
R. K. Studios.
560
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Famous Pictures.
Modem Studios.
Jyoti Studios._
Minerva Studios.
Sri Sound Studios.
Sreekant Studios.
Ashok Studios.
Jagriti Studio.
Rangmahal Studio.
Mehboob Studio.
CalctiUa
Associated Production Ltd.
Aurora Film Corporation.
Calcutta Movietone Studios.
East India Film Ltd.
Eastern Talkies.
Indrapuri Studios.
National Sound Studios.
New Theatres Ltd.
Radha Films Studios.
Rupasree Ltd.
Sri Bharat Lakshmi Studios.
Technician's Studios.
Poona
Deccan Studios.
Navayug Chitrapat.
Prabhat Films Co.
Madras
A. V. M. Studios.
Bharani Studios.
Citadel Studios.
Film Centre.
Gemini Studios.
Narsu Studios.
Neptune Studios.
Revathi Studios.
Eohini Studios.
Prakash Studios.
Newtone Studios.
Sobanachala Studios.
Shyamala Studios.
Star Combines Studios.
Vauhini Studios.
ASSOCIATIONS & UNIONS
Bengal Motion Picture Association, Calcutta.
Children's Film Society, New Delhi.
Cinematograph Exhibitors’ Association of India, Bombay.
Cine Technicians’ Association of Bengal, Calcutta.
Film Federation of India, Bombay.
Indian Film Producers’ Association, Calcutta.
Indian Motion Picture Distributors’ Association, Bombay.
Indian Motion Picture Producers’ Association, Bombay.
Film Producers Guild of India, Bombay.
Mysore Film Chamber of Commerce, Bangalore.
South Indian Motion Picture Studio Association, Madras.
South Indian Film Chamber of Commerce, Madras.
U. P. Cinema Exhibitors' Association.
Amateur Cine Society of India, Bombay.
Andhra Cine Employees’ Association.
Association of Cine Technicians, Bombay.
Rajasthan Motion Pictures Association, Jodhpur,
Western India Cinematographers’ Association, Bombay.
Cine Technicians’ Association of South India, Madras.
Film Artists’ Association of India, Bombay.
Film Fans’ Association, Bombay.
Film Fans’ Association, Calcutta.
Indian Motion Picture Employees’ Union, Bombay.
Playback Singers’ Association, Bombay.
CINEMA IN INDIA
661
FOREIGN FILM STUDIOS
20th Century Fox Warner Bros.
(U.S.A.). (U.S.A.). London Film Pro-
Universal (U.S.A.). Columbia ({U.S.A.). ductions (Eng.).
Metro-Goldwyn-Me- United Artists British International
yer (U.S.A.). (U.S.A.). Pictures (Eng.).
R.K.O. Radio Pic- Gainsborough Pic- Arthur Rank Pro-
tures (U.S.A.). tures (Eng.). ductions (Eng.).
Two Cities Films Ealing Studios (Eng.).
(Eng.).
ACADAMY AWARDS
‘Oscar’ is the supreme annual award of the American Academy
of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. These coveted Statuettes were
first presented on 26th May, 1929, for the leading men and women in
various branches of picture making industry.
Winning Film Actor of the Year Actress of the Year
1928 Wings (Paramount) Emil Jennings Janet Gaynor
1929 Broadway Melody (M,
G. M.) Warner Baxter Mary Pickford
1930 All Quiet on the West-
ern Front (Universal) George Arliss Norma Shearer
1931 Cimarron (R.K.O.) Leonel Barymore Marie Dresler
1932 Grant Hotel (iIf.GJif.) Fredric March Helen Hayes
1933 Cavalcade (Fox) Charles Laughton Katherine Hepburn
1934 It happened one night
(Columbia) Clark Gahle Claudette Colbert
1935 Mutiny on the bounty
(M.G.M.) Victor McLaglen Bette Davies
1936 Great Ziegfeld
(M.G.M.) Paul Muni Luise Rainer
1937 Life of Emile Zola
( Warner) Spencer Tracy Luise Rainer
1938 You can’t take it with
you (Columbia) Spencer Tracy Bette Davies
1939 Gone with the Wind
(Selznick) Robert Donat Vivien Leigh
1940 Rebecca (Sleznick) James Stewart Ginger Rogers
1941 How Green was My
Valley (SOth Centurg) Gary Cooper Joan Fontaine
1942 Mrs. Miniver (M.G.M.) James Cagney Greer Garson
1943 Casablanca (ll’omcr). Paul Lukas Jennifer Jones
1944 Going Jly Way (Para-
mount) Bing Crosby Ingrid Bergman
1945 Lost Week End (Para-
mount ) Ray Milland Joan Crawford
1946 Best Years of Our
Lives (R.K.O.) Frederic March Oliva de HaviUand
1947 Gentleman’s Agree-
ment (SOth century) Ronald Colman Loretta Young
86
662
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
1948 Hamlet (Arthur Rank) Sir L. Olivier Jane Wyman
1949 All the King's Men Broderick Craw-
(Columbia) ford Oliva de Havilland
1950 All About Eve (20th
Centuary~Foz) Jose Ferrer Judy Holliday
1951 An American in Paris
(M.GAI.) Humphei^r Bogart Vivien Leigh
1952 Greatest Show on
Earth (Paramount) Gary Cooper Shirley Booth
1953 Prom Here to Eternity
(Columbia) William Holden Audrey Hepburn
1954 On the Water Front Marlon Brando Grace Kelly (the
1955 Marty (United Artists) Ernest Borgnine Anna Magnani
STATE FILM AWARDS (INDIA)
(For Films of 1955)
President’s Gold Medal — ^Father Panchali_ (Be7ipar{ ; best feature <film).
President’s Gold Medal — Magic Mountains (best documentary — Pro-
duced by Film Division).
Certificates of Merit — ^hirdichi Shri Sai Baba (Marathi),
— ^anak Jhanak Payal Baje (Hindi).
— ^Wonders of Work (Documentary — Film Division).
— ^Education for Life (Documentary — Ama Ltd.).
President’s Silver Medal for regional language films.
— Bangaru Papa (Telugu).
— Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baje (Hindi).
— ^Mee Tulas Tuzya Angani (Marathi).
Certificates of Merit for regional language films.
— Ardhangi (Tehigu).
— ^Mangayar Thilakam (Tamil).
— ^Devdas (Hindi).
— Shree 420 (Hindi).
— Shirdiche Shri Sai Baba (Marathi).
— Shevyachya Shengi (Marathi).
— Mahakabi Kalidas (Kannada).
CZECHOSLOVAKIA INTERNATIONAL FILM FESTIVAL, 1956
Grand Prix — If all the Guys in the World (French).
Special Prize for endeavours for world progress — Mid-day Darkness
(Japanese).
Prize for promoting friendship between nations — Indian documentary
film about the visit of Rjissian leaders in India.
Best direction — M. Vyes Allegret in Best Part (French).
Prize for Young Film Makers — Cecil Holmzs in Three in one (Aust.}i
Prize for Young Film Makers — Nelson Pereira Dos Santos in Bio
Forty Degrees (Brazil).
Spl. Award for Short Films — Anthony Simmons in Noble Corsican
(England).
Prize for Music — A. Yupanqui in Stone Horizons (Argentina).
CINEMA IN INDIA
563
CANNES INTERNATIONAL FILM FESTIVAL, 1956
Grand Prix — Le Monde Du Lence (French).
Special Prize — Le Mystere Picasso (French).
Best Production — Othello (Soviet Union).
Best Acting — Susan Hayward (TJ.S.) for the picture "I’ll cry
To-morrow”.
Best Human Documentary Film — ^Father Panchali (Bengali).
OSCARS FOR 1955
<Award by Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences U.S.A.)
Best Picture — Marty (United Artists).
Best Actor — Earnest Borgnine in Marty.
Best Actress — Anna Magnani in Bose Tattoo.
Best Supporting Actor— ^ack Lemmon in Mr. Roberts.
Best Supporting Actress — Jo Van Fleet in East of Eden.
Best Director — Delbert Mann in Marty.
Best Screen Play — ^Marty.
Best Documentary Short — ^Man against the Arctic (Walt Disney),
Best Feature Documentary — ^Helen Keller & Her Story.
Best Two~Reeler — Face of Lincoln.
Best One-Reeler — Survival City.
Best Cartoon Film — Speedy Gonzales.
Best Motion Picture Story — Love me or Leave me (M.-G.-M.).
Best Story & Screen Play — Interrupted Play (M.-G.-M.).
BRITISH ACADEMY AWARDS, 1956
(Awards for 1955 Film)
Best British Actor — Sir Laurence Olivier (Richard HI).
Best Br. Actress — Katie Johnson (The Lady-Killers).
Best Foreign Actor — ^Earnest Borgnine (Marty).
Most Promising New Comer — Paul Serfield (That Lady).
Best Film (Br. & Foreign ) — Richard III.
Best Br. Screen Play — ^The Lady Killers by William Rose.
Best Documentary Film — ^The Vanishing Prairie.
United NatioTis Award — Children of Hiroshima (Japan).
Best Animated Film — ^Blinkity Blank (Canada).
Spl. Award for work outside Feature & Documentary — ^The Bespoke
overcoat (British).
VENICE FILM FESTIVAL, 1956
Gold Lion of St. Mark — No Award.
Best Acting — INIaria Schell (France) _for_ acting in the French film
Jcrvaisc and French actor Bourville in French film La Traverse
dc Paris.
Prize by the Intcrmational Federation of Film Newspapers — Films
Jcrvaisc and Call Mayor.
Francesco Pasinetti Prnzc — Attack (American),
St. George of the Centre Prize — Uarpa Burmana (Japanese).
Catholic Cinema Centre Prize — Calabash (Spanish).
INDIA’S COMMERCE
Pattern of Indian Trade — Throughout the British period, India
normally had a favourable balance of trade. The preponderance of
manufactured articles in the country’s imports and that of agricul-
tural commodities and raw materials in its exports were a feature of
India’s foreign trade, India was essentially a primary producer and
exported raw materials and semi-processed goods. Similarly, her
imports were characteristically those of an agrarian economy. On
the whole, India had a favourable balance of trade, the value of her
total exports exceeded that of her total imports. World War II
considerably helped India’s industries and trade. Europe’s produc-
tive capacity was badly depleted, and the shortage of merchant
shipping contributed in great measure to the fall in India’s imports.
Her exports, on the other hand, found expanded markets in Asia,
the Middle East and the Far East. After liquidating nearly the
whole of her sterling debt, India built up a balance of Rs. 1,600 crore
in sterling. With the growth of industries, the structure of India’s
foreign trade was radically altered. The country began importing
more and more raw materials for her industries and her exports
of manufactured goods expanded.
The direction of India’s import and export trade also underwent
significant changes. Before 1938, over half the volume of India's
foreign trade was with the sterling area and only 10 per cent with
the dollar area. In the following decade, India’s trade with the
sterling area countries, such as Germany and Japan fell sharply.
India’s needs were no longer met by imports from U.K. exclusively.
U.S.A., Egypt, Japan and Australia found an expanding markets for
their goods. Similarly, India’s exports to U.K. steadily declined in
volume, and the U.S.A. Singapore, Australia and Canada imported
Indian goods in increasing .quantities.
After.'the war a decline in the exports became visible every-
where, because commodities which India w'as- able to supply
■now became available from other sources and also they were com-
paratively cheaper than India. At the same time, the relative cheap-
ness of foreign manufactures brought about a great inflow of imports
which was far in excess of the country’s real needs. India was thus
faced_ with an excess of imports over exports. And their deteriora-
tion in the balance of trade grew more worse with the partition_ of
the country. Before partition, India exported many raw materials
such as raw jute, raw cotton, raw wool, and hides and skins which
now had to be imported. Commodities such as cotton, wool and hides
which previously figured among her exports how prominently became
imported commodities. The partition- of India reduced India’s capa-
city to export raw materials and at the same time, made her a subs-
tantial importer of raw materials. Partition had also an adverse
effect on the imports of_ food grains, as the country became more
than ever dependent on imported food grains. The other causes of
INDIA’S COMMERCE
565
decline of exports "were — ^increased cost of production -which induced
Indian manufacturers to charge high prices which acted as a check
•to exports. The lack of adequate facilities for transport was
another _ factor which adversely affected India’s foreign trade. The
cumulative effect of all these was a hea-vy adverse balance of trade.
Before partition entrepot trading was an important feature of
India’s external trade, and she owed it to her strategic geographical
situation.^ She exported goods manufactured in Europe and America
to the neighbouring Asian countries, who in their turn, sold the goods
to_ the western countries through India. The middleman’s profit con-
stituted the accretion to India's favourable balance. Partition thus
•deprived India of a sizable share of her re-export trade. With this
critical situation regarding India’s foreign trade, the Government
of India took immediate steps to improve the position and de-vised
■various measures to increase India’s foreign trade, such as —
(I) Pro^essive liberalization of export control for export pro-
. motion.
<2) Bilateral Trade agreements and arrangements with foreign
count-ries.
<3) Consolidation of commercial services abroad.
(4) Participation in international fairs and exhibitions.
(5) Opening of show rooms in important centres of world trade.
<6) Standardization of Indian goods and commercial servicing
and publicity through the various units of the Ministry.
(7) Imports were restricted to the minimum of the country’s
needs.
<8) Reduction of export duties on particular items.
(9) Formation of Export Promotion Councils, for different
goods. Seven Promotion Expert Councils have been
established for cotton, textiles, silk and rayon fabrics,
plastics, engineering goods, cashew, pepper, tobacco and
mica. 'These councils try to maintain and develop export
markets for Indian products by various ways.
(10) Establishment of State Trading Corporation.
(II) Grant of drawbacks on customs duty on imported goods
used for the manufactured articles.
(12) Affective commercial servicing and publicity.
Export Promotion Cotincils — Export Promotion Councils are
being set up -with the assistance of the Government of India as a
part of the export promotion drive. There are Export Promotion
Councils for cotton textiles, silk and rayon textiles, plastic goods
and engineering goods and cashewnuts and pepper. Among the
measures which these councils are expected to adopt are the under-:
taking of market studies in foreign markets, sending out of trade
missions and publicity for Indian goods, appointing representatives in
foreign markets to collect statistics and other informations regarding
these goods in other countries, laying do-wn standards of equality and
packing for export, investigating complaints received from foreign
buyers and settling commercial .disputes by arbitration. The Export
Promotion Councils for Textiles is located at Ahmedabad and the(
566
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Export ■Promotion Councils on En^neering goods is located at
Calcutta.
Trade agreements — ^Bilateral trade _ agreements urere conduded
■with many foreign countries. The main objective of these agree-
ments was to reduce the strain on country’s limited supplies of
foreign exchange hy securing essential goods from non-dollar areas
in return for India’s staple exports. These trade agreements
were of two types, namely, trade agreements with quantitative
commitments for export and import of goods and general faade
arrangements through exchange of letters of commercial goodwill
Commercial Services — ^India has Indian commercial representa-
tion at twenty-two centres. In the countries where trade represen-
tatives have not so far been appointed Indian trade interests are-
being looked after by the Indian Ambassadors, Con^-Generals, etc.
India’s trade representatives answered -trade enquiries, actively en-
couraged the establishment of trade relations between genuine firms
on either side, publicised Indian products by various methods.
Fairs and Exhibitions — ■'With a view to popularising her piro-
ducts abroad, India participates in a number of international fairs-
and exhibitions. Exhibitions of Indian goods are also organised by
Government through their trade representatives in different cities
of -the world.
Show-rooms — ^The Government pays special attention to orga-
nising show-rooms at Indian Missions abroad. These have been
opened in London, New York and Bangkok and there are window
displays of goods at Alexandria, Djakarta, Prague, Stockholm,
Tokyo, Mauritius, Trinidad and Kabul.
State Trading Corporation — The Government of India has set up
in May, 1956 a State Trading Corporation which is a private
limited company registered under the Companies Act, 1956 under the
name "The State lading Corporation of India (Pri-vate) Limited^
It has an authorised capital of Es. one crore divided into 100,000;
shares of Rs. 100 each. The subscribed capital -will be Bs. 5 lakhs.
•All shares are o-wned by Government of India. The objects of the
Corporation are to organise and effect exports from and imports into
India of all such goods and commodities as the company
may from time to time determine, and the purchase, sale and trans-
port of the general trade in such goods and commodities in
India or anywhere else in the world and to do such other tHngs as
are incidental or conductive to the attainment of this object.
Among the commodities being imported by the Corporation are
caustic soda and soda ash, gypsum, fertilizers and cement.
Exports are also being made to a number of countries including
Japan, Italy, Hungary and Poland.
Import and Export Controls — Import and export controls were
first introduced in May 1940 as a -war measure under -the Defence
of India Rules. Although the latter expired in September 1946,
controls were continued for one year under an emergency act. In
1947, Import and Export (Control) Act was passed, providing new
legal basis for Import and Export Controls. The legislation though
conceived -as a temporary measure is being renewed from time to
INDIA’S COMMERCE
567
time and unless further extended -will he in force till March 31, 1960.
Import Control — ^The basic objective of Indian import controls is
to allocate^ India’s limited supply of forei^ exchange among its most
essential import needs. In general capital goods, capital repairs,
and raw _ materials required by industry are given the highest
priority in granting of import licenses. Licenses are granted for
only a few types of consumer’s goods and then only for limited
quantities. The Government, nevertheless, has indicated that it
intends to continue to permit the import of a small amount of luxury
goods where these items are a profitable source of Government
revenue or where their import is provided for by a bilateral agree-
ment. Import licenses may be issued more freely for particular
goods if they are in such short supply in India that their prices are
likely to rise rapidly. Import licenses may be issued less freely for
goods which compete with products of an Indian industry that the
Government is seeking to protect. ,
Import control also involve directional controls in that imports
from soft-currency areas are more freely licensed than from dollar
and other hard currency areas. Licenses to import from dollar areas
are generally issued only when the product is not obtainable on
comparable terms from soft-currency areas. No licenses are grant-
ed for imports from the Union of South Africa, this being a part of
India’s protest against the treatment of Indians there.
India’s import policy is revised twice a year to establish new
quotas for the various licenses to be issued during the following 6
months. (Licenses are ordinarily issued for a period of six months),
although licenses for the import of capital goods may extend to a
maximum period of 3 years.
Licenses are of two types ; (1) open general licenses and (2) in-
dividual licenses. The open general license takes the form of an
announcement by the Indian Government granting general permission
to all persons to import particular commodities into India from
specified countries. Individual licenses specify the importer, the value
and/or quantity of the designated commodity and the country or
currency area of source. They, are ordinarily not transferable. Im-
porters are granted individual licenses for imports on the following
basis —
1. Established importers are allocated licenses on the basis of
their past imports.
2. Actual users are allocated licenses on the basis of their
current requirements.
3. Newcomers or importers who do not qualify for licenses as
“established importers” or “actual users” are allocated a limited
number of licenses.
Export Control — ^India began to liberalise her controls over ex-
ports after the end of "World War 11 in 1944. The principal purpose
since that time has been primarily to allocate India’s limited exports
in such a way as to restore the position of Indian exports in foreign
markets, particidariy in the hard-currency areas, to the maximum
extent possible without creating serious shortages in India. The
main objectives of the export control are the following — (1) to en-
668
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
courage exports consistent with internal requirements, in such a
manner as to further the economic development of the country, (2)
to canalise exports to yield sufficient dollar and other hard currencies,
(3) to encourage exports of processed goods, (4) to conserve supplies
for internal consumption of those commodities which are in serious
shortage, (5) to control the rate of exploitation of India’s mineral
resources.
Operation of Controls — Import and export controls are undoubt-
edly serious problem to enterprises operating in India, although
they are a problem which must be faced to a greater or lesser degree
in most parts of the world. In recent years, there has been a subs-
tantial relaxation of Indian controls because of such developments
as the improvement of India’s balance of pajments, a growing
scarcity of certain foreign supplies and an inability to postpone ^
certain imports any longer.
INDIAN EXCHANGE CONTROL — Forei^ exchange has been
under control in India since 1939. This exchange control
gives the Government wnde powers to control transactions in
foreign exchange and securities and in the import or export^ of
bullion or currency. Transactions between -India and all foreign
countries are subject to exchange regulations although- regulations
vary somewhat as applied to different countries. The object
of the Indian Exchange Control is to secure a balance in international
payments account. There are restrictions on imports but remittances
are freely allowed against permitted imports. In fact, a specific or
a general licence to import any goods carries with it the right to remit
funds so that merchants in foreign countries e.'qjorting the Indian
goods within the licensed category are sure of getting prompt pay-
ment. The regulations also allow remittance of profits, interest,
dividends, savings of foreign companies and foreign nationals carry,
ing on business in the country. There is a goierous quota of ex-
change for travel within the soft currency countries though travel
to Dollar areas has to be specially authorised. Investment of Indian
capital in foreign countries is not permitted except in the case of
opening of branches of trading, banking and insurance companies.
Reserve Bank of India is in charge of the overall administration
of exchange control. However, it has delegated considerable autho-
rity over day-to-day operations to those banks and their branches
which have been authorised to deal in foreign exchange. All ex-
changes must be bought and sold at prices prescribed by the Reserve
Bank of India.
Direction of Trade — The United Kingdom and the United States
continue to be India’s principal buyers and suppliers of different
commodities. During 1953, the shares of the various countries in
our imports were U.K. 24 p.c., U.S.A. 12.5' p.c., Burma 7.5 p.c., Egypt
4.3 p.c.. other countries 61.2 p.c. The share of U.K. in the exports
were 31.7 p.c. and of the U.S.A. 16.3 p.c.
TARIFF COMMISSION — ^The origin of the Tariff Commission
is to be found in the recommendations of the Fiscal Committee estab;
Used by the Govt, of India by a resolution on 20th April, 1949. The
INDIA'S COMMEECE
569
Fiscal Commission came to the conclusion that India needs a perma-
nent authority to examine claims for protection to supersede the old
temporarily appointed Tariff Boards and that the terms of reference
of the new body and its powers should be wider than those of the
old Tariff Boards.^ The Fiscal Commission laid down as its first prin-
ciple for the application of protection that it should be related to an
overall planning of development.
Its Constitution — The membership of the Tariff Commission
comprises not less than three and not more than five members, one
of whom is to act as Chairman. Not more than two additional mem-
bers may be appointed for special purposes. Assessors with special
knowledge may also be appointed by the Central Government to
assist the Commission in specific enquiries. Sittings of the Com-
mission are to be open to the public unless the Commission decides
otherwise in any particular case.
The Commission is a quasi-judicial body and can, as such
summon and enforce attendance, examine on oath and compel the
production of documents.
The functions of^ the Commission — ^The Commission may —
(a) consider • claims of protection from industries which have
not yet started production ;
(b) consider the question of protection for agricultural as well
as other industries ;
(c) consider requests for protection by means other than an in-
crease in tariff rates, e.ff., by concessional duties in respect of raw
materials and by subsidies ;
(d) enquire and report generally on the effects of protection on
prices and cost of living and on anomalies arising from the operation
of protective or - revenue duties ;
(e) act in respect of certain classes of enquiries, sou motu ;
(f ) decide on the duration of protection ;
(g) enquire price of particular commodities whether protected
or not ;
(h) investigate into and report on the following matters — in-
crease or decrease in customs or other duties for protective purposes,
■dumping, undue advantage being taken of tariff protection by pro-
tect^ industries ;
(i) consider the effect of protection on the general price level,
the cost of living or the countrys economy generally ;
(j) consider anomalies resulting from the working of protective
■duties ;
(k) enquire, at prescribed intervals the effects of protection on
a given industry with reference to cost of production, scale of out-
put, quality, prospects of future expansion and the competitive posi-
tion of the industry.
Principles guiding the Enquiries — When investigating a case
for protection, the Commission is required to have due regard to the
following points —
(a) Comparative costs of’ production in India and competing
cormtries ;
(b) Cost of import of competing commodities ;
570
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
(c) Representative fair selling price ;
(d) Level of demand, local production, and import ;
(e) Effect of protection (if granted) on other industries includ-
ing cottage and small scale industries.
INDLA’S FOREIGN EXCELANGE RESERVE
{Lakhs of Rupees)
Assets Liabilities Net assets Movement of
^ net assets
1950- 51 . . 963,86 129,00 “ 834,86 — 18,47
1951- 52 . . 795,34 140,75 654,59 —180,27
1952- 53 .. 813,79 102,79 711,00 + 56,41
1953- 54 .. 844,78 Slfll 757,71 -f 46,71
1954- 55 .. 827,64 75,81 751,83 — 5,88
1955- 56 . . 842,60 80,86 761,74 + 9,91
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56)-
INDEX NUIiIBERS OF EXPORTS A17D niPORTS
(Base; 1948-49=100)
Export Import Export Import
«*■»
aS
2
is
ca
si -v
s
.s «
V.
o
S «
5: §
^ o
S H
^ o
Sh
V.
cy
1949-50
105
98
107
1952-53
94
128
91
1950-51
110
106
122
1953-54
94
118
91
1951-52
89
147
121
INDIA’S BALANCE OF PATJIENTS
{All areas — current account)
Crores of Rupees
Imports c.iff. 650.3 962.9 633.0 591.8 681.6 747.7
Exports f.o.b. 646B 730.1 601.9 539.7 596.6 6422
Trade balance — 3.5 — ^232.8 — 31.1 — 52.1 — 85.0 — ^105.5
Official Donations (net) +2.1 -i-5.3 -flO.8 +19.0 +15.8 +462
Other invisibles (net) +402 +64.9 +80.5 +80 5 +77.5 +80.0
Current account (net) +38.9 —162.6 +60.2 +47.4 -^8.3 +20.7
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
INDIA'S COMMERCE
571
INDIA’S BALANCE OF TRADE IN MERCHANDISE
(Sea, Air and Land — Private and Government)
(Lakhs of Rupees)
Imports Exports Balance of Trade-
1950- 51 . . 623,36 601,35 — 22,01
1951- 52 . , 943,13 732,99 —210,14
1952- 53 . . 669,88 577,36 — 92,51
1953- 54 . . 571,93 530,62 — 41,31
1954- 55 . . 656,26 693,55 — 62,71
1955- 56 . . 678,83 697,31 — 81,52
(Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
INDIA’S FOREIGN TRADE
(In lakhs of Rupees)
U. K. U. S. A.
1952-63
Imports
1,38,84
Exports
1,23,29 1952-53
Imports
81,41
Exports
1,12,75
1953-54
1,44,98
1,60,08 1963-54
80,05
82,22
89,95
1954-55
1,63,36
1,89,41 1954-55
89,23
1965-56
1,72,69
1,66,15 1955-56
89,30
87,12
-1961-52
Pakistan
Imports
87,60
Exports
46,29 1951-52
Japan
Imports
24,65
Exporter
14,81
1952-53
21,88
31,14 1962-63
16,82
31,99
23,14
1953-64
19,27
8,02 1953-64
13,22
1954-56
63
9,39 1964-65
20,67
16,26
1965-56
98
8,39 1956-66
33,37
30,22
1961-52
U.S.S.R.
Imports
1,38
Exports
6,92 1951-62
Germany
Imports
28,34
Exporter
9,38
1962-53
24
86 1952-53
22,64
12/48
1963-54
60
1,16 1953-64
31,67
11,61
1954-55
1,81
2,12 1954-55
40,91
16,27
1956-66
6,21
3,26 1955-66
60,65
14,94
-
Canada
Imports
Exports
Burma
Imports
Exporter
1951-52
18,81
16,29 1951-52
23,36
19,79
1952-63
29,31
12,84 1952-63
26/47
23,38
1953-54
14,14
134,1 1953-64
17,66
20,86
1954-55
10,16
17,94 1954-55
57,32
16,25
-1956-66
6,84
14,02 1955-56
9,56
12,52:
(Journal of Industry & Trade, Dec. 1956).
PROHIBITION IN INDIA
From the days of first Satyag:raha movement hy Mahatma
Candhi in 1921, prohibition has been one of the main items of the
Oon^ess movement in the country. The Article 47 of the Indian
<lonstitution has laid dovTi as a Directive Principle of State Policy
that “State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the con-
sumption except for medicinal purposes, of intoxicating drinks and
•drugs which are injurious to health.”
PRESENT ST.ATE OF PROHIBITION IN INDIA— In Bombay,
Madras, Andhra and Saurashtra there is total prohibition today and
partial prohibition (ranging from one dry district each in Punjab and
Sladhya Bharat to nearly 70 per cent of the total area in Mysore) in
■the States of Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Bharat, Iilysore, Travancore-Cochin and Himachal Pra-
desh. A progressive cut of all kinds of intoxicants has been enforced
in Ajmer, while in Coorg intoxicants are supplied in restricted
<iuantity. There is no prohibition in Bihar, West Ben^l. Hyderabad,
Pepsu, Rajasthan, Vindya Pradesh, Bhopal, Kutch, Manipur and
Tripura.
POSITION IN THE ST.ATES— The Government Jammu and
Kashmir have expressed inability to introduce Prohibition as the
State economy depends on tourist traffic. . _
The Government of Bhopal have introduced some restrirave
measures and aim at complete Prohibition by gradual stages. They
are of the opinion that success can be attained • only by social and
moral reforms and not by force or law. _ . .
The Government of Saurashtra introduced complete Prohibiinon
in their State with effect from April 1950. They intend foUowmg
■the lead of Bombay in this matter.
In Coorg, partial Prohibition is in operation. The State Govern-
ment intends tightening up the restrictions further, leading to total
Frohibition.
Prohibition has not been introduced in Kutch State. However
more and more restrictions are being imposed gradually on the sale
•of liquor. Financial considerations prohibit the State from introduc-
ing prohibition in the near future.
The entire State of Madras went dry in October 1948. The Stata
Government are in entire agreement with the resolution on Prohibi-
tion passed by the Indian National Congress in April 1954. _ _
With a view to gradually achieving the goal of prohibition the
"State of Bihar has been following the policy of majnmum revenue
•with the minimum of consumption and has adopted a number of
■temperance measures.
In Andhra State Prohibition is in force -throughout the State
■except in Agency and Tribal areas.
PEOHIBITION IN INDIA
573 -
Partial Prohibition has been in force in Madhya Pradesh since
1938. Total Prohibition of all intoxicants is the policy of the State
Government towards which all efforts are being directed.
Hyderabad has no programme of Prohibition. The sales of
opium and ganja are, however, reduced by 10 per cent every year
for the last four years with the ultimate object of making them
available only to those persons who produce a medical certificate.
Prohibition has been in force in eleven districts and three religious-
towns of Uttar Pradesh. In order to implement the policy of the
Government of India to stop oral consumption of opium by March.
81, 1959, the quota of opium in each district is being reduced by VZh
per cent every year. The results of a survey conducted by the
Government regarding the conditions pervailing in the dry areas of
the State are under consideration and it is hoped they will help in
determining the future course of action to be taken with regard to-
Prohibition.
No concrete steps have so far been taken for the introduction of
Prohibition in PEPSU.
Ajmer — Ajmer State Prohibition Scheme was brought into force
in 1949 under which quota of each kind of intoxicant has been fixed
and in the case of opium permit system was introduced.
In Himachal Pradesh, prohibition introduced in Chickiot Tehsil,
Sahu Pargana and Jubbal and Chopai Tehsils and some area in Mahasu.
district. Total prohibition of liquor is also in force in Bilaspur Dis-
trict. With a view to gradually achieving the goal of prohibition, the
State Government have been following the policy of maximum reve-
nue with the minimum of consumption. The prices of liquor and
drugs have been enhanced and a limit has been placed on their posses-
sion and the rate of tree tax has been raised.
Prohibition with regard to opium is being generally pursued
and the quota of opium is reduced by 10 per cent every year so as
,to prohibit oral consumption of opium by the end of March 1959
Anti-opium Smoking Act has been passed by the Legislature in 1954.
Prohibition is now in force in six districts and four taluks of the
State of Mysore. Tapping has been prohibited in dry areas from
1st July, 1954.
The policy of gradual Prohibition is in operation throughout
Orissa State since 1947-48. There is now a complete prohibition in
the districts of Cuttack, Puri and Balasore excepting the merged
territories and a few pockets in Cuttack and Balasore districts in
use and occupation of the military. Partial prohibition of opium
under the Ten-year plan of the Government of India is in force in the
State since 1949. The Government have accepted total Prohibition
as their ultimate goal and are making a determined effort towards
that end. The social aspects of the reform are well kept in view.
In Madhya Bharat the Government has adopted a cautious policy
of implementing it in stages. To begin with, the State introduced
prohibition on the experimental basis in Bhilsa. The Government
also took steps to create a 6-mile broad dry-belt along the Bombay
border. The Government has been curtailing its quota of opium by
'GO maunds every year.
574
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
PROHIBITION ENQUIRY COJIMITTEE’S REPORT— Prohibi-
"tion Enquiry Committee was appointed by the Planning Commission
in 1954 under the chairmanship of Mr. Sriman Narayan.
The Report of the Committee was out on October 25, 1955. Its
jnain recommendations are as follows —
1. The prohibition should become law throughout India by
April 1, 1958.
2. By the end of 1955 State Governments may declare their
.acceptance of this policy and the target date and thus prepare the
public fuUy to co-operate in the ful fi l m ent of the prohibition pro-
gramme.
3. The first step recommended for the States which have not
jnade a beginning yet towards prohibition and in the wet areas of
partial prohibition States is that there should be complete stoppage
-of drinl^g in hotels, bars, restaurants, messes, clubs, cinemas and
-at parties and other functions : social, religious and otherwise.
4. Government Servants — ^The committee has recommended that
abstinence should be made a rule of conduct for Government servants
and it should be incorporated in the Service Rules.
5. The committee outlines the following steps to be taken bet-
ween April 1, 1956, and the target date :
(a) the number of liquor shops in both rural and urban areas
•should be progressively reduced ;
(b) liquor shops should be closed for an increasing number of
-days in a week ;
(c) a proportionate reduction should be effected in the quantity
-of supplies to shops ;
(d) the strength of distilled liquor produced by distilleries in
India shordd be progressively reduced ;
(e) the closure of shops in and near specified industrial or
-development project areas should be given high priority ; and
(f) removal of shops to places away from living quarters in
villages and towns ; shops in big towns should not be located in the
main streets where drinking would be visible to the public.
(6) In regard to opium, the committee has endorsed the present
policy of the Government to stop supplies of opium after March 31,
1959.
(7) As regards hemp drugs, the committee recommends a
-progressive reduction in the number of shops and quantities issued
-for consumption.
(8) In regard to tribesmen, the committee recommends that all
the tribal areas, except N.E.F.A., Manipur and Tripura,
-should be subject to the law of prohibition but enforcement should
be primarily through the educative process.
(9) As regards foreign embassies, the committee hopes that
they will respect national sentiment in the matter of prohibition and
-of their own volition not serve liquor at public reception where Indian
•citizens are invited.
(10) In regard to territories recently taken over, like Pondi-
-cherry, the phased programme outlined for the States should also
-apply.
PfiOHIBITION IN INDIA
575
(11) There will be no permits issued on health grounds.
(12) Satisfactory formulae should be devised for making
industrial alcohol non-potable unth a view to preventing its misuse.
(13) Enforcement should proceed on two definite lines .’educa-
tive and preventive ; legal and administrative.
The committee recommends the appointment of an “Administra-
tor of Prohibition” in every State. There should be a prohibition
board at State level. Prohibition committees should be established
in the districts and at the village and even mohalla level.
Turning to the administrative and legal set-up in respect of
■enforcement, the committee recommends that the police should be the
administrative authority for the enforcement of prohibition, and that
a special enforcement branch consisting of trained presonnel should
be set up.
On the legal side the committee has made several recommenda-
tions to tighten the law in respect of prohibition, to make mafor
offences non-bailable, to prescribe minimum punishment for such
■offences and to protect witnesses who furnish information relating
to non-bailable offences. There should be summary trials for
prohibition crimes other than non-bailble offences.
Beaction on the Beport — ^It was stated in the Parliament in 1966
that most of the States had expressed their inability to enforce
prohibition within April, 1968 — the target recommended by the Pro-
hibition Enquiry Committee, they had agreed to introduce Prohibi-
tion in a phased programme. Several States had stipulated that the
centre should give financial assistance to_ them to reimburse the
loss incurred by them on account of Prohibition. It was estimated
that the loss on account of total prohibition would be about Ks. 120
crores.
LAND REFORMS IN INDIA
Ownership rights of the landlords under the Zamindari system was
morally and legally dubious. Naturally, therefore the land reform
was the principal aim of the Congress and also of our new
Constitution.
OBJECTIVE — ^The Planning Commission recommended that land
policy should be such as would reduce disparities in. wealth and
income, eliminate exploitation, provide security for tenants and
workers and promise equality of status and opportunity to different
section of the rural population.
The land reforms which, following the pattern recommended by
the Planning Commission, the various State Governments have
undertaken in the past few years fall under four broad heads, namely:
(1) abolition of intermediaries between the State and the tillers,
(2) tenancy reforms designed to (a) scale down rents to one-
fourth or one-flfth of the produce, (b) give tenants permanent rights
of occupancy subject to the landlord’s right to resume a minimum
holding for his personal cultivation within a limited time, and (c)
enable tenants to acquire ownership of their lands on payment of
moderate coTopensation to the iandlord spread over a period of years,
(3) fixation of ceilings on holdings, and
(4) re-organisation of agriculture, including consolidation of
holdings, prevention of fragmentation and organisation of co-opera-
tive village management and co-operative farming.
In pursuance of the Planning Commission’s recommendation, a
Central Committee was constituted by the Government of India in
May 1953 to guide the Land Reforms wing of the Planning
Commission in its examination of the land reform proposals of the
State Governments.
The main recommendations of the Five-Year Plan on tenancy
reform are — (1) scaling do\vn of rents, (2) security of tenure, (3)
grant of the right to tenants to purchase their holdings.
ELIMINATION OF INTERMEDIARIES— In a considerable
area of the country, semi-feudal conditions had prevailed, the land
being owned by intermediaries between the State and the actual tiller
of the soil. Such tenures included (1) permanently settled e.states,
(2) temporarily settled estates, (3) jagir, taluqdari and inam lands
and (4) special non-ryotwari tenures.
Legislation for the abolition of intermediaries have been either
fully or substantially effected in the States of Andhra, Bombay,
Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal,
Delhi, Assam, Hyderabad, Madhya Bharat, PEPSU, Saurashtra,
Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh. In Bihar, Orissa and Rajasthan it
has been practically implemented. The legislation awaits implemen-
tation in Assam, Mysore, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi.
LAND REFORM IN INDIA 577
COMPENSATION — ^With the exception of Jammu and Kashmir,
all the States are abolishing intermediaries on payment of compensa-
tion prescribed by law. The total estimated amount of compensation
payable by the State Governments comes to about Rs. 370.1 crores be-
sides rehabilitation grants amounting to Rs. 79.9 crores. U. P. and
Bihar are the two States which carry the highest liability, their
combined share coming to nearly 70 p.c. of the whole amount.
FIXATION OF RENT — Progress in the regulation of rents has
been uneven and in several States legislation lags behind. In
Rajasthan and Bombay, the maximum rent has been fixed at
one-fifth of the produce ; in Delhi, Ajmer and in certain cases in
Assam and Hyderabad at one-fifth ; in Orissa, Himachal Pradesh,
parts of Mysore and in certain cases in Assam, Hyderabad and Vindya
Pradesh at one-fourth ; in Punjab, PEPSU, parts of Mysore and in
certain" cases in Kutch one-third; and in Bihar at 7/20 of the!
produce. At the other end are the rates of rent prevailing in Madras
and West Bengal. In Madras the rent is regulated in the district of '
Tanjore and hlalabar only. In West Bengal a crop-sharer has to
give 40 p.c. of the produce if he meets the cost of cultivation
and 50 per cent if the landlord meets the cost. In some states, as
in Andhra, rents have not been regulated at all.
FIXATION OF CEILINGS— The fixation of a ceiling on hold-
ings is an aspect of land reform which has attracted considerable
public attention. ITie Planning Commission's recommendations^ ip this
respect are: (1) there should be a limit to future acquisition of
land, (2) there should be an absolute limit to the land which any
individual may hold, this limit should be fixed by each State, and (3)
as an interim measure, each State should enact land management
legislation prescribing the standards of cultivation and the obliga-
tions to be observed by all landlords setting up the necessary
machinery, taking over of farms above a certain limit provided that
its break up would not lead to a fall in production and settlement of
landless agricultural workers in co-operative groups or otherwise.
Prior to April 1951, no provision had been made limiting the
future acquisition of land in any State, except U.P., which placed the
limit at 30 acres. Since then, limits have been imposed in Hydera-
bad (three family holdings), Madhya Bharat (60 acres of dry land),
Saurashtra (three economic holdings) and Delhi (30 standard acres),
Bihar (30 acreas for a family of five ; 46 acres in the hilly district of
Chotanagpur) .
A ceiling has been placed on existing holdings in Jammu, and
Kashmir, where all holdings in excess of 223 acres have been trans-
ferred to the actual tiller without compensation. In West Bengal,
only 33 acres are allowed under Estates Acquisition Act.
Punjab — 30 standard acres and in case of displaced persons 60
acres ; Hyderabad — 3 to 4i times the family holding (family-holding
defined as yielding a net annual income of Rs. 800) ; Bihar — A maxi-
mum of 30 acres of wet land for a family of 6 members, with the
provision for an additional 6 acres for every additional member ;
Himachal Pradesh — 30 acres of land in the district of Chamba and
37
578
HINDUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
lands assessed for Es. 125 or more in the rest of the State ;
Saiirashtra — 3 economic holdings ; Delhi — 30 standard acres.
Kegarding intermediary, the following ceilings have been imposed
— ^Assa?n — 133 acres for proprietors and 50 acres for tenancy holders
with a provision for State acquisition of land from ryots owning
adove 50 acres ; TFcst Bengal — ^25 acres ; Hyderabad — In respect of
land held by inamdars (intermediaries) at 4i times the family hold-
ing ; Ajmer — 50 standard acres.
Ceilings on future acquisition of land have been imposed as fol-
lows — I7.P. — 30 acres ; Hdycrabad — 3 family holdings ; Madhya
Bharat — 50 acres ; Saurashrta — 3 economic holdings ; Delhi — 30
standard acres.
STEPS TO CHECK FRAGMENTATION and CONSOLIDATION
— ^Measiires to check sub-division and fragmentation of holdings relate
to putting restrictions on partition and transfer below specified
limits, and legislation disallowing such partitions has either been
enacted or is in the process of enactment in most of the States. Uttar
Pradesh has fixed 6i acres as the limit. DelM has prescribed 8
Standard acres, hladhya Bharat and Bhopal 15 acres. Appropriate
measures are also being taken for the consolidation of holdings either
on co-operative or voluntary basis or under Governmental permission.
In the States of Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, PEPSU,
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir legislation has been
adopted for consolidation of holdings. Acts of Madhya Pb^desh and
Jammu & Kashmir permit the Government to exercise partial com-
pulsion. Uttar Pradesh has put into operation a scheme for the
compulsory consolidation of scattered holdings. Consolidation _ is
being fostered in the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh by the co-operative
societies, while in Bombay, PEPSU, Delhi and to some extent in
Punjab, consolidation schemes have been included in the State Five-
Year Plans.
CENSUS OF LAND-HOLDINGS — ^An important recommenda-
tion of the Planning Commission is the taking of census of land-
holdings and cultivation in all the states. This census is to_ relate
to agricultural lands comprising owners’ holdings. The object of
the census is to collect essential data relating to the holding and cul-
tivation of agricultural land.
CO-OPERATIVE FARMING — ^Realising_ the potentialities of co-
operative farming for stepping up production and ameliorating the
economic condition of the peasantry, the Planning Commission recom-
mended that small and middle-class owners in particular should be
encouraged and assisted to group themselves voluntarily into_ co-
operative farming societies which should receive special facilities
from the State Governments. It further suggested that blocks of
newly reclaimed land as well as culturable waste-land should be set
apart wherever possible, for the settlement, on co-operative lines, of
groups of landless agricultural workers and holders of uneconomic
plots of land. Implementation of these suggestions have been active-
ly undertaken in Bombay and Uttar Pradesh. This collective farm-
ing has also begun in several states, such as Bhopal, Coorg and
Tripura.
LAND REFORM IN INDIA
579
LAND FOR COMMON PURPOSES— The reservation of land for
community development for a^arian reform and rural welfare scheme,
has been advocated in the Five-Year Plan. So the reservation of
land has been a necessity for community purposes. The Punjab Con-
solidation of Holdings Act of 1948 stipulates that land should be.
reserved compulsorily at a ^aduated scale of 6 to 60 acres in all
villages with an area exceeding 160 acres, such reserved land being
placed under the management of village panchayata under Gram
Panchayat Act. The U.P. Consolidation of Holdings Act prescribes
the basis on which tenure holders will contribute land required for
purposes of public utility.
AGRARIAN REFORMS IN STATES— (1) Himachal Pradesh,
(a) Abolition of Big Landed States and Land Reforms Act, (b) Hima-
chal Pradesh Consolidation of Holdings Act, (c) Punjab Tenancy H.
P. (Amendment) Act, Himachal Pradesh Bhoodan Yagna Act.
(2) Bombay — Tenancy and Agricultural Lands Act of Bombay
constitutes a landmark in the history of the land refoTuns. It contri-
butes directly to the transfer of land to the tiller on the target date
of April 1, 1957. The law also protects tenants from resumption of
land by landlords and confers on the tenants, under certain conditions,
ownership of land cultivated by them.
(3) Rajasthan — The abolition of Jagirdari system has been
carried out by the enactment of the Rajasthan Land Reforms and
Resumption of Jagirs Act of 1952 amended in 1954. Under this Act
6,442 Jagirs with an income of Rs. 2,38,78,828 have so far been resumed
by the State (up to 1956). The Act provides not only for the payment
of compensation but also rehabilitation grants to Jagirdars.
Rajasthan Tenancy Act of 1955 has ended the bewildering multi-
plicity of land tenure for ensured security of _ tenure to the land.
Other land reforming Acts are Rajasthan Agricultural Lands Utili-
sation Act, 1954 and Rajasthan Holdings Act, 1951. A very im-
portant piece of legislation is the Rajasthan Land Revenue Code
which has evolved a uniform and progressive system of settlement
and land records.
(4) The PEPSU which has now merged with Punjab passed in
1956 (jbefore merger) an Act knowm as PEPSU Tenancy and Agri-
culUiral Land Act which places a ceiling of 30 standard acres or 80'
ordinary acres on individual holdings of land. This is the first State
in India to enact a revolutionary measure imposing a ceiling on land-
holdings.
(5) Mysore — The question of land reforms vms tackled in earn-
est and the enactment of the Mysore Tenancy Act, the Mysore Per-
sonal and Miscellaneous Inams Abolition Act and the Mysore Religi-
ous and Charitable Inams Abolition Act constitute significant mile-
stones towards the achievement of the ideal of the ownership of the
land vesting in the tiller of the soil and the abolition of intermediaries.
Another important reform effected this period is the change in the
system of disposal of Government lands. Under the amended rules
issued in 1953, Government lands can be granted only to landless
people and insufficient landholders.
PUBLIC SERVICES IN INDIA
The Constitution of India provides for the setting up of Public
Service Commission for the whole of India and also for each State.
Two or more States may have a common Public Seiwice Commission.
The Union Public Service Commission may also work for a State with
the approval of the President of India. The President appoints the
chairman and the members of the Union Public Service Commission
or of a Joint Commission. In the case of a State Commission, the
Governor appoints the President and the members. The Chair-
man or any of the members of a Public Service Commi-
ssion can be removed from his office only by an order of the President
and after an enquiry of the Supreme Court of India. There are also
other Service Commissions apart from Central or State Public
Service Commissions, such as Municipal Public Service Commission
in three Municipal Corporations of India and Railway Service Commi-
ssions for Eailways of India.
Examinations — Public Service Commissions conduct examinations
for the recruitment of Union and State services. They are empowered
to interview candidates for fresh appointments and promotion. _ The
Commissions also advise their respective governments on disciplinary
cases and service matters generally. It is obligatory on the part of
the Union Government and State Governments to consult their res-
pective Commissions on all matters relating to methods of recruit-
ment to Civil service and posts ; on the principles to be follovved in
making appointments, promotions and transfers from one service to
another, on all disciplinary matters affecting a Government servan^
on any claim by or in respect of person who is serving or has servM
the Government, and on any claim for the award of a _ pension in
respect of injuries received by a government servant while on duty.
The Union Public Service Commission submits its_ annual report
of its work to the President who is required to place it before thei
Parliament.
Conditions of Service — Regarding All-India Services such as
I. A. S. and I. P. S. Parliament has the authority to repilate, by law,
the recruitment and the conditions of services appointed to these
services. Accordingly the All-India Services Act was passed _ by
Parliament in 1951. Under the Article 311 of the Indian Constitution,
no member of a civil or All-India Service can be dismissed or removed
by an authority subordinate to that by which he was appointed.
Before any one is dismissed or removed, reasonable opportunity must
be given to the party to defend himself. This privilege is however
denied to those who is convicted of a criminal offence or when the
dismissing authority is satisfied that it is not possible to grive the
offender an opportunity to defend himself or where the President or
the Governor is satisfied that for the security of the State it is not
proper to allow opportunities for defence.
PUBLIC SERVICES IN INDIA
581
All-India Services — New Set-up of All-India. Services — Indian
Administrative Service (I.A.S.) and Indian Police Service (I.P.S.)
are recognised in our Constitution as All-India Services. The Parlia-
ment passed in October 1951 All-India Services Act to regulate by
law, the recruitment and conditions of service of I.A.S. and I.P.S.
India’s Constitution provides for reasonable security and tenure to
the members of the Services.
The present I.A.S. substitutes the I.C.S. of the British regime.
It does not provide ofiScers of Indian Judiciary. Being an All-India
Service, it is under the ultimate control of the Central Government,
but is divided into State Cadres, each under the immediate control of
a State Government. Indian Administrative Service Training School
has been set-up at Delhi in 1947.
Indian Police Service recruitment is made by the Central Govern-
ment on a State-wise basis.
Recruitment by Competitive Examinations — The Union Public
Service Commission conduct the following competitive examinations —
(A) The I.A.S. etc. Examination for recruitment to —
(1) Indian Administrative Service.
(2) Indian Foreign Service.
(3) Indian Police Service.
(4) Indian Audit and Accounts Service.
(5) Indian Customs and Excise Service.
(6) Indian Defence Accounts Service.
(7) Indian Railway Accounts Service.
(8) Indian Income-tax Service, Class I.
(9) Indian Postal Service, Class I.
(10) Military Lands and Cantonments Service, Class I & II.
(11) Transportation (Traffic) and Commercial Departments of
the Superior Revenue Establishment of Indian Railways.
(12) Central Secretariat Service, Grade III, Asst. Superinten-
dents (Class II Gazetted).
(B) Engineering Services Examination for reendtement to —
(1) Indian Railway Service of Engineers.
(2) Signal Engineering Dept, of the Superior Revenue Estab-
lishment of Indian Railways.
(3) Electrical Engineering Dept, of the Superior Revenue
Establishment of Indian Railways.
(4) Mechanical Engineering and Transportation (Power) De-
partments of the Superior Revenue Establishment of Indian Railways.
(5) Central Engineering Service, Class I & Class II.
(G) Central Electrical Engineering Service, Class I & Class II.
(7) Telegraph Engineering Service, Class I.
(8) Telegraph Traffic Service, Class II.
(9) Military Engineer Services, Class I.
(10) Indian Ordnance Service, Glass I.
(C) Survey of India, Class I & Class II Examinations.
(D) Examination for rccmdtmcnt of Special Class Railway Ap-
prentices in the Mechanical Engineering and Transportation (Power)
Departments of the Superior Revenue Establishment of Indian
Railways.
582
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
(E) Defence Services Examinations for admissions to —
(1) National Defence Academy.
(2) Military College.
(3) Air Force College of I.A.F.
(4) Commissioned Ranks of the Indian Navy.
(F) Army Medical Corps Examinations.
(G) Ministerial Services Examiantoins for recruitment of —
(1) Assistants in the Government of India Secretariat and its
attached offices.
(2) Lower Division Clerks in the Government of India Secre-
tariat and its attached offices.
(3) Stenographers in the Government of India Secretariat and
its attached offices.
India7i Frontier Administrative Service — ^The Government of
India has constituted a new service — the Indian Frontier Adminis-
trative Service — organised on the basis of other all-India sendees.
The members of this service wiU be posted in the North-East Frontier
Agency, Manipur and Tripura.
Officers in the new service will be eligible for senior posts in the
Central Secretariat and in special cases in the Indian Foreign Sendee
on a deputation basis. There are four selection grade posts with the
salary of Rs. 2,250 — 3,000. The basic pay scale is that of I.A.S. with
a special allowance of_33-l/35iof the grade pay, subject to a minimum
of _Rs 200 and a maximum of Rs 400 in the forward areas. Care is
being taken to ensure proper representation of tribal people in the
new cadre at its first constitution. In addition, 50% of the future
maintenance vacancies will be reserved for tribal candidates.
Recruitement by Selection
There are some services to which recruitment is made by selection,
such as,— Zoological Servey (class I), Archaeological Survey (class i).
Apprentices for Training in Ordnance Factories, District Medical
Officers for State Railways etc.
Central Secretariat Service
_ This service includes all posts in the Central Secretariat from an
assistant upto an Under Secretary, except those which are specifically
excluded^ wdth the consent of the Ministry of Home Affairs. In addi-
tion,_ it includes posts in the attached offices which the Mininstries
administratively concerned wdth such posts as well as the Ministries
of Finance and Home Affairs agree to include. The service is now
organised into four grades — Under Secretary, Superintendent,
Assistant Superintendent and Assistant. Recruitment to the Central
Secretariat Service is made through a written examination or an
interview or both conducted by the Union Public Service Commission.
PUBLIC SERVICES IN INDIA
583
Pay and Scale of some Services
IjIS. .and Indian Foreign Service.
Jztnxor Scale — -35 0 ~ d OO— - 4 50'*~ — 50 — 000“E*B — 30 — 870
— 40 — 950(19 years)
Senior Scale — 800 (6th year or under) — 50 — ^1,000 — 60 — 1300
— 50 — 1,800 (25 years)
Indian Police Service.
Jnnxor Scale — 350 — 350 — 380— ~380— 30 — 590— -E. D,-^-30-- 770* * 4 0
— 850 (19 years).
Senior Scale — 600 (6th year or under) 40 — -100 — 1000 — 1050
—1100^1100—1150 (22nd year)
Selection grade — 1,250.
RAILWAY INFORMATION
There were 6,373 railway stations in India on March 31, 1966. Of
these 6,152 stations belonged to the Government railways and 221 to
the non-government railways.
♦ ♦ *
Railway administrations are maintaining 154 schools for the con-
venience of their employees.
♦ ****♦
The Indian Government railways lifted 114.05 million tons of
goods in 1955-56—7.8 p.c. more than in the previous year.
♦
The first cinema car to go on the rail in this country went into
regular service with effect from November 15, 1956.
»<•***•
The first fully air-conditioned vestibuled train was introduced on
October 7, 1956 on the Howrah-Delhi route.
THE FIVE-YEAR PLANS
FIRST FIVE-YEAR PLAN
The Planning Commission was set up in March 1950 hy a resolu-
tion of the Government of India which was entrusted with the task of
preparing a plan for the “most effective and balanced utilisation of
the Country’s resources”. The Commission published India’s First
Five-Year Plan in its final form in Decomber 1952. It_ covered the
period from April 1952 to March 1956. The outlay in the Plan
originally stood at Rs. 2,069 crore. Later, the Plan was enlarged
by the inclusion of certain labour-intensive schemes raising the
investment to Rs. 2,356 crore.
The Five-Year Plan embraces all aspects of India’s national
life and is the first national approach towards an economic planning.
The progress achieved has changed the economic scene of India. The
fruits of efforts undertaken before and during the Plan period have
begun to reach the people. With a populatoin which is essentially
agp-icultural, agriculture had to be given high priority. The genera-
tion of electric power on a large scale to facilitate not only indus-
trial expansion but also the growth of small scale enterprises and
rural development claimed high priority in its own right. “Transport
called for special attention. In the sphere of social services, the
needs were so large that the outlay at State level call^ for large sup-
plemental effort by the community for the liquidation of illiteracy,
the improvement of sanitation and hygiene, etc. The Plan made a
lump sum provisions for the Community Development Projects and
local works to sustain such collective efforts.
OBJECTIVE OF THE PLAN— The central objective of planning
in India is to raise the standard of living and opening to the
people opportunities for a richer and more varied life. It must
therefore aim both at using more effectively the available human and
material resources and at reducing inequalities of income, wealth and
opportunity. Although in the initial stages of the Plan, the emphasis
must be on the increasing production, planning should not be confined
to stimulating economic activity within the social and economic
framework ; the framework itself had to be remoulded so as to secure
progressively for all members of the community full employment,
education, security against sickness and other disabilities and an
adequate income.
While India’s population had increased by 52 per cent during
the course of five decades, the increase in agriculture and industrial
production was less than proportionate.
The level of consumption, private incomes and savings were all
extremely low. Shortages were universal there are not enough of
food to go round, not enough houses to meet the needs of an expand-
ing community. The prices of essential commodities were rising
steadily, on the other hand, the partition of India caused considerable
damage to the India’s economy.
THE FIVE-YEAR PLANS
686
_ Before any real increase in the standards of life becomes possible,
agriculture must be rationalised and industry put on more secure
foundation ; and_ a better relation between the two spheres so ordered,
that opportunities for employment in industry would grow, and
relieve chronic under-employment in agriculture. So the Planning
Commission in 1950 was asked to draw up a plan which would lead!
to the “most balanced and effective use of our national resources.”
SOURCES OF FINANCE — The finances of the plan are to be
available from following resources — (1) Budget is expected to yield
a revenue surplus of Rs. 1,300 million during the five-year period.
(2) Development fund available from the revenue account of the
annual budget. (3) Public loans. (4) Small savings. (5) Con-
tribution from the railway development fund. In all, the total re-
sources at the disposal of the Centre will amount to Rs. 6,410 million,
while the funds that the States can raise is estimated at Rs. 4,800
million. The increased revenue of the States will come from land
taxes and estate duties, sales tax, betterment levies etc. This still
leaves a gap of Rs. 3,720 million. The ‘counterpart’ fund of the U.S.
food loan to India are also being used to finance developments. These
funds are the rupee proceeds from the sale of U.S. wheat in India.
Canada and Australia have also promised assistance under Colombo
Plan. If necessary, the GoveTmment will draw from the Sterling
Balances to the extent of Rs. 2,900 million.
FOREIGN CAPITAL— In view of the shortage of domestic
savings, the Planning Commission has recommended that the influx
of foreign capital should be encouraged. The Government of India
has accordingly laid down the following conditions to facilitate the
flow of foreign capital —
(1) No discrimination will be made between Indian and foreign
undertakings.
(2) Reasonable facilities will be given for the remittance of
profit and the repatriation of capital.
(3) Fair and equitable compensation will be given in the event
of nationalisation.
Original & Revised Estimates
(In Crores of Rs.)
Agriculture & Commu-
nity Develonment
Irrigation & Power
Industries & Minerals _ . .
Transports & Communi-
cations
Soci.nl Services
Miscellaneous.
Original
Estimate
Amount
p.c.
361
17.6
661
27.1
173
8.4
497
24.0
425
16.4
62
2.6
Revised Estimate
Amount
p.c.
372
16
661
28
179
7
556
24
647
23
41
2
2,069
2,356
586
HINDUSTAN YEAR BOOK
States Revised Developmental Espenditure
{In Crores of Rs.)
Part A Staes
Part B States
Part C States
Andhra
70.6
Hyderabad
47.0
Ajmer
1.8
Assam
21.2
M.B.
22.6
Bhophal
6.6
Bihar
66.0
Mysore
49.3
Coorg
1.2
Bombay
159.8
PEPSU
10.0
Delhi
6.7
M.P.
48.1
Rajasthan
26.8
Himachal
6.6
Madras
92.7
Saurashtra
27.4
Pradesh
Onissa
21.2
Travancore-
Kutch
3.2
Punjab
34.4
Cochin
31.2
Manipur
1.5
U. P.
129.8
Jammu &
Tripura
2.2
■W. Bengal
76.4
Kashmir
12.7
Vindhya
7.5
Pradesh
Pondichary
.7
Total
720.5
Total
225.3
Total
36.2
The expenditure of the Plan was to be met as follows — It was
proposed to fill the gap from external sources, borrowings and in-
ternal taxation.
Financial Resources of the First Five-Year Plan
{In Crores of Rupees)
Planned outlay on develop-
ment
Budgetary Resources
Savings from current
revenues
Railways
Loans from the Public . .
Small savings & unfund-
ed debt.
Deposits, fund & other
sources
Assistance from Centre to
States
Gap in resoxirces
External resources already
received from 1950-51
to 1954-55 ■ . .
Centre &
States
Centre only
States 0
2,366.8
1,374.6
982.!
699.0
160
439.0
170.0
170.0
—
115.0
36.0
79.0
270.0
270.0
—
132.8
90.0
42.8
_
—360.0
360.0
1,070.0
.1,008.6
61.4
2,366.8
1,374.6 .
982.2
154.6
154.6
. -
The Progress of the 1st Five-Year Plan — In the field of agricul-
ture, the result has been substantial. The production of foodgrains
has gone up by 20 per cent and the output of cottbn and major
oil seeds recorded an improvement of 45 and 8 per cent respectively.
THE FIVE-YEAR PLANS
587
over 16 million additional acres of land has been brought under,
irrigation. The generation of electricity has gone up from 6,575
million kv/h. in 1960-51 to 11,000 million kwh. in 1955-56. The out-
put of cement has increased from 2.7 million tons to 4.3 million tons
over the five-year period. Several major industrial projects has
been completed. The index of industrial production shows the out-
put to be about 22 p.c. higher than in 1961. The national income rose
in the last quinquennium by 18 per cent which is 7 per cent more
than original expectation. The following table gives the estimated
levels of national income, investment and consumption for 1950-51
and for 1966-56.
At 1952-53 prices
(Rs. crore)
1950-51 1955-56
1960-51
1955-56
National income 9,110
10,800
Per Capita Na-
Investment
450
790
tional Income
Investment as p.c.
(Index)
100
111
of National In-
Per Capita consu-
come
4.9
7.3
mer expenditure
National Income
(Index)
100
100
(Index)
100
118
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
The concrete plans for the Community Development Project and
other rural development programmes were formulated in 1952 imder
the Central directions of the Community Project Administration and
inaugurated on Mahatma Gandhi’s birthday Anniversary, Oct, 2, 1952.
This plan allots specific spheres in which people can participate ac-
tively, thereby reducing public expenditure on the Five-Year Plans.
This may be called Voluntary Sector. This plan with later exten-
sions and additions was implemented in forms known as Community^
Projects, Community Development Blocks, National Extension Service
and Local Development Works.
The general objective of these activities is to promote a people’s
movement in providing essential amenities for the villagers and re-
building good life for village communities through the people’s ini-
tiative and participation and with governmental assistance. The
diverse fields in which activities were planned consisted of Agricul-
ture, Communications. Education, Health, Training; Cottage Indus-
tries and Subsidiary Employment, Housing and Social Welfare.
The scope of the Community Development Project was enlarged
by the addition of a less intensive scheme called the National
Extension Service.
The basic aims of the community development may be summed up
as follows — (1) increase of agriculture, (2) tackling of unemploy-
ment problem in the rural areas, (3) improving village communica-
tions, (4) fostering primary education, public health and recreation
in the villages, (6) improving housing, (6) promotion of indigenous
handicrafts and small scale industries.
588
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Administration — At the top in Delhi is the Community Projects
Administration itself under the Planning Commission which -is called
the Central Committee. The Committee is assisted by an Advisory
Board consisting of the Secretaries of the Central Ministries of Food
and Agriculture, Health, Education, the additional Secretary to the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research and the
Government of India’s nominee on the Indo-U.S. Technical Fund
The Executive head is called Administrator of Community Pro-
jects, and his office is designated as Community Projects Adminis-
tration. It consists of a small secretariat and a number of technical
experts. This Administration is assisted by a team of advisers
drawn from various Central Ministries. In each State there is a
State Development Committee consisting of Chief Minister and
Ministers in charge of development departments for _ laying
down general principles. There is a Development Commissioner
w’ho acts as Secretary of the Committee . At the District level
there is a District Development or Planning Committee. The
Collector of the District will be the Chairman of the Committee and
the District Development Officer will be the secretary. The core of
the whole organisation is the multi-purpose village worker {yram-
sevak) who is directly in touch with the villagers and he guides,
instructs and educates them and the technical adviser who supervises
the work of a group of villege level workers. The agency in the
village through which much of the administration will be carried on,
•will be the village panchayat.
Financial Aspect of the Plan — ^The target of expenditure of the
scheme during First Five-Year- Plan is Rs. 101 crore, of which the
Central Government is meeting 75 p.c. of the non-recurring and 50
p.c. of the recurring expenditure, while the rest of the expen-
diture is home by the State Governments. In addition, the Central
Government coutributes 50 per cent of the recurring expenditure
on the staff, which will continue to function even after -the completion
of the programme.
The Community Projects also receive assistance from the
Government of the U.S.A. under the Indo-U.S. Technical Co-opera-
tion Programme. For the set of 55 projects in 1952 which is estima-
ted to cost about Rs. 40 crore, the U.S. contribution comes to about
Rs. 3.40 crore. Similar assistance of Rs. 2.66 crore has been
pro-vided by the U.S. Government for the next instalment of 56 com-
munity development blocks launched in 1953. From the beginning
Ford Foundation has been assisting by 'oroviding the training
for thousands of project workers. The Ford Foundation has also pro-
provided assistance for launching 15 pilot projects for rural
development.
NATIONAL EXTENSION SERVICE
Another scheme kno'wn as National Extention Service Scheme
was started in April, 1953 for rural welfare in India. The scheme
was inaugurated in all the States on October 2, 1953. The basic idea
of the National Extension Service is the same as that of Community
Projects and two have been integrated under one agency at the
THE FIVE-YEAR PLANS
589
Centre as well as in the States. The purpose of the National Exten-
sion Scheme is to carry modem methods of agriculture to the farmers
besides helping them to_ reorientate their outlook in other spheres.
The scope of the Extension Programme is however relatively larger
and more money will be invested in it.
The basic principles on which the national extension service move-
ment lays stress are three — (1) all aspects of rural life and inter-rela-
ted programme of improvement shall be comprehensive though there
might be emphasis on special sides of it, (2) motive force of
improvement should come from the people themselves. Self-help
is the root of all reforms. (3) Co-operative principle should be
applied in its infinitely varying forms for solving all problems of
rural life.
Some of the works of the Extension Scheme may be enumerated
as follows — (1) distribution of fertilisers, (2) distribution of seeds,
(3) bringing the land under fruit, (4) reclamation of land, (6) bring-
ing land under irrigation, (6) treatment of cattle, (7) distribution
of fingerlings, (8) construction of unmetalled roads, (9) laying of
metalled roads.
PROGRESS OF WORK
No. of
Community projects
Blocks 1952-63
(on conversion)
N.E.S. Blocks 1953-54
N.E.S. Blocks 1946-55
N.E.S. Blocks 1955-56
Mo. of Blocks
No. of villa-
persons
& where
ges covered
covered by
work has
by Blocks
Blocks indi-
started
indicated in
cated in
Column 1
Column 1
in millions
(1)
(2)
( 3 )
.. 167
25,264
16.4
■54 53
-56
7,693
. 4.0
.. 152
15,200
10.0
.. 110
1,100
7.3
.. 244
24,400
16.1
.. 225
22,500
14.8
951
96,157
68.6
SECOND FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Objectives . , ,
The central obj'ectives of public policy and of national endeavour
in India since Independence has been the promotion of rapid and,
balanced economic development. The First Five-Year Plan which
ended in March 1956 was intended as a step in that direction. It
laid foundations for achieving the Socialist pattern of Society. The
Second Five-Year Plan, which was submitted to Parliament on May
15, 1956 has to carry forward the process initiated in the First Plan
590
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
period. Within the broad approach, the Plan has been formnlated
•with the folio-wing main objectives —
(i) a sizeable increase of the order of 25 per cent in national
income so as to raise the level of li-ving in the coimtry ;
(ii) rapid industrialisation with particular emphasis on the
development of basic and hea'vy industries ;
(iii) a large expansion of employment opportunities ; and
Uv) reduction of inequalities in income and wealth and a more
even distribution of economic power.
Reduction of Inequalities
Economic development has to be combined with the reduction in
economic and social inequalities as between persons, classes and
regions by simultaneously raising incomes at the lowest levels and
reducing incomes at the top. Again, the reduction of inequalities
can follow only from the totality of measures and institutional
changes undei-taken as part of the plan, such as the pattern of in-
vestment, direction to economic activity given by State action, expan-
sion of social services, institutional changes in land ownership and
management, regulation of joint stock companies and the managing
agency system, gro\rth of the co-operative sector under State spon-
sorship and fiscal measures. So a variety of measures, fiscal, insti-
tutional and others have been recommended in the Plan. It has been
suggested that the possibility of introducing -tax reforms such as the
substitution of expenditure for income, at least for the higher income
groups, as the basis of personal taxation, an annual tax, on wealth
and taxation of gifts and capital must be carefully examined.
Through the progressive taxes and institutional changes, the concen-
tration of larger incomes in a few hands should be discouraged.
Industrial Policy
For the achievement of the objectives of the Plan the State vnll
have to assume an increasingly important role in the economic life
of the community. This has been made possible by the new Indus-
trial Policy Resolution of the Government of India passed in April
1956. This Resolution stresses the role and responsibility of the
State in promoting development and enlarges the scope of the public
sector so as to include -within it aU industries of a basic and strategic
importance or in the nature of public utility services. Industries
which are essential and require investment on a scale which only the
State could pro-vide -will also be developed in the public sector.
The new Resolution gives two schedules of industries — one con-
sisting of 17 industries, the future development of which -will be the
exclusive responsibility of the State, and the other of 12 industries
of great social import which will he progressively State-o-wned. In
the case of latter, the State -will generally take the initiative in estab-
lishing new undertakings, but private enterprise -will also be expect-
ed to supplement the effort of the State. All the other industries will
be left to the initiative and enterprise of the private sector, although
it will be open to the State to enter any field, as necessary.
Shift of Priorities ^
There is a considerable shift in favour of industries, mining and
transport and communications in the Second Plan. About half the
THE FIVE-YEAK PLANS
591
total expenditure, ns compared with about a third in the first Plan,
is to be devoted to these fields. H power is also taken as part of in-
dustrial development, the outlay works out to about 66 per cent of
the total. In absolute terms, the step-up in the outlay on industries
and minini? is very large — nearly 400 per cent. The outlay on agri-
culture and community development is about 12 per cent and against
16 per cent in the first Plan. The proportion of resources allocated
to Social Services is also slightly lower than in the first Plan.
Plan Outlay And Allocations
As against a total provision of only Rs. 2,069 crorc (later revised
to Rs. 2,366 crorc) for the First Plan, the total developmental outlay
of the Central and State Governments during the period of the
second Plan will be Rs. 4,800 crorc. The distribution of this amount
over the major heads of development, as well as a comparison with
the outlay in the first Plan, is given below :
DISTRIBUTION OF PLAN OUTLAY BY MAJOR HEADS
OF DEVELOPMENT
Ist Five-Year Plan 2nd Five-Year Plan
Total
provi-
sion
(Rs.
crorc)
Per
cent
Total
provi-
sion
(Rs.
crorc)
Per
cent
I. AGRICULTURE AND COM-
MUNITY DEVELOPMENT
(a) AyricxdlWG
Agricultural Program-
mes
Animal Ilusb.mdry
Forests
Fisheries _
Co-operation
Miscellaneous
(b) National^ Extension &
Coinmunilu Projects
(c) Other Proyrammen
Village Panchayats
Local Development Works
II. IRRIGATION AND POWER
Irrigation
Power
Flood control and other
projects, investigations,
etc.
2
3
4
6
.157
15.1
508
11.8
241
10,2
341
7.1
197
8.3
170
3.6
22
1.0
60
1.1
10
0.4
47
1.0
4
0,2
12
0.3
7
0.3
47
1.0
1
—
9
0.2
90
3,8
290
4.1
20
1,1
27
0.0
11
0.6
12
0.3
16
0.0
16
0.3
G61
28.1
913
19.0
384
10.3
381
7.9
200
11.1
427
8.9
17
0.7
105
2J2
592 HINDUSTAN
YEAR-BOOK
111. INDUSTRY AND MINING
179
7.6
890
ISA
Large and Medium
Industries
148
6.3
617
12.9
Mineral development
1
—
73
1.5
Village & Small Industries
30
1.3
200
. 4.1
IV. TRANSPORT & COMMU-
NICATIONS
557
23.6
1,385
28.9
Railways
268
11.4
900
18.8
Roads
130
5.0
246
5.1
Road Transport
12
0.5
17
0.4
Ports and Harhonrs
34
1.4
45
0.9
Shipping
26
1.1
48
1.0
Inland Water Transport
—
—
3
0.1
Civil Air Transport
24
1.0
43
0.9
Other Transport . . . .
3
0.1
7
0.1
Posts & Telegraphs
50
2.2
63
1.3
Other Communications . .
5
0.2
4
0.1
Broadcasting
5
0.2
9
0.2
V. SOCIAL SERIUCES
533
22.6
945
19.7
Education
164
7.0
307
6.4
Health
140
5.9
274
5.7
Housing
49
2.1
120
2*S
Welfare of backward
classes
32
1.3
91
1.9
Social welfare
5
0.2
29
0.6
Labour & labour wel-
fare
7
0.3
29
0.6
Rehabilitation
136
6.8
90
1.9
Special Schemes relat-
ing to educated un-
employment
5
0.1
VI. MISCELLANEOUS
69
3.0
99
100.0
Total . .
2,356
100.0
4,800
100.0
state Plans
Of the total development outlay of Es. 4,800 crore, Rs. 2,241 crore
represents the States' programmes. The size of each State Plan is
given below —
(Rs. Crores)
First Plan
Andhra . . . . 75.9
Assam . . . . 28.1
Bihar . , . . 104.4
Bombay . . . . 181.3
Madhya Pradesh .. .. 57.5
Madras . , . . 97.0
Orissa . . . . 85.2
Punjab .. 124.0
Second Plan
119.0
67.9
194.2 .
266.2
123.7
173.1
100.0
12G.3
FIVE-YEAR PLANS 593
Uttar Pradesh
165.9
263.1
West Bengal
••
151.9
163.7
TOTAL ‘A’ STATES
1071.2
1567.2
Hyderabad
57.0
100.2
Madhya Bharat
36.1
67.3
Mysore
63.2
80.6
Pepsu
, ,
39.2
36.3
Rajasthan
62.8
97.4
Saurashtra
29.8
47.7
Travancore-Cochin
35.4
72.0
Jammu & Kashmir
--
13.2
33.9
TOTAL 'B' STATES
326.7
635.4
Ajmer
3.6
7.9
Bhopal
9.3
14.3
Coorg
2.0
3.8
Delhi
10.6
17.0
Himachal Pradesh
7.5
14.7
Kutch
4.8
7.9
Manipur
2.2
6.2
Tripura
3.0
8.6
Vindhya Pradesh
9.3
24.9
TOTAL ‘C’ STATES
62.2
105.2
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
1.5
5.9
North East Frontier Agency
4.4
9.6
Pondicherry
,
0.8
4.8
TOTAL
•
6.7
20.2
Centre’s share of expenditure
on D. V. C.
■
12.2
National Extension Service and
Community Projects
• .
—
0.7*
GRAND TOTAL
1456.8
2240.9
Public and Private Sector
Of the total contemplated expenditure of Rs. 4,600 crore in the
public sector of the second plan, Rs. 1,000 crore roughly represents
♦This is in addition to Rs. 187 crore included in the Plan allot-
ments for individual States. For national extension and community
projects the Plan provides Rs. 200 crore, of which about Rs. 12 crore
are shown at the Centre. Provisional allotments under this head
were made to individual States when the State Plans were formulat-
ed ; these are to be reviewed when certain details of the programme
have been determined.
38
694
HINDUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
current expenditure and Es. 3,800 crore net investment, Le. expendi-
ture on buildiag up productive assets.
Investment
outlay
I. Agriculture & Community Development 338
(i) Agriculture . . • . 181
(ii) National Extension & Community
Development . • 157
n. Irrigation & Power - . 863
(i) Irrigation & flood control - . . 456
(ii) Power _ . . . . 407
m. Industries and Mining . . 790
(i) Large & medium industries &
mining . . - - 670
(ii) Village & small scale
Industries . . . . 120
rv. Transport & Communications . . 1,335
V. Social Services . . . . 455
VI. Miscellaneous . . . . 19
(Rs. Crore)
Current Total
outlay
230
160
70
50
30
20
100
20
80
50
490
80
outlay
563
341
227
913
4S6
427
890
690
200
2,385
945
99
Total 3,800
Private sector is likely to work out as follows —
1,000 4,800
(Bs. Crore)
Organised industry and Mining . . . . 575
Plantations, electricity undertakings & transport other
than railways . . . . . . 125
Construction . . . . . . ^ . .
Agriculture & village and small scale industries . . 300
Stocks .. .. .. 400
Total ■ . . 2,400
Taking the public and private sectors together, investment in the
economy over the Second Plan period has been estimated at about
its. 6,200 crores.
Structure of Economy.
At the end of the Plan period, the Indian economy is likely to
undergo the following changes in the composition of national
income —
NATIONAL PRODUCT BY INDUSTRIAL ORIGIN
(Rs. crore at 1952-53 prices)
50-51 55-56 60-61 Percentage
increase
during
1951-56 1956-61
.1. Agriculture and allied
pursuits .. 4,450 5,230 6,170 .18 18
2. Mining .. 80 95 ' 150 18 58
FIVE-YEAR
5. Factory establishments 590
4. Commerce, transport and
Communications . . 1,650
6. Small enterprises . . 740
6. Construction . . 180
7. Professions and services,
including government
administration . . 1,420
8. TOTAL NATIONAL
PRODUCT . . 9,110
9. Per capita income (Rs.) 253
PLANS
595
840
1,380
43
64
1,875
2,300
14
23
840
1,085
14
30
220
295
22
34
1,700
2,100
20
23
10,800
13,480
18
25
281
331
11
18
It is clear from the above that the national income is expected
to increase by about 25 per cent in the next five years. The average
level of consumption will, however, increase only by about 21 per
cent as a larger proportion of domestic output will need to be saved
and invested.
Financial Resources
It is planned to meet the expenditure in the public sector of the
second Plan in the following manner ; —
1.
Domestic Sources
{Rs. Crore)
(i) Surplus from Current Revenues
800
(a) at existing rates of taxation
350
(b) additional taxation
460
(ii) Borrowings from the Public
1,200
(a) market loans
700
(b) small savings
500
(iii) Other Budgetary Sources
(a) the Railway's contribution to the
development programme
150
(b) provident funds and other deposit
heads *
250
2.
Resources to be raised externally
800
3.
Deficit Financing
1,200
4.
Gap to be covered by additional measures to
raise domestic resources
400
Total
. . 4,800
It will be observed that about half the contemplated expenditure
on the Plan is proposed to be met from domestic sources — taxation,
borrowing and other budgetary sources of the remaining, 60 per cent
will be met through deficit financing and 33 per cent through expected
external aid.
SOCIAL WELFARE
Conception of Welfare State in India — The Socio-political
trends of the last century has a shift from the _ principles of
laissez-faire to the concept of Welfare State. The chief character-
istic of a Welfare State is the assumption of responsibility by the
State for the provision of minimum standards of economic and social
security for all citizens. The basic obligations of a Welfare State is
thus to guarantee fundamental human needs like food, shelter and
clothing and to render help to individuals in adverse circumstances.
The attainment of independence in 1947 marked a significant
stage in the growth of the Social Welfare services in India. Under
the republican constitution, economic and social policies^ became a
part of the Directive Principles of State Policy. These include the
recognition of the equal right of men and women to an adequate
means of livelihood and the right to equal pay. They also guarantee
the health of men, women and children and the protection of youth
and children from exploitation and moral and material neglect
Humane conditions of work, maternity relief and the promotion of
the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the
people are some of the other provisions enjoined by the Directive
Principles. In fact, the very preamble of the Indian Constitution as
also its chapters on Fundamental Principles of State Policy are an
e^licit and elaborate enunciation of the social policy of India. The
First Five-Year Plan sets the space for this journey for which our
Constitution has set the goal.
Central Social Welfare Board — ^As part of the First Five-year
Plan, the Central Government set up a Central Social Welfare Board
with the object especially of assisting voluntary agencies in organis-
ing welfare programmes for women and children and the handi-
capped groups. The Board in turn, in collaboration with State
Governments organised State Social Welfare Boards throughout the
country.
It has been established as an autonomous body under the admi-
nistrative control of the Union Education Ministry. It consists of
eleven members, six of which including the chairman are women.
This Board is composed of both officials and non-officials. Its prin-
cipal function is to distribute, as grants-in-aid the rupees 4
provided under the Plan to voluntary social organisations for
strengthening, improving and extending the existing activities in the
field of social welfare and for developing new programmes and carry-
mg pilot projects. It also explores the need for welfare servnces.
Co-ordination of welfare activities carried on by the various minis-
tnes of the Government of India and by the State governments is
another function of the Board. Among the other schemes directly
controlled by the Board are the Welfare Extension Projects, Urban
Famxly Welfare Projects and Training Programmes.
SOCIAL WELFARE
697
On August 15, 1954, the Central Social Welfare Board launched
a scheme of rural welfare now known as WeKare Extension Projects.
Each project covers a group of 20 to 25 villages and a population of)
about 20,000. The programme and activities of the projects relate
to the welfare of women and children.
The Central Social Welfare Board has also sponsored the Urban
Family Welfare. Under the scheme, industrial co-operatives are
being formed for starting small scale industries in selected areas.
Each of these industries will provide employment to about 500 women
of the lower middle class families.
Welfare of Women — Maternity and child welfare programmes
form an important item in the health programmes envisaged by the
Plan. Social Welfare Board is helping women’s institutions sponsored
by the important women’s organisations.
Rescue of Women and Girls in moral danger — Some sections of
the Indian Penal Code provide for the imprisonment and fines for
the procurement, bringing and selling of girls under 18 years for
prosecution. Similar penalties have also been prescribed for im-
porting into India girls below 21 years for this purpose. In addition,
special measures against immorial traffic are in force in eight
majority of States, mostly known as Suppression of Immoral Traffic
Acts or Prevention of Prostitution Acts. There are several institu-
tions which aim at making good citizens out of fallen women. Cen-
tral Social Welfare Board a;ppointed a Social and Moral Advisory
Committee in 1954 to study immoral traffic in women and girls in
India in all its aspects. In the committee’s opinion, the main problem
was the reclamation, housing, rehabilitation and after-care of the
women rescued from the brothels and those likely to fall victims.
Child Welfare — The major cause of susceptibility to children’s
disease is malnutrition. The Child Welfare Panel of the Social Wei-
fare Board has therefore recommended a comprehensive survey for the
supply of milk and other nutritious foods to children and the establish-
ment of child welfare centres in poor localities. The Child Welfare
Panel has also drawn attention to the -need of children’s literature
in both the national and regional languages.
Youth Welfare — The Plan has recommended that the Government
of India should sponsor the establishment of a national council of
affiliated youth organisations with a view to forming a non-political
and constructive youth movement. A sum of Rs. one crore has been
earmarked in the Plan for a comprehensive programme of youth
camps and labour service by the students.
Famihj Welfare — A fundamental cause of poverty in India is
excessive population. One of the chief conditions of economic pro-
gress is therefore limitation of numbers. This increase of
population is putting an increasing pressure on resources. Thus,
family planning forms an integral part of economic development.
The problem of family planning is two fold — education and mobili-
sation of public opinion on the need of limiting the size of the family.
Experiments in the rhvthm method of birth control has been under-
taken Ministry of Health has set up a Family Planning Research
and Programme Committee to carry out the proposals in the Plan.
698
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Welfare of the- Handicapped — ^“Handicapped’ is a comprehensive
term which includes defects, such as, partial or total blindness and
deafness, dumbness or other speech defects, epilepsy, paralysis, mal-
adjustment of organic structure and functions. The Central Social
Welfare Board has recommended that legislation should be enacted to
give priority and reserve vacancies in certain professions and indus-
tries for handicapped people. Closely allied to mental ill-health is
feeble-mindedness or educational subnormality. The most important
institution dealing with the problem of mal-adjusted child is the child
guidance clinic. The first clinic of its kind has come into existence in
Bombay.
Juvenile Delinquency — Juvenile delinquency affecting children
under 16 is a wide term and includes thieving, vagrancy, absentism
from home or school, idleness, night wandering in the streets, frequen-
ting of gambling houses and associations with bad characters. In
India, Apprentices Act of 1850, Reformatory Schools Act of 1897,
Whipping Act of 1909 and later Children Acts in most of the major
States, provided for protective and preventive measures. Bostal Acts
are intended for adolescent offenders. The next stage of legislation
was the Probation of Offenders Acts which enable the appointment
of Probation Officers to guide and supervise persons released on
probation. There are three kinds of correctional institutions for
juvenile offenders, namely, reformatory schools, bostral schools and
certified schools. Generally speaking, the reformatory and certified
schools are meant for the correction of offenders under 16 years.
The Borstal schools are meant for adolescent offenders between 16
and 21 years of age. Childrens Acts provide for childrens courts,
observation houses, probation officers and after-care organisations.
_ The Progess of the Board — The Central Social Welfare Board has
assisted 2,128 welfare institutions, of which 660 are women welfare
institutions, 591 child welfare institutions, 151 institutions serving
handicapped persons and delinquents and 726 institutions engaged in
general welfare work.
Voluntary Social Work— ^This work is being carried on by diffe-
rent institutions in different parts of the country in various spheres.
Some of the names of these institutions are given here — (1) All-India
Womens’ Conference, New Delhi ; Indian Red Cross Society, New
Delhi ; Tuberculosis Association of India, New Delhi ; Hind Kusht
Niwaran Sangh, New Delhi ; All-India Lighthouse for the Blind,
Calcutta ; National Association for the Blind, Bombay ; Sarva Seva
Sangh, Wardha ; Servants of India Society, Poona ; Ramkrishna
Mission, Belur, (Howrah) ; Gandhi Memorial Fund. New Delhi ;
Salvation Anny, Bombay ; Friends Service Unit, Calcutta ; Kasturba
Gandhi National Memorial Trust, Indore ; Nai Talimi Sangh, War-
dah ; Harijan Sevak Sangh, Delhi ; etc etc.
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE
external assistance in the implimentation of the
Five-Year Plan has been stated as follows : — “the role of external
assistance in relation to the Plan will be to supplement the real
resources of the country with commodities for which additional de-
mands will be_ generated in the process of development but the
domestic supplies of which are limited. External assistance would
help to avoid dislocations and to maintain a certain measure of
stability in the economy.”
External assistance has been received by India since 1951. The
Riding principle in the acceptance of this assistance has been that
it is only intended to supplement the resources of the country in the
implementation of the Five-Year Plan and is to be primarily marginal
in character.
India has received substantial technical and financial assistance
from these different sources. Until July 1955, the total foreign aid
received amounted to Rs. 26.8 crores. C)f his amount. Ks. 144.6 crore
were utilised during the years 1951-55. It is estimated that a sum
of Rs. 70.8 crore would be spent during the year 1956-57. This leaves
a balance of Rs. 62.6 Crore which will be utilised during the Second
Five-Year Plan.
Apart from the wheat loan from the U.S.A.; wheat grants from
Canada and Australia and the aid from the U.S.A. for procurement
of commodities, the space of utilisation of external assistance during
the first four years of the Plan has rather been slow than it was,
thought of, Host of the economic aid has taken the form of
special equipment and supplies not available locally. But for this
help, the development programmes would have been hampered or
slowed down. Finally the services of technical experts have been’
placed at the disposal of our developments project as well as training
facilities for our students abroad.
The foreign assistance to India comes from the following
sources : —
(1) Aids from United Nations and subsidiary bodies ;
(2) Loans from World Bank ;
(3) Aids from United States of America ;
(4) Colombo Plan aids from — (a) Australia, (b) Canada, (c)
New Zealand.
(5) Aids from Norway through United Nations ;
(6) Aids from Foundations ;
(7) Aids from Private parties.
(8) Russian aids and loans.
1. INTERNATIONAL BANK OF RECONSTRUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT
The International Bank for Reconstruction and De%'elopment has
given substantial loans to India* The ^irst loan of ^ 34 miliion was
600
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
sanctioned in August 1949 for the purchase of locomotives, the second
loan of ? 10 million in September of the same year for the purchase
of tractors to weed out kans grass, and a third loan $ 18.5 million
in 1950 for the Bokaro electric power-station which has already gone
into production. Of the loans offered by the World Bank, about $ 42
million were withdrawn before 1961-52. Of the remaining_ 18
million to be used to finance the Five Year Plan, only $ 6.2 million
were spent in 1952-53.
In December 1952, the Bank agreed for the first time to give a(
loan of $ 31.5 million to a private firm, the Indian Iron and Steel
Company, for expansion of iron and steel production facilities.
Another $ 19.5 million were sanctioned in January 1953 to meet the
foreign exchange expenditure of the Damodar Valley Corporation,
which amount was later reduced to $ 10 million.
During the year 1945-55, two further loans were given for pro-
jects in the private sector. The first was a loan of $ 16.2 million for
a thermal station in Trombay for electric power development (Tata
Hydro, Andhra and Tata Power Companies) and the second worth $
10 million for the newly set up Industrial Credit and Investment Cor-
poration. The two loans have been guaranteed by the Government
of India.
In 1956, the Bank has given two further loans. A loan of $ 75
million was given to the Tata Iron and Steel Company and another
loan of $ 20 million to the Indian Iron and Steel Company. In all,
the loans amount to nearly $ 220 million (Rs. 112 crores).
2. COLOMBO PLAN
The Colombo Plan is one of the world’s largest programmes of
economic development. It was bom at a meeting of Ministerial
representatives of Commonwealth of Nations Governments in
Colombo in January, 1950.
The original participants in the Plan were Australia, Canada,
Ceylon, India, New Zealand and United Kingdom with the Federation
of Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo and Sarwak — all Commonwealth
countries. It was however never intended that it shall be an exclu-
sively Commonwealth venture. The United States joined in 1951
and the door was kept open to other countries to enter on equal
terms with those already participating. Those which subsequently
entered were Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Nepal, the
Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. The Plan took in all the
countries constituting what is known as South and South-East Asia.
The Plan was formally inaugurated on July 1, 1961 and will
terminate on June 30, 1957.
The main idea of the Plan is that the countries of South and
South-East Asia will make maximum efforts to improve the Standard
of living for the people in this region while advanced countries wUl
supplement their efforts by providing such assistance as they arc in
a position to render.
The Plan comprehends the respective plans of the individual
countries and takes in the account, in overall perspective, the avail-
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE
601
able internal resources and the assistance, both financial and techni-
cal -which is required to ensure a reasonable pace of development.
Thus while the programme of development must he those of the
countries of the area, the role of outside countries is one of friends,
rendering assistance where needed. To be eligible for outside assis-
tance, therefore, a country must not only pursue its programme of
development on its own but must also be ready to do its best for the
implimentation of the programme.
The assistance rendered is of two kinds : (1) 'financial and (2)
technical.
Under Colombo Plan, assistance is available in the form of
Technological aid. Judicious use of science and technology in South
and South-East Asian countries is to be made in such a way that
their adoption does not interfere with the local economy by thro-wing
large number of people out of employment. Considerable emphasis
has been laid on this objective in the Colombo Plan.
Financial asistance has also been provided for in the Plan. This
includes the utilization of external assets of the countries of the
area, such as sterling balances, foreipm private investments, assis-
tance by international institutions like World Bank, and lastly assist-
ance on a govemment-to-govemment basis.
The Technical Co-operation Scheme provides a framework for the
exchange of technical assistance between participating countries.
Co-ordination is provided by a Council at Colombo, on which partici-
pating Governments are represented, and by the Bureau for Technical
Co-operation located in Colombo, which reports to the Council. Re-
presentatives of the U. N. Technical Assistance Board and the United
States attend as liaison officers of the meetings of the Council. The
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development has main-
tained close liaison with the committee in its work. An Information
unit in conjunction with the Bureau of Technical Co-operation at
Colombo assists member countries in promoting in their territories
knowledge of Colombo Plan.
AUSTRALIA — The total amount so far allocated by Australia
comes to about £ (A) 8 million. Of this, £ (A) 3.6 million were
utilized in the first year, namely, 1951-52, for the purchase of wheat
and flour. The money realized from their sale is being spent on
the Tungabhadra project in Hyderabad. During 1952-53, a sum of
£ (A) 1.6 million was allocated for construction and equipment for
the Tungabhadra project and for the electrical equipment for the
Ramagundam project.
Although the Australian Government made no definite contribu-
tion in 1953-54, it was agreed to offer financial aid to the
extent required for individual projects. Accordingly, up to July 1955,
it agreed to supply essential items for All-India Radio at a cost ofl
£ (A) 800.000 and 24 diesel rail cars and 2,000 metre gauge wagons
for the railways worth £ (A) 3 million.
CANADA — Canada’s contribution to India has been approxi-
mately $ 80 million. In addition to $ 16 million utilised for the
supply of wheat, the rupee proceeds of which were used on the
602
HINDUSTAN YEAH-BOOK
Mayurakshi project, Canada is also assisting this project directly
by the supply of $ 3 million of electrical equipment. The Canadian
allocation is also being used for the supply of locomotives, boilers’
etc. Canada has provided an aerial survey of the Jaisalmer area
and in addition has agreed to supply an atomic reactor at the cost of
$ 7 million. An agreement between India and Canada was signed
in December, 1966 for the Kundah Hydro-electric project in Madras
State, whereby Canada will contribute $ 20 million for equip-
ment for it.
NEIV ZEALAND — The New Zealand Government agreed to
provide $ 1 million over a period of three years since the begin-
ning of the Colombo Plan. This would meet a part of the cost to-
wards the building of the All-India Medical Institute, which was ex-
pected to be 3 3 million. However, owing to certain changes in the
plan, only one instalment of $ 250,000 has so far been utilized.
The Government of New Zealand has also offered another
sum of $ 250,000 for dairy equipment. The details of the schemes
have been worked out and the amounts are expected to be used during
the current and the following year. Another contribution amounting
to $ 400,000 has been earmarked for 1955-56. The schemes for the
utilization of the contribution are under consideration.
3. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Substantial aid has been received from U.S.A. The aid has been
provided under the Indian Emergency Food Act, the Point-i Grant,
and the Indo-U.S. Technical Co-operation.
Under the Indian Emergency Food Act, the U.S. Government
provided 5 190 million in 1951-52 for the purchase of 2 million tons
of foodgrains from that country. The loan is repayable in 25 years
and carries an interest of 2J per cent.
Under the Point-4 Agreement concluded on December 28, 1950,
provision was made for the loan of American experts for particular
projects and for the training of Indian students in the Uinted States.
Later,_ its scope was enlarged with the signing of the Indo-American
Technical Co-operation Agreement on January 5, 1952.
Under the Indo-American Technical Co-operation Programme,
the aid from the U.S.A. amounted to $ 244 million during the past
four years, i.e., from 1951-52 to 1954-56. Of this, 560 million were
received during 1951-52 ; 5 38.35 million in 1952-53 ; 5 82.5 million in
1953-54 ; and 5 73.1 million in 1964-55.
For the first two years, however, no distinction was made between
technical and_ development assistance. Thus, the money pro-
vided was utilized for both types of projects. But this distinction
was made in the allocation for the year 1963-64, when for the firstl
time, $ 60.6 million were made available for development assis-
tance. A similar sum was allocated in 1954-65.
The contribution for the latter year had two new features. First,
It was laid do^ that approximately 75 per cent of the assis-
■tance would be in the form of a loan . Secondly, about 60 per cent
of the aid would be in the shape of surplus' agricultural commodities.
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE
603
intimately, it was agreed that $ 45 million out of $ 60.5 million
allocated for 1964-55 would be on a loan basis. The loan is repay-
able in 40 years and carries an interests of 4 per cent. The payments
and the interest are to be in the rupees.
Joint Projects — An important item of the Indo- American
Programme concerns the 46 joint projects, for which the assistance
provided up to 1954-55 is being utilized. Among the projects are in-
cluded the import of fertilizers for direct use and demons-
tration purposes and of iron and steel for agricultural and industrial
use ; the drilling^ of 3,000 tube and exploratory wells and equipment
for power and irrigation projects like the Riband Control Dam.
Most important of all are the essential items of equipment like
vehicles, agricultural implements and visual aids for the community
projects.
The major item in the field of health includes the programme to
set up _ malaria control units and an all-India water supply
and sanitatoin scheme. The U.S. contribution is also being utilized
to obtain equipment for industrial, agricultural, medical, scientific,
educational and health research. Special mention may be made of
the aid for obtaining 100 locomotives and 8,000 wagons for the rail-
ways as also surplus agricultural commodities like wheat and cotton
to the extent of $ 30 million.
_ Finally, mention may be made for the sum of $ 15 million which
IS to be received from the sale of industrial steel and will
Im made available in the form of a loan, but free of interest, for
the setting up of the Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation
to aid private industries. The money realised from the sale of fer-
tilizers and agricultural steel is being utilized for the community*
projects.
4. THE FORD FOUNDATION
The work of the Ford Foundation began in India early in the
autumn of 1951. In the following three years, it has provided finan-
cial aid for a number of welfare programmes. The work
is mainly confined to (i) the development of rural areas with special
emphasis on the training of village workers ; (ii) the development of
small-scale and village industries ; (iii) the development of education,
research and training ; (iv) the strengthening of public ad-
ministration ; and (v) cultural interchange. The total assistance
promised or provided so far amounts to $ 8 million through Govern-
mental agencies.
Rural Development — ^By far, the major part of the assis-
tance has been devoted to the development of agriculture. To begin
with, it was proposed to establish 15 pilot extension projects of 100
villages each in 15 States. Most of the projects were in operation by
October 1952. By March 1964, the Ford Foundation had allocated
$ 1 , 200 , 000 .
The Ford Foundation also granted $ 1,873,485 for the establish-
ment of traning centres for the village extension workers. The
first centres were opened in early 1952, and today 43 such centres
604
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
are at work in the country. The trainees receive a six months’ paid
training cotirse combining class-room instruction with practical
training in the villages. By April 1954, more than 4,000 village
workers and nearly 700 supervisory personnel had been trained at
these centres.
Among the other projects aided by the Ford Foundation, mention
may be made of (i) five training centres for social education orga-
nizers : $ 375,363 ; (ii) three rural public health training centres :
$ 353,105 ; (iii) three training centres for project executive officers :
3 242,895 ; (iv) the organization of extension departments in five
agricultural colleges : $ 420,000 ; (v) agricultural information work-
shop at Lucknow : $ 4,500 ; and (vi) a journal for the cultivators :
§ 25,050.
Besides these, the Allahabad Agriculture Institute was given
assistance to strengthen its teaching and research programme. In
1952, a tour of 24 Indian Extension Directors to the U.S.A. and Japan
was subsidized to give them an opportunity to study extension
methods, in those countries. In 1953-54, fimds were also granted by
the Foundation to the National 4-H Foundation, IJ.S.A., for its pro-
gramme for promotion of international understanding among farm
youths. Under this project, 55 Indian farm youths spent six months
on farms in the U.S.A. and 20 American farm boys stayed for three
months on Indian farms. Another important project which received
the Fovmdation’s help was the Programme Evaluation Organization
of the Planning Commission set up in 19 States to guide rural pro-*
gramme, suggest ways of improving it and help to determine im-
proved methods.
Other projects scheduled to receive the Ford Foundatoin’s aid
are 25 centres for training women for village extension work :
5 618,000 and 20 centres for the training of village artisans :
$ 407,575.
Small Industries — ^In 1953, the Ford Foundation also offered
$ 1,607,000 to assist the development of small industries. On
the basis of the recommendations made by an international team, the
Government of India decided in June 1954 to set up four regional
institutes of technology to provide training in small industries, a
small industries corporation, a marketing service corporation and a
market news_ service. The Ford Foundation has given substantial
financial aid in setting up and equipping the institutes. Funds have
also been found for the employment of foreign technical specialists
and to train Indian technicians. Moreover, the Ford Foundation met
the expenses of the International study and planning team.
Education — ^The Ford Foundation has provdded assistance to
five education projects. They are : (i) the secondary education
study team of Indian and foreign experts who made a tour of the
secondary schools and teachers’ twining institutions in the U.S_.A,
the U.K., Denmark and India with a vnew to improving training
methods and_ curricula in Indian secondary schools : $ 102,500 ;
ill), seminars for headmasters of secondary schools : $ 58,000
(in) a tour of rural educators to Denmark to studv the folk high
school movement : $ 26,000 ; (iv) the study team of Indian rural
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE 605
higher education : ? 22,525 ; and (v) four vrorkshops for neo-lite-
rates : 12,630._ _
Public Administration — ^In 1954, the Government of India
received_ from the Ford Foundation a sum of $ 350,000 towards
the setting up of the Institute of Public Administration and financing
the Institute’s programme.
Cultural Interchange — ^The Ford Foimdation arranged ex-
changes of Indian and American individuals and groups in order
to foster greater understanding between India and the U.SA.. Among
these were several groups of American university students who
undertook study tours in India to acquire greater understanding of
common problems ; study tours of Indian social workers in the
U.SA.. and Japan ; and the exchange of Indian rural extension direc-
tors. The Ford Foundation also ^ve grants to young Americans
and teaching and research institutions in the U.SA. to encourage
them to study India’s art and culture.
In 1953, the Foundation offered funds for representative speci-
mens of American art to be brought to India and shown at the Inter-
national Contemporary Art Exhibition in Delhi and Calcutta. A
subsidiary of the Foundation in America, Inter-cultural Publications,
also prepared a special lO-page supplement on Indian literature and
art for distribution in America and this helped in increasing America’s
understanding of India’s rich heritage and culture.
5. NORWEGIAN AID
An agreement was signed in October 1952, under UJ^. auspices
by which the Norwegian Government imdertook to provide funds
and to supply experts and equipment for a Fisheries-cum-Community
Development Scheme in India. In the project area at Neendakara,
Kerala State, trainees are given training in operating mechanised
fishing crafts. A number of 22 ft. mechanised boats have been
supplied at concessional rates to trainees who have completed their
training. The 22-ft. boats are being constructed at that boat yard
in the project area. 'The fishing possibilities in the coastal areas
are being explored by Norwegian schooners. An ice factory with a
cold storage plant has been recently put into operation. Health
Services including a hospital and a dispensary has been established.
Fresh water from a nearby lake will be supplied to an area compris-
ing about 100,000 inhabitants. The pipes are manufactured in a
factory set up under the scheme.
6. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
In addition to capital aid, India has also obtained technical assis-
tance from foreign countries in the form of experts, fellowships and
scholarships, pilot and demonstration projects, training _ of techni-
cians, dissemination of technical information and equipment and
supplies. ... . j X -L
Sources .of Technical Assistance — India has received tech-
nical assistance under (i) the Regular and Expanded Programmes
of Technical Assistance of the United Nations and its specialized
606
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
agencies, (ii) the Colombo Plan Technical Co-operation Scheme, (iii)
the Technical Co-operation Programme (also known as the Point
Four Programme) of the U.S. Government, (iv) the Indo-Norwegian
Programme, (v) the Rockfeller Foundation and (vi) the Ford Founda-
tion of America.
Besides, ad hoc offers of technical assistance are received occa-
sionally from foreign governments, organizations, firms, institutions
and universities. Thus, the Commonwealth countries have agp-eed
to provide equipment and books of the value of Rs. 6 million for
technical and research institutions. Already, equipment worth
Rs. 1.3 million has been received. A major part of this has come
from the United Kingdom. Furthermore, equipment of the value of
$ 50,615 has also been received under the United Nations Programme
of Technical Assistance as ancillary to the services of the experts.
United Nations — The Reg^ar Programme of Technical Assis-
tance of the United Nations and its specialized agencies covers
fellowships and scholarships for social welfare, economic and social
development and public administration. The purpose of these fellow-
ships and scholarships is to enable the qualified personnel from the
member countries to study advanced methods and techniques in
foreign countries in the fields of social welfare and economic develop-
ment. The fellowships are normally for 3 to 6 months’ duration and
the scholarships for one to two years.
_ Under the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance of the
United Nations and its specialized agencies, on the other hand, assis-
tance is given to underdeveloped countries for agricultural and in-
dustrial development. The programme is financed by the member
Governments and it came into operation on July 1, 1960.
The specialized agencies providing technical assistance are (i)
the International Labour Organization (ILO), (2) the Food and Agri-
cultural Organization (FAO), (3) the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), (4) the World
Health Organization (WHO), (5) the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO), (6) the World Metereological Organization
(WMO), (7) the International Tele-communications Union (ITU),
(8) the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IRED), (9) the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and (10) thd
Technical Aid Administration (TAA).
ILO offers advice on employment problems, factory inspection,
industrial safety, industrial disputes, etc., FAO on problems relating
to the control of rinderpest and insects, nutrition, the deve-
lopment of fisheries, forestry, etc., while UNESCO helps in combating
illiteracy and in building up educational services. WHO, on the other
■hand, is concerned with health and the control of diseases,
ICAO vdth air traffic control, the installation of navigational facilities
in airports, etc., and WHO with problems concerning the development
of weather conditions. ITU advises on radio frequencies and allied
matters, IBRD on long-term development programmes and such other
subjects and IME on problems like monetary, banking and balance
-of payments. Finally, the TAA deals with such projects as do not
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE 607
fall within the province of any specialized agency where co-ordination
with a number of agencies is involved.
As stated earlier, the programme is financed through voluntary
contributions from the member Governments. The position with
regard to India’s contribution to the programme and the assis-
tance received by her is indicated below.
Period
Contribution by
India
Allocation by Technical
Assistance Board for
projects in India
1950-61
Rs. 260,000
Rs.
148,058
1952
Rs. 276,000
Rs.
1,046,248
1953
Rs. 276,000
Rs.
945,696
1954
Rs. 300,000
Rs.
986,068 (estimated)
1955
Rs. 400,000
(promised)
Rs.
983,140 (estimated)
So far, India has received the services of 440 technicians and 362
Indians were offered training facilities. In addition, 191 Indian
technicians were also sent to other countries under the United
Nations Programme, while 181 foreign nationals were trained in
India.
Colombo Plan Technical Co-Operation Scheme — The Colombo
Plan Technical Co-operation Scheme came into existence as a result
of the Commonwealth Consultative Committee held at Sydney in May
1950.
Up to June 1955, India secured training facilities for 565 candi-
dates both from the public and private sectors. Of these, Australia
accepted 148, Canada 109, New Zealand 62 and the United Kingdom
245. One trainee is being sent to Japan also. In addition, 82 experts
were received under the scheme. Of these, 6 were from Aus-
tralia, 6 from Canada, 7 from New Zealand and G4 from the United
Kingdom.
U. S. TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION
The Indo-American technical co-operation programme has as its
basic intent to aid in the economic and social development of India,
the same as the Colombo Plan and the United Nations technical assis-
tance. The Indo-American programme, in its present form, dates
from the signing of the general agreement between Governments
of India and U.5-A. on January 6, 1952. Since that time, the two
countries have signed agreements for G3 projects in support of India's
Five-Year Plan,
From the beginning of the programme to June 30, 1956, India
has subscribed a total of approximately Rs. 3,7 billion or the equiva-
lent of $ 776 millions and the United States total of $ 326.8 million
for Indo-American projects. .
Broadly speaking, the U.S. contribution to the jomt effort is used
to provide American technical specialists and train Indian technicians
overseas, to procure demonstration equipment for pilot projects ; to
608
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
to pay costs of contracted services such as in the drilling _ of
tube-wells ; and provide other assistance in the form of steel, capital
equipment, foodstuffs and other commodities. Rupee expenditures
are mainly for transportation and handling costs within India, salaries
of Indian personnel and construction costs.
Joint projects under the Indo-American programme are in
support of India’s Five-Year Plans. These joint programmes are
approved by the Planning Commission on behalf of the Govern-
ment of India and by the U. S. Technical Co-operation Mission
(T. C. M.). New Delhi, representing the International Co-operation
Administration (I.C.A.) of the Government of the U.SJ^. All joint
progrrammes in India are administered by the appropriate .agencies of
the Government of India. The T.C.M. oflBce is in Faridkot House,
Lytton Road, New Delhi.
In the first years, emphasis of the Indo-American Programme was
largely on agriculture development, since this occupied top priority
in the First Five-Year Plan. Accordingly, the projects are in the
following fields : Community development, tube-wells, river valley
development, fertilizer and steel. Meanwhile a nationwide malaria
control programme was developed as a major effort in the health
field. Although much emphasis remains on agriculture, natural
resources and health under the 1956 programme, increasing import-
ance is attached to industrial projects in line with the accele-
rated programme of industrial development under India’s Five-Year
Plan. One-third of the Indo-American programme is now devoted to
these ends.
An integral part of the Indo-American programme is the
American Technical expert. The effort in India totals 197 men
and women technicians. They include agriculturists, doctors, nurses,
educators, industrialists, railroad engineers, chemists and social^ wel-
fare workers. A total of 391 American technicians have been assigned
to India from 1952 to 1956. During this period 558 Indian partici-
pants have already been abroad for study and training or are now in
process.
RECAPITULATION OF INDO-AJIERICAN PROGRAMME
(1952-1956)
I
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE
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610
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Indo-Norwegian Aid Programme — ^The Government of Norway
has also loaned the services of a few experts. At present, 10 Norwe-
g^ian experts are working on the Indo-Norwegian project for fishery
community development in Travancore-Cochin Government have
received training in fisheries in Norway and six more have been
approved for training.
RUSSIAN LOAN
A long-term credit of about 500 million roubles (roughly Rs. 60
crores) offered by the Government of the USSR has been accepted by
the Government of India for the purchase of machinery for the
Second Five-Year Plan in Nov. 1956.
The credit will be on the same terms as the one for the Bhilai
steel project, namely, two-and-a-half per cent interest and re-
payment in twelve annual instalments.
ASSISTANCE FROM U. K.
Colombo Plan — Upto 1956, the United Kingdom has supplied or
offered to India equipment costing about £150(000 (Rs. 20 lakhs).
In addition it had provided 80 experts for service in India and train-
ing in the U. K. for some 350 Indians.
Steel Plant — For one million ton steel plant which British firms
are building at Durgapur in West Bengal, the United Kingdom made
available £ 26* million (Rs. 35.33 crores) in credit. Over the next four
years 300 Indian technicians who will operate Durgapur will be train-
ed in steel plants in Britain under the Colombo Plan at the expense
of the British Government.
Industrial Collaboration — British Industry is collaborating in the
industrial development of India, both in the public and private sectors,
through large scale investment, manufacture in India by nearly 160
Indian firms under licensing and other arrangements of British pro-
ducts and industrial training in the United Kingdom of Indian techni-
cians at the expense of British Industry.
LOANS FROM INDIA
India had given to Indonesia two loans, totalling Rs. 3.76 lakhs,'
India had also agreed in 1955 to advance a loan to Burma.
So far grants totalling about Rs. 4.05 crores had been given by
India to Nepal and a provision of Rs. 1.45 crores for a further grant'
to Nepal existed in the current 1955-56 budget.
India had agreed to provide Nepal financial assistance to the
extent of Rs. 10 crores for implementing her Five-Year Plan w'hose
total outlay was about Rs. 33 crores. In addition to financial aid,
technical help was also given to Nepal by India for implementing
her First Year Plan.
ATOMIC ENERGY IN INDIA
In the fields of atomic research, India is now maintaining the
lead among the countries in Asia. Under the Industrial Policy
Resolution of 1948, atomic energy in India was made the exclusive
subject of the Government. India created an Atomic Commission as
early as in 1948 to lay the foundation of the country’s atomic develop-
ment. It deals vath all matters connected with the development and
production of atomic energy. Its immediate aims were the pro-
motion of nuclear research, the survey, prospecting and process-
ing of raw materials and setting up of an experimental reactor.
India’s long-term objective is to generate power from atomic
energy to light the countryside, to turn her industries and
supply tools to science to improve agriculture apd to fight disease.
T^e basic work is being largely concentrated in the Tata Ins-
titute of Fundamental Research, Bombay. Important work has also
been done at the Bose Institute and the Institution of Nuclear
Physics in Calcuttaj and the research centres at Aligarh, Ahmeda-
bad, and Gulmarg in Kashmir. In order to raise the standard
of instruction in mathematics, chemistry and physics, substantial
grants are given by the Atomic Energy Commission to several
educational institutions.
Department of Atomic Ener^ was opened in 1954 and is
under the direct control of the Prime Minister. Dr. H. J. Bhabha,
Chairman of the A. E. C. is its Secretary. The Department is
located at Trombay, near Bombay and has taken over all matters
connected with atomic research from the Slinistry of Natural
Resources and Scientific Research. The establishment consists of
three main groups — physical, chemical and engineering research.
A swimming pool reactor designed and built by the per-
sonnel of the A. E. Department of Trombay went into operation
on August 4, 1956, and vras formally opened by the Prime
Minister ilr. Nehru, on 29th Jan., 1957, and the reactor was named
Apsara, This reactor will produce isotopes for biological, medical
and industrial research and will be used for training engineers for
the projects to be erected in future. An agreement has been si^ed
with Canada under Colombo Plan for the construction of a high-
power NRX reactor. The Canadian reactor will cost about 7 crores
and will produce 20,000 kw. A third reactor to study the different
shapes and sizes of fuel elements is also expected to go into opera-'
tion in the first half of 1958.
An countrv desirous of harnessing nuclear energy for peace-
ful purposes must have : (1) Uranium 235 or Plutonium, or fur-
ther fuel from thorium U. 238 ; (2) Beryllia, graphite or hea^-y v/ater
as a moderator ; (3) zirconium, beryllium or niobium for sheathing
fuel ; (4) boron, in some form or other, as control ; and (5) sodium,
or bismuth as coolants.
612
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The beach sands of Travancore-Cochin and Madras carry 0.5
to 2.0 per cent of monazite (a phosphate compound of rare
earths). They constitute an easily accessible source of uranium, the
exploitation of which -will also yield substantial tonnages of thorium
and other valuable rare earth compounds.
Indian monazite contains from 0.2 to 0.46 per cent of uranium
oxide, and 8 to 10 per cent of thorium oxide. Estimates of uranium
available are of the order of several thousand tons. From known
data a tentative estimate of 2,000,000 tons of monazite containing
160,000 to 180,000 tons of thorium oxide may be accepted as a con-
servative figure.
An intensive search is under way in India for atomic minerals.
The Indian Government is awarding up to Rs. 10,000 for the discovery
of new uranium deposits capable of producing 50 tons of ore
assaying 0.4 per cent of uranium oxide, and lesser rewards for bring-
ing uranium-bearing materials to its notice.
Beryllium is found in India as beryl-*-a silicate compound. This
contains ten per cent of the oxide and 3.5 to 4.2 per cent of the metal.
Domestic production, mainly associated with mica deposits is of the
order of 1,000 tons of beryl a year.
The other useful minerals for the production of atomic energy in
India are — Zirconium reserves of India (silicate of the metal) in the
sands of Travancore-Cochin alone are of the order of 5,000,000
tons. Boron 10 is another valuable element used in atomic energy
development, but it is not found in India. Tibet produces and exports
substantial amounts of borax to India. Another metal of value in the
atomic energy field is colombium generally associated with tantalum,
as combined oxides. It is found associated with mica and beryl in
course granite rocks in India and tin deposits in Nigeria.
A plant to turn uranium salt into uranium metal has already
been designed and is expected to come into operation by the middle
of 1958. (Uranium salt is produced at the establishment from
uranium and thorium cake manufactured at the Alwajn plant in
South India during the processing of monazite sand).
The heavy wnter, another chemical required in nuclear reactors
to serve as moderator, would be also manufactured in quantity.
The fertilizer plant to be set up at Nangal would produce 10 to 20
tons of heavy water per year. It was also the intention of the
Government to produce heavy water in all fertilizer factories which
would be set up in the Second Five-Year Plan. It is the intention
of the Government to erect plants for the manufacture of beryllium
and irconium metals. India is the largest producer in the world of
the rare mineral K. Beryl from which beryllium metal was obtained.
The metal irconium could be obtained from ircon sand founds in the
south-west coast of India. Both the metals have important uses in
advanced types of atomic reactors.
A.E.D. is starting training programmes from June, 1957 to
ensure a steady supply of trained scientific and technical personnel.
Two hundred and fifty youngmen would be recruited annually from
universities and given supplimentery training for a year to fit them
for work in India’s atomic energy programmes.
ATOMIC ENERGY IN INDIA
613
Atomic energy commission has set np the Indian Rare Earths
Ltd. in Kerala owned by the Government of India and Kerala. The!
factory has been set up in 1952 at Alwaye. It extracts residual
thorium/uranium cake from the monazite sand of Travancore-Cochin
for use in atomic energy development. A thorium /uranium plant at
Trombay, which began production in 1955 further processes the
material received from Alwaye and produces thorium nitrate and
uranium. An uranium purification plant is to be built at Trombay
during the Second Plan period as also a pilot plant for extracting'
uranium ore at the Indian Copper Corporation’s factory at Ghatsila.
The scheme for the production of heavy water has also been
finalised. The decision is to produce heavy water and fertilizer
together in a large plant which is being built at Nangal (Punjab).
This plant will alone give us 10 to 20 tons of heavy water per annum.
The Prime Minister of India, Mr. Nehru on the occasion of the!
formal opening the India-made reactor Apsara at Trombay in
January 1957 said, “The energy produced by the atomic reactor will
never be used for evil purposes, whatever the circumstances.” In
fact India has always declared that atomic energy should always be
used for peaceful purposes. In the world conference at Geneva in
August, 1955 on the peaceful application of nuclear power, India took
a prominent part and declared its unflinching support in the use of
atoms solely for peaceful purposes. The Indian atomic leader,
Mr. Bhabha was the President of this conference.
On Dec. 23, 1955, it was announced in London and Delhi that
an agreement has been reached between India and England for
“close co-operation and mutual assistance between U.K. Atomic
Energy Authority and the Indian Departments of Atomic Energ;y
in the promotion and development of the peaceful uses of atomic
energy. The agreement provided (1) that members of the staffs
of both bodies would consult and work together on mutually agreed
topics (2) that the U.K. Atomic Energy Authority would
provide the Indian Dept, of Atomic Energy with enriched uranium
full elements for a ’swimming pool’ reactor under construction in
Bombay (3) that the Authority would also assist in the design and
construction of a high flux reactor which might be built in India,
It was also announced on Feb. 22, 1956 by the American Atomic
Energy Commission that U.S.A. had approved the sale of
21 tons of heavy water to India at $ 28 per pound on condition that
all supplies will used for peaceful application.
PEACEFUL USE OF ATOMIC ENERGY
From February 27 to April 18, 195G, a conference took place in
Washington between representatives of Australia, Brazil, Canada,
Chechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, India, Portugal, the Soviet
Union, the Union of South Africa and the United States of America
to elaborate the draft statute of the International Atomic Energy
Agency. The idea of setting up an international body concerned with
the peaceful uses of atomic energy was expressed by President Eisen-
hower in his address to the United Nations General Assembly in
614
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
December 1953. During subsequent negotiations between the Gov-
ernments of the United States, the Soviet Union and other cpuniries
agreement in principle was reached on the creation of an interna-
tional atomic energy agency. While supporting President Eisen-
hower’s suggestion, the Soviet Government and the Government of
India pointed to shorcoming in it, namely that it neither provided for
a halt in the atomic arms race nor put any restriction on the possibje
use of atomic weapons.
In August 1955, the U.S. Government sent all members of the
U. N. or its specialized agencies (the World Health Organization,
UNESCO, the International Labour Organization and a number of
other international organizations) a draft statute of the International
Atomic Energy Agency prepared as a result of talks between eight
countries — ^the USA, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, Belgium,
Portugal and the Union of South Africa. The draft provided for the
institution of an international agency on the lines of the U.N. specia-
lised bodies. The principal organs of the agency were to be the
General Conference comprising representatives of all members of the
agency and a board of Governments of 16 members of the Agency.'
All power is to be vested not in the General Conference, but in th^
Board of Governors, in which certain States are expected to play fl
dominating role. India and Kussia pointed to these shortcomings and
expressed the desire that no single country or group of countries
should have a privileged position in the Agency.
On December 3, 1955, the 10th Session of the U.N. General
Assembly approved the negotiations on the elaboration of the Statute
and the intended convocation of a conference of 12 States to prepares
the draft Statute of the Agency and submit it for consideration to an
international conference of all members of the U.N. and its specia-
lised agencies. This conference of 12 States opened in Washington
on February 27 1956.
Later, another conference of the representative of 81 nations
were held in Washington from September 20, 1956 to discuss the
draft statute of the proposed atomic energy commission. The_ draft
statute for the proposed international atomic energy commission,
drawn up with the participation of 12 countries including India, USA,
UK, USSR, France, Canada and Australia, said that the agency shall
seek to accelerate and enlarge contribution of atomic energy to the
peace, health and prosperity of the world.
To that end the agency be authorized to provide “materials, se:>
vices, equipment and facilities to meet the need for research on, and
development and practical application of atomic energy for peaceful
purposes, including the production of electric power, with due consi-
deration for the needs of the under-develoved areas.”
The Indian representative. Dr. Bhaba said that the various
safeguards proposed to be included in the statute would divide the world
into atomic “haves” and “have-nots”. Criticising the draft statue.
Dr. Bhaba said that it gave the agency power to interfere in the eco-
nomic life of States which came to it for aid, “though a control over
the fissionable -material required their future electric power genera-
tion. It therefore constitutes a threat to their independence which will
ATOMIC ENERGY IN INDIA
615
be greater in proportion to the extent that this atomic power genera-
tion is developed through agency aid,”
He said that the safeguards would not affect the countries
already ahead in the development of atomic energy and atomic
weapons. The safeguards would hit hardest the underdeveloped
countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. “The present safe-
guards will give the agency maximum powers of interference in such
areas,” he said. The main problem that confronts the proposed body
is its relationship with the UNO, While India and Russia maintain
that it should function in close co-operation with the UNO, the USA!
and the UK suggested that it should be an indepedent body, like other
specialised agencies.
It is intended to set up a preparatory committee of 12 represen-
tatives of the States which took part in the Washington Conference
and of six other States to be elected by the International Conference
for the ratification of the Statute, The preparatory committee will
function till the General Conference is convened and the Board of!
Governors elected in accordance with the Statute. The duty of the
preparatory committee will be to prepare for the first session of the
General Conference and to appoint to the first Board of Governors
those members whose appointment falls to the outgoing Board.
Article in of the proposed draft defines the powers and func-
tions of the Agency as follows : (1) to encourage and assist research
on, and development and practical application of, atomic energy for
peaceful uses throughout the world ; and to act as an intermediary
for the purposes of securing the performance of services or the
supplying of materials, equipment of facilities by one member of the
Agency for another; (2) to foster the exchange of scientists and
experts and the exchanges of scientific and technical information in
the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy; (3) to _ establish and
administer safegurds designed to ensure that materials, services,
equipment and information made avilable by the Agency are not used
in such a way as to further any military purposes ; (4) to establish
and apply safety standards for the protection of health and the reduc-
tion to the minimum of danger to life and property in the use of ato-
mic energy for peaceful purposes ; (5) to acquire or create any
installations, plants or equipment which may be necessary for the
Agency to carry out its functions.
The Board of Governors consisting of 23 members shall be the
executive body. - J
CENTRAL ACTS 1956
1. The Companies Act 1 of 1956 — To consolidate aiid_ amend the
la-sv relating to companies and certain other associations.
2. The Represejitation of the People (Amendment) Act 2 of 1956
— Further to amend the Representation of People Act, 1950
and to make certain consequential amendments in the Gorem-
ment of Part C States Act, 195L
3. The University grants Commission Act S of 1956 — To make pro-
vision for the co-ordination and determination of standards
in Universities for that purpose, to establish a University
Grants Commission.
4. The Bar Councils (Validation of State Lams) Act U of 195$ —
To validate certain State Laws amending the Indian Bar
Councils Act, 1926.
5. Appropriation Act 5 of 1956.
6. The Voluntary Surrender of Salaries (Exemption from Taxa-
tion) Amendment Act 6 of 1956.
7. Sales-Tax Lams Validation Act 7 of 1956 — ^To validate laws of
States imposing or authorising the imposition of taxes on the
sale or purchase of goods in the course of inter-state trade or
commerce.
8. The Capital Issues (Continuance of Control) Amendment Act S
of 1956.
9. The Life Insurance (Emergency Provisions) Act 9 of 1956 — To
provide for taking over, in the public interest, of the manage-
ment of life insurance business pending nationalisation thereof.
10. Control of Shipping (Continuance) Act 10 of 1956.
11. The Appropriation (Vote on Account) Act 11 of 195$.
12-16. The Appropriation (Railmays) Acts 12, IS, 15, 15 and 1$
of 1956.
Vi. The Indian Registration (Amendment) Act 17 of 1956.
18. The Finance Act IS of 1956 — ^To give effect to the financial pro-
posals of the Central Government for the financial year
1956-57.
19. The Appropriation (No. 2) Act 19 of 1956.
20. Travancore-Cochin Appropriation (Vote on Account) Act 20 of
1956.
21. St. John Ambulance Association (India) Transfer of Funds Act
21 of 1956.
22. The Indian Red Cross Society (Amendment) Act 22 of 1956.
23. The Travancorc-Cochin (Appropriation) Act 25 of 1956.
24. The Parliamentary Proceedings (Protection of Publication)
Act 25 of 1956 — To protect the publication of Reports of
Proceedings of Parliament.
25. The AU-India Institute of Medical Sciences Act 2o of 1956 — To
pro\ide for the establishment of an All-India Institute of
Medical Sciences.
26. The Indian Income Tax (Amendment) Act 26 of 1956.
27. The Representation of the People (2nd Amendment) Act 27 of
CENTRAL ACTS 1956
617
28. The Agricultural Produce {Development and Ware-housing)
Corporation Act 28 of 1956 — ^To provide for the incorporation
and regulation of corporations for the purpose of development
and ware-housing of agricultural produce on co-operative
principles and for matters connected therewith.
29. The Travancore-Cochin State Legislature (Delegation of
Powers) Act 29 of 1956.
30. The Hindu Succession Act 30 of 1956 — To amend and codify the
law relating to intestate succession among Hindus.
The Hindu Succession Act is intended to evolve a fairly uniform
system of law in the entire country with respect to intestate succes-
sion. The list of heirs has been rationalized and can be said to bei
based on the love and affection theory. There are several notable
features of this Act which make it a land-mark in the social history
of India.
The Act will apply to all Hindus — a term which is defined to in-
clude all persons not professing the Muslim, Christian, Parsi or
Jewish faith.
The biggest change made by the Act is that women are now
eligible to inherit and hold property in the same way as men. In the
past even where women inherited some property they had only limited
rights over it, they could not, for instance, sell it except in certain
circumstances and they could use it only in their lifetime. The pre-
sent Act has removed these disabilities.
The Act has for the first time provided the daughter with a
share in the father’s property both self-acquired and ancestral.
Certain safeguards have been provided in the Act for preserving
intact family dwelling houses.
31. The Life Insurance Corporation Act 31 of 1956 — To provide for
nationalisation of life insurance business in India by transferr-
ing all such business to a Corporation established for the pur-
pose and to provide for the regulation and control of the
business of the Corporation and for matters connected there-
with or incidental thereto.
32. The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act 32 of 1956 — To
amend and codify certain parts of the larv relating to minority
and guardianship among Hindus. The Act recognises parente
as the natural guardians of a Hindu minor and if the minor
is a married girl, the husband has been recognised as the
natural guardian. The Act lays down that the natural guar-
dian shall not, without the previous permission of the court,
mortgage or charge or transfer by sale, gift, exchange or
othcnvise, any part of the immovable property of the minor
or lease any part of such property for a term exceeding five!
' years or for a term exceeding more than one year beyond the
date on which the minor attains majority. The testamentary
guardian has been given all rights of a natural guardian sub-
ject to some restrictions. The Act prevents a defacto guar-
dian of a Hindu minor from alienating the minor’s property.
The Act provides that no ^ardian shall be appointed for
minor’s undivided interests in joint family property.
618
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
33. The Inter-State Water Disputes Act SS of 1956 — ^To provide for
the adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-state
rivers and river valleys.
34. The Multiunit Co-operative Societies {Amendment) Act Si of
1956.
35. The Indian Lac cess {Amendment) Act 35 of 1956.
36. The Industrial Disputes {Amendment and Miscellaneous Provi-
sions) Act 36 of 1956.
37. The States Reorganisation Act 37 of 1956 — ^To provide for the
reorganisation of States of India and for matters connected
therewith. As from 1st November, 1956, the territories of the
Union of India have been divided into 14 States and Territories.
The Act establishes five Zonal Councils. Each Zonal Council
shall be an advisory body and may discuss any matter in which
some or all of the States represented in that Council, or the;
Union and one or more of the States represented in that Coun-
cil, have a common interest and advice the Central Govemmpt
and the Government of each State concerned as to the action
to be taken on any such matter.
38. The Reserve Bank of India {Amendment) Act 38 of 1956.
39. The Code of Criminal Procedure {Amendment) Act 39 of 1956.
40. The Bihar and West Bengal {Transfer of Territories) Act 40 of
1956 — To provide for the transfer of certain territories from
Bihar to West Bengal and for matters connected therevdth.
The Act transfers from Bihar to West Bengal certain portions
of Kishanganj sub-division and Gopalpur thana of Pumea
district and certain portions of Purulia sub-dmsion of
Manbhum district,
41. The Industrial Disputes {Amendment) Act 41 of 1956.
42. The Securities Contracts {Regulation) Act 42 of 1956 — ^To pre-
vent undesirable transactions in securities by regulating the
business dealing therein, by prohibiting options and by pro-
viding for certain other matters connected therewith.
43. The Appropriation {No. 3) Act 43 of 1956.
44. The Appropriation {No. 4) Act 44 of 1956.
45. The Newspapers {Price and Page) Act 45 of 1956 — ^To provide
for the regulation of the prices charged for newspapers in
relation to their pages and of matters connected therewith for
the purpose of preventing unfair competition among news-
papers so that newspapers may have fuller opportunities of
freedom of expression.
'46. The Travancore-Cochin Appropriation {No. 2) Act 46 of 1956.
47. The Indian Coconut Committee {Amendment) Act 47 of 1956.
48. The National Highways Act 48 of 1956 — ^To provide for the
declaration of certain highways to be national highways and
for matters connected therewith.
49. The River Boards Act 49 of 1956 — ^To provide for the establish-
ment of River Boards for the regulation and development of
inter-state rivers and river valleys.
50. The Indian Cottoji Cess {Amendment) Act 50 of 1956.
51. The Indian Institute of Technology {Kharagpur) Act 51 of 1956
CENTRAL ACTS 1956
619
— ^To declare the institution known as the Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur to he an institution of national im-
portance and to provide for its incorporation and matters
connected therewith.
52. The Government Premises (Eviction) Amendment Act 52 of
1956,
53. The LoJe Sohoynle Send Act 53 of 1956 — ^To provide for the cons-
titution of a Lok Sahayak Sena for imparting military training
to citizens of India. The Act provides for the raising and
maintenance by the Central Government of a force designated
as the Lok Sahayak Sena. The Act also provides for the estab-
lishment of camps and enrolment of volunteers between the
ages 18 and 40, defines duties and prescribes penalties for the
volunteers.
64. The Indian Post Office (Amc7id7nent) Act 54 of 1956.
55. The Supreme Corirt (Number of Judges) Act 55 of 1956 — To
provide for an increase in the number of Judges of the Su-
preme Court excluding the Chief Justice.
56. The State Financial Corpo7-ations (Amendment) Act 56 fo 1956,
57. The PuhUe Debt (Amendment) Act 57 of 1956.
58. The Central Excise a7id Salt (Amendment Act 58 of 1956.
59. The Indian Raihvays (Amendment) Act 59 of 1956.
60. The Representation of People (third Amendment) Act 60 of
1956.
61. The Khadi and Village Industries Commission Act 61 of 1956 —
To provide for the establishment of a Commission for the
development of Khadi and Village Industries and for matters
connected therewith,
62. The Jammu & Kashmir (Extension of Laras) Act 62 of 1956 — (
To provide for the extension of certain laws to the State of
Jammu and Kashmir. Thirty four Indian Acts and one ordi-
nance have been extended to and shall be in force in the State
of Jammu and Kashmir.
63. The Scheduled Castes and Schedrded Tribes Orders (Amcnd-
' ment) Act 63 of 1956 — ^To provide for the inclusion in and
the exclusion from, the lists of Scheduled Castes and of Sche-
duled Tribes, of certain Castes and Tribes and matters connec-
ted therewith.
The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act.
64. The Indian Tariff (Amendment) Act 64 of 1956.
65. The Abducted Persons (Recovery and Restoration) Continuance
Act 65 of 1956.
66. The Code of Civil Procedure (Amendment) Act 66 of 1956.
67. The States Reorganisation (Amendmnet) Act 67 of 1956.
68. The Union Territories (Lands) Amendmnet Act 68 of 1956.
69. The Terminal Tax on Raihaay Passengers Act 69 of 1956 — ^An
act to provide for the levy of a terminal tax on passengers
carried by railway from or to certain places of pilgrimage or
where fairs, melas or exhibitions are held.
70. The Ancient arrd Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites
620
HrNDUSllAK TEAE-BOOS;
CT.d Semains (jJcclaraiioTi of 2\ciioT.a^ Impsriasxc') Asr^frr^-
vior.t Aci 70 of 1F5B.
71. The Industries {DcvelopTnent nnd Sepnlaiion) Am-enSmcTA
71 of 1S3S.
72. The Seprcseniaiion of the People (Jonrth Arrisndrr.eni) Act 7t
of 1955.
73. The Hindu Morriope Amer.dTneni Act- 7S of 1955.
74. The Central Sates Tar Act 71 of 1955.
75. The Kerala State Lepislaiwe CDclepaiiar. cfpoeoers) AeA73of
1955.
76. The Hin-anee (ivo. i!) Act 75 of 1955.
77. The Pittance (2\o. S) Act 77 of 1955.
7S. The Hindu Adoptiors and Mainter..antcc Act- 7S of 1955 — -An £CI
to amend and codifr the la~ relating to adoptiDiis and msin-
tenanee among Hindus.
79. The Sta-ic Haul: of Hudera-had Act 79 of 1955,
SO. The Idanipvjr {Vitlapc Authorities in Hill .4rrn) Act- SO of 1955.
SL The Central M-acisc and Salt {Second, Ant-endenerd) Act SI cf
1955.
52. The Union Dirties of Ha-eise- {Distriau-t-ion) AntcndTn-cnf Act SS
of 1955.
53. The Appropriation {HaUtoavs) No. 5 .4ct SS of 1955.
54. The Appropriation (BaHioays) No. 7 Act SI of 1955.
55. The Appropriation {No. 5) Act S5 of 1955.
SS. The Displaced Persons iContpcnsaHon end Sehaoilitation')
Amendment Act S5 of 1955,
S7. Hoad Transport Corporations {Amendment) Aed- S7 of 1955.
SS. The Hepresenf-ation of the People { JdisccUaneous Prorinors)
Act SB of 1955. __
S9. The Standards of n eights and Measures Act S? of 1955.
PO. Faridabad Development Corporation Act 90 of 1955.
PI. The Administration of Era-cuet Property {Amendment) Act- 91
of 1955.
P2. The Territorial Army {Amendment) -4ci 9S of 1955.
PS. The Toitng Pctsotis {Harmful Publications) Act 9S of 1955. _
94. The Employees Provident Eunds (Amendment) Act 91 of 1955.
Po. The Sanhing Companies {Amendment) Act 95 of 1955.
P5. The Slum Areas {Improvement and Cle-ararse) Act 95 of 1955.
97. The Delhi Tenants {Temporary Proteetion) Act 97 of 1955.
PS. The Delhi {Control of HuHding Opemf-ions} Continuance Act
9S of 1955.
P9. The Delivery of Bodlzs (Public Libraries) Amcndm-cnt Act 99
■of 1955.
100. TJic Motor Nchicl-cs (Amendment) Aei 109 of 1955.
101. X he Electricity (Supply) Amendment Acf 101 cf 1955.
102. The Indian Medical Coitr.cH Act lOS cf 1955.
103. The Tcrritcnal Councils Act ICS of 2955. ^
104. The Suppression cf Immoral Tratfic in TTomor. and GirZs Act
101 cf 1955.
105. The TVomerls and Childrens' Institutions (Licencing r Act 105
of 1955.
REORGANISATION OF STATES
The problem of reorganisation of States has been before the
people of this country in one from or the other for the last half a
century. During the British regime territorial changes -were
governed mainly by imperialistic and strategic considerations The
factor of linguistic principle did not come into the forefront for a long
time. The Montagu-Chelmsford Report of 1918 commended the
objectives of smaller and more homegeneous units. The Indian
Statutory Commission in 1930 gave qualified support to the linguistic
principle and attached great importance to race, religion, economic
interests and geographical contiguity.
The Indian National Congress accepted the linguistic redistri-
bution of provinces as a clear political objective in its session at Nag-
pur in 1920. In 192V, the Congrress adopted a resolution expresssing
the opinion that “the time has come for the redistribution of the pro-
vinces on linguistic basis” and the begining could be made by consti-
tuting Andhra, Utkal, Sind and Kamatak into seperate provinces.
The Nehru Committee of the All-Parties Conference, 1928, also
endorsed this view. The Congress reaffirmed its faith in the linguistic
principle a number of times from 1928 to 1947.
When the British left the country in 1947, India inherited 560
administrative units, some almost as big os Spain and some smaller
than the smallest State in the world. It took the vision and the states-
manship of Sardar Patel to reshape this nightmare of a map into some-
thing more comprehensible. The country was, as a consequence,
welded into nine part A States (the former Provinces), eight Part
B-States (units or group of units formerly ruled by the Provinces),
10 part C States and one part D State. _ The formation of a separate
Andhra State carved out from Madras in October 1953 set in motion
a countrywide demand for the formation of lingustic States.
J.V.P. REPORT
The appointment of Dar Commission in 1948 recommended that
history, geography, economy and culture as well as administra-
tive convenience should be the basis of the new States. This was
followed by Jawaharlal-Vallabhbhai-Pattabhi Sitaramayya Committee
of the Indian National Congress appointed at its Session in December
1948, which repudiated the creation of new provinces on the
basis of languages alone and felt that the primary consideration
must be the security, unity and economic prosperity of India. The
JVP Committee Report was adopted by the Congress Working
Committee in April, 1949. Since then the Congress has broadly ad-
hered to the views expressed in this report.
WORK OF S.R.C. COMiAIISSION
In December, 1953, the Prime Minister while announcing the
decision of the Government to appoint the States Reorganisation
622
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Commission, observed that the Commission would examine the prob-
lem from the point of view of promotion of “welfare of the people?
of each constituent unit, as well as the nation as a whole”. AftCT
a thorough probe into the problem for about two years, the Commis-
sion made its recommendations in September, 1955. The_ Com-
mission, inter alia considered tliat in the interest of national unity, the
administrative and political structure of the _ country should
be based on the primacy of the nation. The administrative sefup
in strategic areas should be determined primarily by considerations
of national security.
The Commission was further of the view that it was neither
possible nor desirable to reorganise States on the basis of a single
test of either language or culture. A balanced approach to
the problem was imperative. It opined that the units should
be large enough to ensure administrative efficiency and the co-orffi-
nation of economic development and welfare activities. The units
should as far as possible, be self-supporting. The wishes of the
people should also have an important bearing on reorganisation but
they have to be considered along with other relevant factors.
Geograprical contiguitj^ of the iinits was important from the
point of view of administrative convenience.
The States Reorganisation Act which come into force on August
SI redi\ddes the Republic into 14 new States and six Centrally adrm-
nistered areas. In the case of four States, Jammu & Kashmir,
Uttar Pradesh, Assam and Orissa, these has been no territorial
readjustments and their boundaries remain the same. Bihar
yields two small areas to West Bengal. Andhra acquires the Telan-
gana districts of old Hyderabad State to form much larger Andhra
Pradesh. Another new big State is Bombay which now includes the
old Marathwada area of old Hyderabad, a bit from Rajasthan and a
large chunk, Vidarbha from old Madhya Pradesh. Karnataka areas
in old Bombay however go to new Mysore which includes besides old
State of Coorg, the Karnataka areas of old Hyderabad, most of
South Kanara district which was formerly part of hladras and another
piece of Madras (Kallegal taluk). As a consequence the new Madras
State is smaller in size, Jlalabar district also having joined new
Kerala. . The only new territory that is added to JIadras are the five
Tamil taluks of the former Travancore-Cochin State. Kerala itself
■will be the smallest State in the Union. In Central India, 3Iadhj;3
Pradesh, though it yields Vidarbha to Bombay, improves vastly in
size •with the inclusion of the old States of Jladhya Bharat, Bhopal
and Vindya Pradesh and a small area from old Rajasthan. The- last-
named State remains practically the same size as before with the in-
clusion of Ajmer. Pepsu ■which ■was a pocket in the centre of Punjab
now disappears to merge ■with the surrqunding State. -
In the new set-up, the State with the biggest population conti-
nues to be Uttar Pradesh with a 430-memher Assembly’ ; 8G members
from that State will sit in the Lok Sablia, the largest single
group. The largest State will, however, be hilingual Bombay which
is 188,240 square miles in area. Though Kerala' is the smallest State
REORGANISATION OP STATES
623
in area, it is ahead of Assam and Jammu and Kashmir in
population with 136 lakhs residing within its borders.
Each of the 13 new Part A States now has a Govornor, the ins-
titution of Rajpramukh having been abolished. The Sadar-i-Riyasat
is the head of the only Part B State of Jammu and Kashmir. Of the
new Part C States, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, and
the Laccadive-Minicoy-Amindivi group only the last named, which is
detached from old Madras State, is a new unit. The future of the
former French settlements, Mahe (a pocket in Kerala), Pondicherry
and Karaikal (pockets in Madras) and Yanam (on the Andhra
Pradesh coast) will naturally be only decided after the ratification of
the Indo-French Treaty governing their transfer to India. It will
also be noted that the only two new names in the new State map are
Kerala and Andhra Pradesh (formerly Andhra).
Two old Part A State capitals are reduced in stature consequent
on reorganisation. They are Kurnool, capital of old Andhra and Nag-
pur, capital of old Madhya Pradesh. Hyderabad which is now capital
of Andhra Pradesh and Bhopal, new capital of MadhyaPradesh, will
naturally increase greatly in importance.
ZONAL COUNCIL
Under the States Reorganisation Act five zonal councils have
been set up. In each of the following zones there shall he a Zonal
Council —
(1) The Northern Zone — comprising the States of Punjab,
Rajasthan, Jammu & Kashmir, Delhi and Himachal Pradesh.
(2) The Central Zone — comprising States of Uttar Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh.
(3) The Eastern Zone— comprising States of Bihar, West
Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Manipur and Tripura.
(4) The Western Zone — comprising Bombay and Mysore, and
(6) The Southern Zone — comprising the States of Andhra,
Madras and Kerala.
The Zonal Council for each zone shall consist of the following
members, namely, (a) Union Minister to be nominated by the
President ; (b) the Chief Minister of each of the States included in
the zone and two other Ministers of each such State to be
nominated by the Sadar-i-Riyasat, in the case of Jammu and
Kashmir, and by the Governor, in any other case, and if there is no
Council of Ministers in any such State, three members from that
State to be naminated by the President ; (c) where any Part C
State is included in the zone, not more than t\vo members from each
such State to be nominated by the President ; (d) in the
case of the three Eastern Zones, the person for the time being
holding the offices of the Advisor to the Governor of Assam for
Tribal Area.
The Union Minister to be nominated under (a) to a Zonal Coun-
cil shall be its Chairman. P.andit Pant has been nominated by the
President to be the President of all the five Zonal Councils. The
Chief Ministers of the States included in each zone shall act as "Vice-
Chairman of the Zonal Council for that zone by rotation, each hold-
624
HINDUSTAN THAR-BOOK
ing office for a period of one year at a time. But if during that period
there is no Council of Ministers in the State concerned, such member
from that State as the President may nominate in this behaH shall
act as Vice-Chairman of the Zonal Council.
The Zonal Council for each Zone shall have the following persons
as Advisers to assist the Council in the performance of its duties,
namely : —
(a) One person nominated by the Planning Commission ; (b)
the Chief-Secretary to the Government of each of the States included
in the Zone ; and (c) the Development Commissioner or any other
officer nominated by the Government of each of the States included
in the Zone. Every advisor to a zonal council shall have the right
to take part in the discussions of the Council or of any Committee
thereof of which he may be named a member but shall not have a
right to vote at a meeting of the Council or of any such Committee.
Each Zonal Council shall meet at such time as the Chairman of
the Council may appoint in this behalf and shall, subject to the other
provisions of this section, observe such rules of procedure in regard
to transaction of business at its meetings as it may, with the approval
of the Central Government, lay down from time to time.
_ The Zonal Council for each zone shall met in the States included
in that zone by rotation. The Chairman or in his absence the "luce-
Chapman or in the absence of both the Chairman and the Vice-
Chairman, any other member chosen by the members present from
amongst themselves shall preside at a meeting of the Council.
jUI questions at a meeting of a Zonal Council shall be decided by
a majority of votes of the members present and in the case of an
equality of votes the Chairman or, in his absence any other person
presiding shall have a second or casting vote. The proceedings of
^ery meeting of a Zonal Council shall be forwarded to the Central
Goverament and also to each State Government concerned.
A Zonal Council may from time to time by resolution passed at
a meeting appoint committees of its members and advisers for per-
forming such functions as may be specified in the resolution and may
associate ^th any such Committee, such Ministers either for the
States and such officers serving either in connection
V ? Union or of the States as may be nominated in
that behalf by the Council.
Each Zonal Council shall have a secretariat staff consisting of a
secretary, a joint secretary and such other officers as the Chairman
may consider necessary to appoint. The Chief Secretaries of the
States represented in such Council shall each be the Secretary of the
Uouncil by rotation and hold office for a period of one year at a time,
ihe Joint Secreterj' of the Council shall be chosen from amongst
officers not m the service of any of the States represented in the
Council and shall be appointed by the Chairman.
office of the Zonal Council for each zone shall be located at
determined by the Council,
nr,,? administrative expenses of the said office including the salaries
sSTw pajffible to or in respect of members of the Secretariat
staff of the Council other than the Secretary shall be borne by the
REORGANISATION OF STATES 625
Central Government out of monies provided by Parliament for the
purpose.
Each Zonal Council shall be an advisory body and may disscuss
any rnatter in which some or all of the States represented in that
Council, or the Union and one or more of the States represented in
that Council, have a common interest and advise the Central Govern-
ment and the Government of each States concerned as to the action to
be taken on any such matter.
A Zonal Council may discuss and make recommendations with
regard to — (a) any matter of common interest in the field of economic
and social planning ; (b) any matter concerning border disputes,
linguistic minorities^ or inter-State transport; and (e) any matter*
connected with or arising out of the reorganization of the States under
this Act.
Where it is represented to the Zonal Council for any zone that
a matter in which a State included in that zone and one or more States
included in any other zone or zones have a common interest should
be discussed at a joint meeting, it shall be lawful for the Zonal Councils
concerned — (a) to meet at such time and place as the Chairman there-
of may in consultation with each other appoint in these behalf ; and
(b) to discuss the said matter at such joint meeting and make
recommendations to the Governments concerned as to the action to be
taken on that matter. The Central Government may make rules for
regulating the procedure at joint meetings of the Zonal Councils.
High Courts — Each new State will have a High Court and the
High Courts of the old Part B States (except Jammu and Kashmir)
and the Courts of the Judical Commissioners of Ajmer, Bhopal, Kutch
and Vindhya Pradesh are abolished. The jurisdiction of the Kerala
High Court will extend to the new Part C State of Laccadive-Minicoy-
Amindivi islands. The High Court of the States will have jurisdic-
tion over areas which were formerly part of other States but are nowi
included in it.
Status of the States — ^The two outstanding features of the re-
organisation are (1) Abolition of Rajpramukhs and (2) the estjx-
blishment of Zonal Council with advisory capacity for purposes of
dealing with inter-state problems and border disputes. The provi-
sions of linguistic safe-guards constitute another landmark. Al-
though linguistic principle has been conceded to a large extent —
and the reorganised states have mostly unilingual, there is a
marked shift towards formation of bilingual or composite States and
bigger units, such as composite Bombay State and bilingual Punjab,
From 1st of November, 1956, the Indian Union comprises fourteen
full-fledged States having equal status and uniform relationship vath
the Centre, covering virtually the entire country containing within
themselves over 9S per cent of the total population^ and four Centrally
administered territories besides two groups of islands — ^the i^da-
nians and the Laccadives. They are : Andhra, Assam, Bihar, Bom-
bay, Kerala, hladhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab,
than, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Jammu & Kashm^_ The
six territories include Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tnpura,
40
626
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Andaman and Nicotar Islands and the Laccadive, Minicoy and
Amindivi Islands.
The full fledged Units or States enjoy the same democratic
administration as the former Part A States, each having a constitu-
tional Governor, a responsible ministry, an elected Legislature, and
a High Court ; eight of the States, namely, West Bengal, U. P.,
Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore and Punjab have
an upper House in their legislature.
Union Territories have no such popular administration and even
Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura which had a Legislature and
a Ministry of their own, have none under the new set-up. All Union.
Territories are now governed through an administrator, with
whom some non-officials elements are to be associated. Parliainent
is the sole legislating authority for these Territories, while additio-
nally of the President have power of making resolutions in respect of
Andamans and Laccadives.
Territorial Councils — A bill been passed in the Parliament
known as Territorial Councils Act, 1956 for the Union Territories of
Himachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura. For the each above Union
Territory there shall be a Territorial Council. The total _ num-
ber of seats in the Territorial Council to be filled by direct election on
the basis of adult suffrage shall be forty one in the case of Himachal
Pradesh, thirty in the case of Manipur or of Tripura. Twelve
seats in the Himachal Pradesh Territorial Council shall be reserv-
ed for the scheduled castes. Central Government may nominate not
more than four persons to be members of any Territorial Council.
The Territorial Council would be in charge of local affairs.
Delhi Corporation — Delhi will have an elected Corporation to
deal with matters of local concern.
Parliamentary Members — ^As a result of reorganisation of
the administrative units as also the increase in the 1951 cen-
sus, the number of members of the Bajya Sabha will go up from 206,
to 220. The total number of members of the Lok Sabha
not more than 500 of whom will be directly elected from the
territorial constituencies of the States and not more than 2ft
to represent the Union territories will be chosen in such
manner as Parliament may provide in this behalf, it is likely that
these Union representatives to the Lok Sabha will be returned
through some kind of electoral colleges.
The composition of the legislatures of the various units and the
quantum of their representation in Parliament have been provisionally
determined as under ;
States
Legislative
Assembly
Legislative
Counml
Lok
Sabha
Rajya.
Sabha
1.
Andhra
.. 301
43
18
2.
Assam
.. 108
12
7
3.
Bihar
.. 330
72
65
22
4.
Bombay
.. 396
72
66
27
5.
Kerala
.. 126
18
9
6.
Madhya Pradesh
.. 288
72
36
16
7.
Madras
.. 205
48
41
17
reorganisation of states
8. Mysore
9. Orissa
10. Punjab
11. Rajasthan
12. Uttar Pradesh
IS West Bengal .
14 . Jammu & Kashmir
territories
1. Delhi „ j i,
2. Himachal Pradesh
3. Manipur
4. Tripura
5. Andaman
6. Laccadives
208 ■■
140
154
176
430
238
52
40
I2
51
26
20
22
22
86
34
6
5
4
2
2
1
1
facts about the states
Area in s?. m.
States 190,919
Bombay „ , ^ *. 171,201
Madhya Pradesh 132,078
Rajasthan •• _ 113,409
Uttar Pradesh • • _ ^ 105,962
Andhra Pradesh . . ^ 92,780
Jammu & Kashmir 85,012
Assam • • . , 74,347
Mysore " . . 67,164
Bihar •• 60,136
Orissa ‘ * . . 50,110
Madras • ' . . 47,456
Punjab " . . 33,958
West Bengal • • ^ ^ 15,035
Kerala ,
Manipur
ISSSn S «■
ESidlvo, MMOT «= A..Wivi
Ils,
10,904
8,624
4,038
3,215
578
10
627
12
10
11
10
34
16
4
3
2
1
1
Popnlation
48,265,221
26,071,637
15,970,774
63,215,742
31,260,133
4,400,000
9,043,707
19,401,193
38,779,562
14,645,946
29,974,936
16,134,890
26,306,602
13.549,118
1,109,466
577,635
639,029
30,971
1,744,072
21,035
capitals
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Bombay
Capital
Hyderbad
Shillong
Patna
Bombay
628
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK •
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Madras . .
Mysore
Orissa
Punjab . .
Rajasthan
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
Jammu & Kashmir
Delhi
Himachal Pradesh
Manipur
Tripura
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Ils
Trivandrum
Bhopal
Madras
Bangalore
Bhuvaneswar
Chandigarh
Jaipur
Lucknow
Calcutta
Srinagar/ J ammu
Delhi
Simla
Imphal
Agartala
Port Blair
WORLD’S LANGUAGES
Chinese (with
dialects)
English
Hindusthni
Russian
Spanish
German
Japanese
Bengali . . 70,000,000
480.000. 000 Arabic .. 65,000,000
265.000. 000 French ,, 65,000,000
175.000. 000 Portuguese . . 60,000,000
200.000. 000 Italian .. 45,000,000
120.000. 000 Polish .. 35,000,000
100.000. 000 Turkish .. 20,000,000
85,000,000 Dutch & Flemish . . 20,000,000
INDIAN ELECTIONS 1957
NATIONAL PARTIES
The reorganisation of the States has in no way affected the
position so far as the all-India or national parties are concerned. 'Hie
four national parties now recognised, namely, the Indian Nationdl
Congress, the Praja Socialist Party, the Communist Party of India
and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, will therefore continue to be recog-
nised and the same symbols will continue to be reserved for them on
an all-India basis. '
In reviewing the position of the State parties the Election Com-
mission considers that alt the parties which were recognised in a
previously existing or “old” State should as far as possible, be recog-
nised in a “new” State in which the “old” State or a part thereof has
been incorporated, unless the old State or the part thereof that has
been incorporated in the new State forms a comparatively small or
negligible part of the new State. In deciding this question the com-
mission has again adopted the same standard of recognition of a party
namely, a minimum of three per cent of the valid votes polled in the
Assembly or electoral college elections in the State.
State Parties The Commission has decided to recognise the
following parties as State parties in the States mentioned against
their names along with the symbols reserved for them respectively
in those States.
Party
Scheduled Castes Fe-
deration
Forward Bloc
(Marxist)
Ganatantra Parishad
Hindu Mahnsabha
Ram Eajya Parishad
Janata Party
Jharkhand Party
Peasants & Worltors
Party
State in which
Recognised
Symbol
Andhra Pradesh, Bom-
bay, hladhya Pradesh,
Mysore, Punjab, Delhi.
Himachal Pradesh
Elephant.
West Bengal
Standing Lion.
Orissa
Bow and Arrow.
Bombay, Madhya Pra-
desh, West Bengal
Horse and Rider.
Bombay, Madhya Pra-
desh, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh
Rising Sun.
Bihar
Cycle.
Chota Nagpur and
Santhal Pnrganas
Cock.
Andhra Pradesh, Bom-
bay, Slysorc
Cycle.
630
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The People’s Demo- Andhra Pradesh Human Hand,
cratic TYont
Revolutionary Socia- Kerala Spade and Stoker,
list Party
Tripura Ganatantrik Tripura Ladder.
Sangha
The claims for recognition of the Praja Party in Andhra Pradesh,
the Pursharthi Panchayat in Rajasthan, the Saurashtra Khedut Sangh
in Bombay and the Shromani Aiali Dal in the Punjab are still under
the Commission’s consideration.
All other parties wiU cease henceforth to be recognised for the
purpose of having symbols reserved for them. Any symbol not re-
served_ in a State for any political party by the above decision of the
Commission will he a “free” symbol in future elections in that State.
Election dates.
The polling for Parliamentary and State Assembly seats
throughout the country will be held between February 25 and March
12, 1957 and the results will be gazetteed by March 31. Only two
areas — the snow-bound areas of Himachal Pradesh and possibly
certain Himalayan regpous of Uttar Pradesh — ^polling may have to
be postponed on account of the weather.
Figures
One hundred and ninety million voters are due to go to the polk
to elect 500 members to the House of the People and 3,102 members
to the State Legislative Assemblies. A million officers have been
employed to conduct the elections. The numbers of voters of this
election is five per cent more than the last election due to the increase
of population.
Parties
Election Commission have recognised four all-India parties, the
Congress, the Communists, the Jan Sangha and Proja Socialist Party
^d 14 State parties. Only those parties which secured not less
than three per cent of the actual votw pulled in the elections would
be recognised as an all-India party.
House of the People
This House will have 481 members elected from India and six
will be sent by the Jammu & Kashmir State. The four Centrallv-
adrmnistered States of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tn-
pura ■^11 elect 13 members, while the Union Territories of Andaman
Uicobar Islands, Laccadive and Amindivi Islands and the outer
tabm areas m Assam will have one representative each, nominated
by the President. There is also provision in the Constitution for
nonunatjon of representatives from the Anglo-Indian community if
no one is returned from that community in the general elections.
At present there are two membeis nominated by the President to
represent _ the Anglo-Indian community. H the same number of
•Mglo-Indians are nominated in the neict elections, the actual
strength of the House will be 505.
, There_ will be 393 constituencies for the Lok Sabha, of which 385
will be single member constituencies. Seventy four seats are re-
served for Scheduled Castes and 29 for Scheduled Tribes. In the
INDUN ELECTIONS 1957
631
States, there will be 1,936 single-member constituencies and 3,583
two-member constituencies. There will be no three-member consti-
tuencies as on the last occasion. The members of the old Andhra
Assembly are the only one who will not have to face an election now.
Kashmir
There would be no polling in Kashmir, which had its own election
laws. Kashmiri six representatives in the Lok Sabha are elected
by the State Assembly and then nominated formally by the President.
Andhra Pradesh
In Andhra Pradesh, there would be polling for the State
Assembly only in Telangana and not in the area which constituted
the old Andhra State. This is because Andhra held elections in the
State Assembly in March, 1955 and the members elected to that
Assembly have been allowed to keep their seats in Andhra Pradesh
till 1962— two years beyond the normal five year term.
Voters
The election this time will be on a bigger scale than in 1951 as
the number of voters has increased from 175 million to over 190
million. The total number of ballot boxes will be 28.76 lakhs against
25.94 last time. Number of polling stations would be over two
lakhs a^inst 1,96,084 in 1951. The election operation will require
the services of over a million officers spread over the country as
against 900,000 officers last time.
Voting by Posts
Those posted on election dut^, members of the amed forces and
the members of the foreign missions abroad are entitled to vote by
post.
NUMBER OP VOTERS
The total number of voters on the electoral roll throughout India,
excluding Jammu and Kashmir State, is 1913 crores.
Uttar Pradesh, with 3.47 crores voters has the largest electorate
followed by Bombay with 2.43 crores.
The total number of electors in the last general election was
17.32 crores.
The following are the present number of voters m the different
States : —
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Assam
3. Bihar
4. Bombay
6. Kerala
6. Madhya Pradesh
7. Madras
8. Mysore
9. Orissa
The grand total
1,76,60,666
43,74,089
1,95,63,747
2,43,86,626
76,69,047
1,38,80,209
1,76,99,056
1,01,23,618
79,51,805
therefore
10. Punjab 91,12,743
11. Rajasthan 86,93J)31
12. Uttar Pradesh 3,47,70,434
13. West Bengal 1,61,18,061
14. Delhi 9,76,306
15. Himachal Pradesh 6,84,628
16. Manipur 3,30,111
17. Tripura 3,45,849
stands at the colossal figure of
19,31,29,924.
632
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
EXPENSES IN ELECTIONS
The Government of India, in consultation with the Election Com-
mission, have fixed the upper limit of expenses that may be incurred
in elections to any Parliamentary or State Assembly constituency
during the forthcoming general elections.
The Government announcement lay down that expenses incurred
in connection with an election in any one Parliamentary Constituency
shall not exceed :
(A) Rs. 35,000, in the case of a two-member constituency in
any State ;
(B) Rs. 25,000, in the case of a single-member constituency in
any State ;
(C) Rs. 15,000, in the case of a two-member constituency m
any Union territory ; and
(D) Rs. 10,000, in the case of a single-member constituency m
any Union territory.
Expenses Table
The rules also lay down that expenditure in connection with an
election in any one Assembly constituency shall not exceed the amount
specified in respect of that constituency in the following .table : —
Single-
Two-
Single-
Two-
member
member
member
member
consti-
consti-
consti-
consti-
tuency.
tuency.
tuency
tuency
Andhra
Madras
9,000
14,000
Pradesh
7,000
12,000
Mysore
z6,000
11,000
Assam
6,000
11,000
Orissa
7,000
12,000
Bihar
8,000
13,000
Punjab
7,000
12,000
Bombay
8,000 •
13,000
Rajasthan
6,000
11,000
Kerala
7,000
12,000
Uttar Pradesh 9,000 ■
14,000
Madhya
West Bengal
7,000
12,000
Pradesh
7,000
12,000
— (PIT).
ALLOCATION OF SEATS IN THE LOK SABHA & STATE
ASSEMBLIES
Following is the State-wise distribution of 500 members to be
elected to the Lok Sabha.
Lok Sabha — ^Andhra Pradesh 43, Assam 12, Bihar 53, Bombay
66, Kerala 18, Madhya Pradesh 36, hladras 41, Mysore 26, Orissa 20,
Piinjab 22, Rajasthan 22, Uttar Pradesh 86, West Bengal 36, Jammu
and Kashmir 6 (elected by the members of the State Assembly and
then nominated by the President), Delhi 5, Himachal Pradesh 4,
Manipur 2, Tripura 2.
Out of these, there will be 76 members belonging to the Sche-
duled Castes as against 72, as at present, and 31 members of the
Scheduled Tribes, as against 26 as at present.
State Assemblies — There would be 3,102 members in the Legis-
INDIAN ELECTIONS 1957
633
lative Assemblies of the 13 reorganised States, instead of 3,126 in
the Provisional Legislative Assemblies (excluding Kerala). The 470
seats reserved for the Scheduled Castes would continue in the 13
Legislative Assemblies of the reorganised States. The number of
seats reserved for the Scheduled Tribes would be increased from 195
to 210.
Under the new set-up, there would be 2,518 constituencies —
1,934 single-member constituencies and 684 two-member constituen-
cies. Of the 1,934 single-member constituencits, 104 seats would be
reserved for the Scheduled Tribes in the States. Andhra Pradesh
(2), Assam (17), Bihar (18), Bombay (17), Madhya Pradesh (27),
Orissa (15) and Rajasthan (8). There would be only three three-
member constituencies in the whole country, which will be reserved
for the Scheduled Castes. All of them will be in West Bengal,
namely, Mainaguri in Jalpaiguri district. Mathabhanga in Cooch-
Behar district and Sandesh Khali in 24 Parganas district.
The comparative picture of the provisional legislatures in the
reorganised States as they exist today and what they are going to
be after the general elections in February-March, 1957, are given
below :
Andhra Pradesh : The Assembly will have 301 seats instead
of 297.
Assam : There is no change either in the total number of seats,
or in the seats reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, the total number of scats remaining at 108.
Bihar : The total number of seats has been reduced from 320
in the present Assembly to 318.
Bombay ; Instead of 469 members in the provisional Assembly
under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, there would be only 396
in the future Assembly.
Kerala ; There is no Legislative Assembly for Kerala at pre-
sent. The future Assembly of Kerala v;^ill have 126 members.
Madhya Pradesh ; There will be 288 scats instead of 339 as in
the Provisional Assembly.
Madras ; There will be 205 seats instead of 189.
Mysore : The number of seats will be 108 instead of 209.
Orissa : The number of scats would continue to be 140.
Punjab : The total number of seats would be 154, instead of
186 in the provisional Assembly.
Rajasthan : The total number of seats would be 176 instead
389. , , , . ^
Uttar Pradesh : The total number of seats would continue to
be 430.
West Bengal : There will be 252 scats instead of 249.
ELECTION MANIFESTO
CONGRESS ELECTION MANIFESTO— The manifesto states
that “the worh that the Congress has done in Government or among
the people during these ten years is before the countrj- for the people
to judge ” It seehs again, therefore, a renewal from the people of
634
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
India of that faith and confidence which they have given in an abun-
dant measure in the past.
'^e basic objects of the Congress, the manifesto emphasises,
are democracy and socialism. Socialism does not merely signify
changes in economic relations of human beings but involves funda-
socialist structure and way of thinking.
While the Congress had fulfilled its old pledge for Independence, it
continues to fight to redeem the other pledge of fighting out poverty,
Ignorance and inequality of opportunity.
ffte eMuomic policy of the party is identified with the Second
rive- Year Plan and the objective of a socialistic society to be achieved
^^4 legitimate means through co-operate action and
ivithin the democratic framework.
_ ,. foreign policy reaffirms Panchshila. It declares
^dia s _ friendship for Pakistan and, in an interesting reference to
^®icomes the new Constitution of the State and takes note
Pakisteni aggression there. The Goa problem, it states is also
to be settled by peaceful means.
• importance of China’s recognition by the United Nations
IS srtessed and the practice of racialism by South Africa severely
Mndemned. There is also an oblique reference to Egypt and
Hungary.
■'^ork, savings and austerity for
of th® Second Plan. Avoidance of waste and an end
or fslse standards of living and display” are recommended.
New Tax Structure — There is a hint that the tax structure will
be reconstructed to spread out the burden “chiefly on those who are
in a better ppsition to shoulder it.” This will also be designed to
^®duM disparities in income and wealth.
. Tn® objective of a national minimum in the general standard of
imng is ^so stated, so that everyone has the necessities of life and
the opportunity for education, for maintaining his health and for
productive work.
The removal of regional disparities and the introduction of tho
co-operative element in all walks of life — industry, agriculture and
^ilage management — ^is promised. The balance between large-scale
and cottege indust^ is to be maintained, but “higher techniques”
V* progressively encouraged because, in the long run, they
lead to greater employment and greater wealth.
sector is informed that it will not be nationalised
occupies a ‘strategic position” or, if it is considered
rnwoH general, private industry will be encou-
raged within the context of the Plan.
nf policy of the Congress calls for the progressive removal
introduction of ceilings on holdings so as to
rn u distribution of land. Intensive cultivation on a
suggested as a better alternative to any attempt
to mechanise Indian agriculture.
injpottance of raising food production is
outifned National Extension Service in this task
outlined. The manifesto declares that the greatest need of all is to
INDIAN ELECTIONS 1957
635
have comprehensive village planning and the encouragement of the
co-operative movement for agricultural production through pan-
chayats.
The manifesto suggests that trained cadres for agricultural work
should be organised ivith a view to introducing higher techniques in
farming and to help Production.
The problem of unemployment is related to education. The
manifesto states that training and education should be organised sys-
tematically to help fulfil the purpose of the Plan. Education is also
seen as an instrument for inoculcating new social values. The mani-
festo suggests that some kind of labour should be made and essential
part of the curriculum. More particularly, there should be some
labour contribution before degree or diplomas are given.
On the political plane, the manifesto takes credit for the reorga-
nisation of States. It re-affirms the Congress pledge to protect all
linguistic and religious minorities. "Secularism does not mean lack
of faith, but protection of all faiths and the encouragement of spiri-
tual and moral values,” it states.
There is an appeal to the country for “a real emotional integra-
tion,” Caste, communalism and provincialism are condemned.
Strikes and lock-outs and students indiscipline, which divert attention
to wasteful channels or conflicts, are also deprecated.
The importance of moral values and of the maintenance of high
standards in public and private life is stated and the progressive
introduction of prohibition is advocated.
PBAJA SOCIALIST PARTY’S ELECTION MANIFESTO
The manifesto warned the nation against the "increasing trends
towards authoritarianism in the Government and the Congress leading
to the obliteration of all distinctions, so essential to democracy
between the State, Government and Party”. The resources of the
State, the authority of the Government and the influence of public
officials "are being freely used to further party ends”.
The party asked the people to pin their faith in democratic so-
cialism as the “sole programme of to-morrow, the only redemption
for a suffering humanity” as the world over, capitalism was on re-
treat, and communism had been shorn of its myth and might.
Analysing the maladies of the present administration and the de-
fects of its policies, the Praja Socialist Party guarranteed the fol-
lowing measures to give to the people of India "a self-government
broadening down from the higher to lower levels.”
The party, the manifesto added, stands for the complete over-
haul of the administration above all the lower levels, and for enlarging
vastly the powers and resources of local bodies and entrusting them
with responsibilities of administration, development and welfare of the
people”. , ,
“Eising prices, growing unemployment and the general econo-
mic insecurity experienced by the working people make a mockery
of all claims of development and progress. The P.S.P. decisively
rejects the idea that the development of the country can be attempted
636
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
on the impoverishment of the people. The economic policies of the
party are directed to raising the living standards of the people and
assuring them of employment and expanding opportunities.”
To the peasantry the manifesto promised integrated land reforms
reforms that will make the tiller of the soil its owner. “There will
be redistribution of land with a ceiling on holdings and facilities for
personal cultivation to small holders.”
To the workers, the P.S.P. offered participation in management
and to the trade unions and factory committees a status of lead-
ing organs of planning, production and development. The party
further assured of equal attention being paid to increase in produc-
tion and increase in employment.
For the middle class, “the backbone of our society,” the mani-
festo advocated provision of housing and social security.
The party called for immediate nationalisation of banks, mines
and mineral oils and to accelerate capital formation, taking over by
the State of all big plantations, and trade, wholesale and foreign,
in selected commodities.
The manifesto promised establishment of an Economic Civil
Service drawn from trained workers, technicians, independent busi-
nessmen and Government servants to run the State enterprises as a
“model of efficiency, honesty and economic democracy.”
To the youth, the party pledged to put it “at the helm of the
nation’s affairs, and end the shame and agony of treating youth as
a forgotten element in the country.”
The Praja Socialist Party, the manifesto added, “deeply sympa-
thises” with the Indian people groaning under the crushing load
of taxes and promises to pursue a policy not merely to correct the
embeded inequalities of our society, “but squarely put on big business,
which gains most under rising prices, taxes needed to check inflation.”
Referring to the reorganisation of States the manifesto said :
“The party is committed to the realisation of unilingual States,
wherever they have been denied.”
“The party supports the United Nations not as the organisation
for world peace alone but also for fostering balanced economic deve-
lopment in the world. _ It believes that stable peace depends on exten-
sion of freedom and justice — national, political and racial.”
Analysing the present tax structure, the manifesto advocated the
need for graduated annual tax on wealth, besides Capital Gains
Tax and Excess Profit_ Tax, abolition of the privy purses of the
Princes and the subjection of their personal income and property to
the general tax laws of the land. Inheritance tax, it said, was
woefully incomplete” without a gift tax.
The party would ti-eat tax evasion as a “crime of the highest
order and deal with it as such.”
Dealing with foreign policy, the manifesto deplored “the sad
of _ our relations with our immediate neighbours and the neglect
of the vital interests of the nation.” The party, it said, would seek to
settle in a friendly spirit all outstanding differences with Pakistan,
but would not hesitate “to take firm and even stem action if the
now of refugees is not stopped.”
INDIAN ELECTIONS 1957
637
The manifesto saluted the "freedom fighters” of Goa and deplored
the Government’s “mishandling of the problem and its inability to
find any solution for it and the inflexible opposition to popular
efforts. The party was confident that voters, when they exercised
their vote, would remember ^^vho fought for the liberation of Goa
and who have frustrated the struggle.”
BHARATIYA JAN SANGH’S ELECTION MANIFESTO
The establishment of an econoimic democracy with equal oppor-
tunities for development, decentralisation of power to the low'est
levels of administration, revolutionary changes in the system of
education and liquidation of unemployment among the educated
classes are some of the promises held out by the Bharatiya Jan Sangh,
According to the manifesto, the party would give top priority
to national defence and its programme in this conection would in-
clude compulsory military training to all young men, and immediate
establishment of defence industries.
The manifesto declared that the Jana Sangh would develop a
new economic order in which economic power shall not be allowed to
be centralised in a few hands nor the State be given unlimited
powers. “We have to evolve an order free from both types of capi-
talism — the individual and the State," it said.
The immeddiate aim of the Jana Sangh's economic programme
would be two-fold ; (a) to solve the problems of food, clothing,
housing, unemployment and inequality, (b) to make the country seK-
sufficient in defence, producer and consumer goods.
The Sangh promises to take strong measures to reduce Govern-
ment expenditure, which according to it, has in recent years, risen
by many times, “In all offices, from the village to the Rashtrapathi
Bhavan, ■within the country or abroad in our Embassies, the ideals
of Bharatiya culture, simplicity and thrift shall be observed.”
The manifesto guarantees a minimum standard of life. With a
view to removing inequalities of income, the party, if returned to
power, would fi.x the maximum salary at Rs. 2,000 a month and the
minimum at Rs. 100 a month. Efforts would be made to bring the
ratio to 1.10 in the near future.
In foreign affairs, the aim of the Jana Sangh ■u'ould be the
“enlightened self-interest” of India. It -would follow a policy of non-
alignment ■with the two Po-wer Blocs as also of non-involvement in
international affairs not directly affecting India.
The party would also take all steps, including police action, for
the liberation of Portuguese possessions in India.
COMMUNIST PARTY'S MANIFESTO
The nmnifesto puts forward the party’s demands for (1) the
breaking of the grip of British capital over important sectors of
our economy, the curbing of monopolists and the rapid development
of the public sector. (2) the sweeping away of landlordism, transfer
of land to the peasants and reduction of the burden on the peasantry,
(3) reduction of disparities of income, removal of unemployment and
638
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
continuous improvement in the condition of the mass of people so as
to rouse their enthusiasm and also create an expanding internal
market, (4) speedy advance in the sphere of health, housing and
culture, (5) radical change in the taxation system so that the burden
falls primarily on the wealtheir sections of our community, and (6)
the erfension of democracy in order to ensure popular co-operation
and the unleashing of popular initiative at all levels.
Some other demands of the party are the speedy rehabilitation
of refugees for enabling them to secure gainfi employment, the
repeal of the Preventive Detention Act and radical revision in the
Police Code.
It says proportional representation and secret ballot should he
introduced in all elections and the people should have the right tol
recall elected members, who in their opinion, have failed to serve them.
It wants the directive principle of State policy contained in the
Constitution to be speedily implemented and made part of the funda-
mental rights of citiaens, which should be justifiable, abolition of
Upper Houses of Legislatures, separation of the Judiciary from the
Executive and more powers for States, especially in the sphere of
finance. All local development work, such as Community Projects
and National Extension Services, should be entrusted to Panchayats
and other elected organs of the people.
The manifesto pledges support to the struggle of the people of
Maharashtra and Gujarat for Samjukta Maharashtra and Maha-
Gujarat.
It says the party will do everything in its power to achieve unity
among the left and democratic forces in the coming elections to put
an end to the monopoly position which the Congress enjoys.
BYE-ELECTIONS
There has been since last General Elections in 1951-52, 42 bye-
elections in different parts of the country for the Lok Sabha. Of the
11 bj'e-elections held in 1952, Congress won 8 of the nine seats it
secured in the General Elections, loosing one seat. In 1953, eight
more bye-elections were held to the Lok Sabha, of which the Congress
won only 3, loosing all the other 6 seats it had won in the general
-elections. Nineteen more bye-elections to the Lok Sabha were held
in the two subsequent years — 1954 and 1955. The five bye-elections
held in 1954 resulted in_ a loss of one seat for the Congress. Fourteen
seats were fought for in 1955. The Congress party again suffered a
net loss, having won only 10 of the 12 seats it had secured earlier.
STATE IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS
The second Five-Year Plan has been based on the revised indus-
trial policy of the Government of India. The industrial policy was
revised in April 1956. According to this new policy, the State will
undertake many new enterprises and its scope will be expanded
considerably. The adoption of the socialist pattern of society as the
national objective, as well as the need for planned and rapid develop-
ment, require that all industries of basic and strategic importance,
or in the nature of public utility services should be in the public sec-
tor. Other industries which are essential and require investment
on a scale which only the State, in present circumstances, could pro-
vide, have also to be in the public sector. The State has therefore
to assume direct responsibility for the future development of indus-
tries over a wider area. The new policy classifies industries into
three categories having regard to the part which the State would
play in each of them.
The first category includes the following industries : —
1. Arms and ammunition and allied items of defence equipment.
2. Atomic energy.
3. Iron and Steel.
4. Heavy castings and forgins of iron and steel.
6. Heavy plant and machinery required for iron and steel pro-
duction, for mining, for machine tool manufacture and for such other
basic industries as may be specified by the Central Government.
6. Heavy electrical plant including large hydraulic and steam
turbines.
7. Coal and lignite.
8. Mineral oils.
9. Mining of iron ore, manganese ore, gypsum, sulphur, gold
and diamond.
10. Mining and processing of copper, lead, zinc, tin, molybde-
num and wolfram.
11. Minerals specified in the Scheduled to the Atomic Energy
(Control of Production and Use) Order, 1953.
12. Aircraft.
13. Air transport.
14. Railway transport.
15. Ship building.
16. Telephones and telephone cables, telegraph and wireless
apparatus (excluding radio receiving sets).
17. Generation and distribution of electricity.
The future development of these industries will be the exclusive
responsibilitj' of the State. The expansion of existing privately
owned units'is not precluded, and the State is free to secure the co-
operation of private enterprise in the establishment of new units
when the national interest so requires, subject to the proviso that
while securing such co-operation, it will ensure through majority
640
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
participation in the capital of the undertaking or otherwise, that it
has the requisite powers to guide the policy and control the operations
of the undertaking. ' _
The second category is the mixed sector. It includes industries
which will be progressively State-owned and in which therefore the
State wiU generally take the initiative in establishing new under-
taking, but in which private enterprise will also be exiJected to sup-
plement the effort of the State. The industries included in this cate-
gory are : (1) All other minerals except “minor minerals” as defined
in section 3 of the Minerals Concession Rules, 1949 ; (2) Aluminium
and other non-ferrous metals not included in Schedule A. (3) Machine
tools ; (4) Ferro-alloys and tool steels ; (5) Basic and intermediate
products required bj' chemical industries such as the manufacture
of drugs, dyestuffs and plastics ; (6) Antibiotics and other essential
drugs ; (7) Fertilizers ; (8) Synthetic rubber ; (9) Carbonisation
of coal ; (10) Chemical pulp ; (11) Road transport ; land (12) Sea
transport. i.
The third category comprises all the remaining industaes the
further development of which will in general be left to the initiative
and enterprise of the private sector. The public sector has to grow —
and rapidly — and the private sector has to conform to the require-
ments of the Plan. At present the State owns and controls the
following industries : (1) Three Steel Plants (Rourkela, Bhilai and
Durgapur) ; (2) South Arcot Lignite Px-oject ; (3) Sindri Fertiliser
Factory ; (4) Nangal Fertiliser-cum-Heavy Water Factory ; (5)
Hindusthan Shipyard ; (6) Rourkela Fertiliser Factory ; (7) Heavy
Electrical Plant ; (8) Hindusthan Machine Tools ; (9) D.D.T. Fac-
tories ; (10) Hindusthan Antibiotics ; (11) Hindusthan Cables ; (12)
National Instruments Factory (including optical glass projects) ;
(13) Salt Development ; (14) Chittaranjan Locomotive Works ;
(15) Integral Coach Factory at Parambur ; (16) New M.G. Coach
Factory ; (17) Engineering shops for spare parts ; (18) Indian Tele-
phone Industries ; (19) Teleprinter Factory and (20) Security Paper
Mill.
LIFE INSURANCE CORPORATION : The life insurance busi-
ness in India has been nationalised by the Life Insurance Corporation
Act which came into force on July 1, 1956. The life insurance busi-
ness was taken over by the Government by an ordinance promulgated
on January 19, 1956. The Act transfers all the assets and liabilities
pertaining to life insurance business of existing insurance companies
to a statutory Corporation, which has since been established. The
Corporation has an original capital of Rs. 5 crores, provided by the
Central Government. It is managed by a Board consisting of not
more than 15 members, including the Chairman, appointed by the
Central Govei-nment. Members will have no such financial or other
interest as is likely to affect prejudicially the exercise of their func-
tions. The Central office of the Corporation is at Bombay, with zonal
offices in Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Kanpur and Madras.
The Corporation has the exclusive right to carry on life business,
including capital redemption business, annuity certain business and
reinsurance business in India and outside. It may howev’er transfer
STATE IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS
641
the whole or the part of a life business outside India to one or morei
companies. An insurance company will not be authorised to carry on
life business in India after the establishment of the Corporation,
though it may be permitted to insure the lives of persons ordinarily
resident outside India. The Life Insurance Corporation Act will not
apply to the Post Office Life Insurance Fund, compulsory life insu-
rance schemes for Government employees framed with the approval
of the Central Government, and the life business of a composite in-
surer managed by an Administrator, who will however as soon as
possible take steps to transfer the assets and liabilities pertaining
to life business to the Corporation and the management of other busi-
ness to the persons entitled to it.
THE STATE TRADING IN INDIA :
On May 18, 1956, the Government of India announced the esta-
blishment of a State Trading Corporation. The Corporation has been
registered as a private limited company under the Companies Act,
1966, at New Delhi. The Corporation has an authorized capital of
Es. 1 Crore divided into 100,000 shares of Rs. 100 each. The subscri-
bed capital will be Rs. 5 lakhs. All shares are owned by the Govern-
ment of India.
The objects of the Corporation are to organize and effect exports
from and imports into India of all such goods and commodities as the
company may from time to time determine, and the purchase, sale
and transport of the general trade in such goods and commodities in
India or anywhere else in the world, and to do all such other things
as are incidental or conducive to the attainment of this object. The
Corporation will have registered office at New Delhi.
THE EASTERN SHIPPING CORPORATION
On February 24, the Central Government announced in the Lok
Sabha its intention to acquire the entire and capital management of
Eastern Shipping Corporation. The other partner (Scindias)
“walked out”. Hitherto, the Government had 74 per cent of the capi-
tal ownership, and the Scindias the rest. Now the Governments owns
the enfce capitaL
41
COMMISSIONS & COMMITTEES
PLANTATION ENQUIRY COaO.USSION’S REPORT -
This Report was published on the 28th August, 1956 — The main
recommendations are :
(1) Improvement of labour conditions by the provision of a
sum of sixty crores of rupees for building houses for tea plantation
labour.
(2) Setting up of a plantation labour welfare orgamsation
controlled by the Union Government.
(3) Creation of a Tea Replanting Fund to be used for the
pose of replanting of tea hushes. It has been suggested ttet each,
grower shordd contribute Rs. 50 per acre every year to the f^d.
(4) Retail price of tea within the country is high, it should he
reduced.
(5) The differential rates of excise duty on packed and loose tea
should be abolished.
(6) As regards primary sales, abolition of the export quota
system.
(7) Selling and buying brokers should not in any way be con-
nected with the management or be a major shareholder in any
estate or be connected with the trade and export of tea.
(8) Selling and buying brokers should be separate.
Interesting Facts
Tea plantation industry is the largest employer of organised
labour in the country employing over a million workers. Thirteen
leading agency houses in Calcutta control over 75 per cent of the tea
production in North India.
The retail distribution of tea in India is controUed by two
leading firms to the extent of 85 per cent.
Cost of production of a pound of average good quality Indian
tea is about one rupee and six annas.
SUBHAS BOSE COIUMITIEE
The Government of India set up a committee in April 1955
in response to the public demand that all the facts relating to the
last stages of Netaji’s life should be enquired into and made kno^.
The Committee consisted of Shah Nawaz Khan, M. P. (a Major-
Gteneral in the Indian National Army), Mr. Suresh Chandra Bose,
brother of Netajj, and Mr. S. N.' Maitra, Chirf-Commissioner of
Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
The terms of reference of the committee were : “To enquire
into and report to the Government of India on the circumstances con-
cerning the departure of Netajj Snhhas Chandra Bose from Bangkok
about Augmst 16, 1945, his alleged death as a result of an air crash
accident and subsequent developments connected therewith.”
The report of the Committee is signed by the Chairman, Mr. Shah
COMMISSIONS & COMMITTIES
643
Nawaz Khan and Mr. S. N. Maitra, the third member Mr. Surest
•Chandra Bose has not signed the report, not has he submitted a
minute of dissent.
The recommendation of the committee says : “It has come
to the conclusion that Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose met his death
in an aircrash and that his ashes now at Renkoji Temple, Tokyo are
his ashes.” The _ committee has recommended that the ashes from
Renkoji Temple in Tokyo be brought to India with honour and a
memorial be erected for Netaji at a suitable place.
It is established by the committee that the plane carrying Netaji
Bose crashed in flames at Taihoku, Formosa, on August 18, 1946.
As a result of the serious bums received Netaji died in Taihokui
hospital the same night. His body was cremated at the Taihokuj
crematorium and his ashes were flown to Tokyo in September i945'
.and deposited at the Renkoji Temple.
SANSKRIT COMMISSION
The Sanskrit Commission has been appointed by the GovemT
ment of India in 1956 to consider the present state of Sanskrit edu-
cation in India in aU its aspects. It will, among other things, survey
"the existing facilities for Sanskrit education in universities and non-
university institutions and make proposals for promoting the study
of Sanskrit including research. It will also examine the tradiHonal
system of Sanskrit education in order to find out what features from
it can be usefully incorporated into the modem system.
CO-ORDINATION COMMITTEE FOR PUBLIC CO-OPERATION
This Committee has been set up in 1956 and is headed by the
Chairman of the Planning Commission. The Committee has been
allotted five crores of rupees “for promoting public co-operation in
various fields of national development ' so as to obtain the
maximum contribution from the public in material and physical
terms for the success of the Plan. The funds might be utilised,
among other things for propaganda of prohibition, small savings,
shramdan, sanitation etc. Among the voluntary agencies to be
utilised for this purpose arc Bharat Sevak Samaj, Harijan Sevak!
Sangh, and the Ramkrishna Mission.
PLANNING COMMISSION
The Planning Commission was established by a resolution of the
•Government of India dated Slarch 15th, 1950. It commenced work
on March 28th, 1950.
Functions. , , „ . .
The terms of reference of the Commission are : —
(i) to make an assessment in the material, capital and human,
resources of the country, including technical personnel and to
investigate the possibilities of augumenting such of these re-
sources as arc found to be deficient in relation to the nation’s
requirement.
644
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
(ii) to formulate a plan for the most effective and balancedf
utilisation of the count^s resources ;
(iii) on a determination of priorities to define the stage in
which the Plan should be carried out and to propose allocation of
resources for the due completion of each stage.
(iv) to indicate the factors regarding economic development,
and to determine conditions for successful completion of the Plan.
(v) to determine the nature of machinery necessary for success-
ful implementation of the Plan in all its aspects.
(vi) to aprise from time to time the progress achieved in the
execution of each stage of the Plan and to recommend adjustmentfe
of policy and measures that such appraisal may show to be
necessary.
(vii) to make such recommendations as appear to it to be
appropriate either for facilitating the discharge of the _ duties-
assigned to it, or on a consideration of the prevailing economic con-
ditions, current policies, measures, and development programme or
or an examination of such specific problems as may be referred to
it for advice by Central or State Government.
Members of the Planning Commission.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister
of India.
V. T, Krishnamachari.
Gulzarilal Nanda, Minister for Plan-
ning & Irrigation & Power.
T. T. Krishnamachari, Minister for
Finance.
V. K. ICrishna Menon, Minister with-
out portfolio.
K. C. Neogy.
J. C. Ghosh.
Chairman
Deputy Chairman
Members
39
37
37
AWARDS, HONOURS, PRIZES
Following ore tho lending Awards etc made by the Government
of India during 1956 and 1967—
Pndmn Vibluisan, 1956
Fnzal Ali, Governor of Assam.
Sm. Jankibni Bnjaj,
Chandulal Mndhavlal Trivedi,
Governor of Assam.
Padtna Dftnsan, 1956
Sm. Rukmini Devi Arnndale, M.P.
Rnjsckhav Bose.
Dhynn Cliand.
Malur Srinivasa Thinimalo
Iyengar.
Jvnnwar Sain.
Sm. Pushpavati J. Mehta.
C. K. Naidu.
Muthulakshmi Ecddi.
Kasturi Srinivasan.
Sm. Mahadevi Varma, M.L.C.
T. S. Venkatraman.
Bhai Vir Singh.
Nawab Znin Yar Jung.
Padmn Shri, 1956.
Suryakumar Bhuynn.
Satish Chandra Majumdar.
Murugappa C. Modi.
Mohan Lai.
Sukhdev Pandc.
'Chintaman Govind Pandit.
Sthanam Narasinba Rao.
Issac Santra.
Sohan Singh.
Bharat Ratna, 1957
Govind Ballabh Pant.
Pndma Bhusan, 1957
Sri Praknsa.
M. C. Sitalvad.
J. D. Birin.
Pndmn Bhusan 1957
D. Abid Hussain.
Dr. Bhikham Lnl Atreyn.
Sm. T. Balasarnswnty.
Dr. R. Alagappa Chnttinr.
Dr. Hnzari Prasad Dwivedi.
Sm. Lakshmi N. Mcnon.
Dr. Radhakumud Mukherjee.
Ustad Mustaq Hussain Khan.
K. A. Niiknnta Snstri.
Dr. K. C. Kutti Ettan Raja.
Sm. Andal Venkatasubha Rao.
Pandit S. N. Ratanjnnknr.
Synmnnandan Sahay.
G. S. Sardesni.
Boshi Son.
Dr. Siddheswnr Varma.
SANGIT NATAK AKADAMI AWARDS, 1956
Music
Hindiisthani {Vocal) — Raja Bheyya Poonchwale.
do (Jn.sfraniciitaO—Minn Bismilln {the Shanai artist).
Komatak {Vocal)— Sm. M. S. Sublinlnkshmi.
do {lustrtmniial) — Palixlmt T. S. Mani Iyer {Mridanffam artist).
Davee {Kathakali) — Guru Gunju Kurup.
do {Mauiimri) — Guru Ambi Singh.
Drama {Acting) — Ganpatrno Bodns.
do {Direction & Production) — ^Prithviraj Kapur nominated, but
being a fellow of tlic Akadami, no award was given.
THIRD ALL-INDIA ART EXHIBITION AWARDS, 1937
jBf Prize {Its. 1,000 (& Gold Plague bg the President of India)
Wdylin Bhusan — A Street in Venice.
646
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Rs, 1,000 Award each.
Shanti S. Dave — Life.
Satish Gujral — The Condemned.
K. K. Hebbar — Song of the field.
B. Pannar Khodidas — Marriage in Saurashtra.
Joram Patel — Rashikpriya.
Ram Kumar — Sad Town.
A. P. Shantana Raj — Through the Forest.
Santosh — Peace.
Amamath Segal — Ontoard March.
BEST BOOKS FOR CHILDREN, 1955-56
Government of India have awarded 23 Prizes' of Rs, 500 each to
the authors of the best books for children. These prizes have been
awarded on the result of the Second Prize Competition for 1955-66.
Bengali : “Sakuntala by Abanindranath Tagore, and “Chitra-
Bicitra” by Rabindranath Tagore.
Gujerati : “Angnana Pankhi” by Manubhai Jodhani and “Huen
Tsang” by Ramanlal P. Soni.
Hindi : “Hansi Kushi” by Narayan, “Gharaundapti” by Govind
Sharan, “Vigyan Darshan Chitravalai” by Satya Bhushan and Shobha-
rani, “Science-ki Kahaniyan” by Uma Shankar, “Veer Balak” by
Ganga Prassad Kaushal, and “Jivonki Duniya” by Suresh Singh,
Kannada : “Makkala Sachitra Ganita” by D. Raj’a Rao and
“Sachitra Balaramayana” by G.A. Narasimha Murthy.
Malayalam : “Bala Kathakal” by A. Ikkavamma.
Marathi : “Ghoda Chalalaya Tap-tap-tap” by Lilavati Bhagwat
and “Chandrawareswari” by B. R, Bhagwat.
Oriya : "Baghmamura Chatasali” by Chakradhar Mohapatra
and “Jahaku Jiye” by Bidyuta Prava Debi.
Punjabi : “Chirite Ghulela” by Bhagwant Kaur, and “Raj'kumar
Sumar” by Sohan Singh.
Tamil : “Malarum Ullam” by A. L. Valliappa.
Telugu : “Badi-Ganta” by Nyayapati Raghavarao, and “Bala-
nandam” Gidugu Venkata Sithapthi.
Urdu : “Aao Dost Banaen” by Saeeda Saiyidain.
SAHITYA AKADAMI AWARDS, 1956
The Executive Board of the Sahitya Akadami has awarded in 1966
prizes of Rs. 5,000 each to 12 books as the most outstanding published
in their respective languages during the last three years, 1963-66.
Bengali ; Arogya-Niketan (novel) by Tarasankar Bando-
padhyaya.
Gujerati : Briht-Pingal (a treatise on prosody) by late Ram-
narayan Pathak.
Hindi : Padmavat Sanjivani Vyakhya (a commentary on
Malik Mahammed Jayasi's classic) by Padmavat Vasudevasaran
Agrawal.
Kashmiri : Sumran (book of poems) by Zinda Kaul “Masterji.
ICannada : Kannada Sahitya Charitre (history of Kannada
COMMISSIONS & COMMITTIES
647
Literature) by R. S. Mugali.
Malayalam : Paniniya Pradyotam (a commentary in Malaya-
1am on Panini) by I. C. Chacko.
Marathi : Saundarya and Sahitya (a study of aesthetics) by
late B. S. Mardhekar.
Pdnjabi : Sitnehare (book of poems) by Amrita Pritam.
Sanskrit : History of Dkarmashastra (Vol. IV) by P. V. Kane.
Tamil ; Alai Osai (novel) by late Krisbnamurti ‘Kalki’.
Telvgv : Bharatiya Tatvasaatramtt (translation in Telugu of
Dr. Kadhakrishnan’s "History of Indian Philosophy”) by Bulusn
Venkateswarlu.
Urdu : Qaumi Tehsib ka Maslah (a survey of Indian culture)
by Abid Hussain.
INTERNATIONAL WHO’S WHO
Ade?iatier, Dr. Conrad — Chancel-
lor of Western Germany’s Fe-
deral Republic since 1949.
Attlee, Earl, British Statesman,
bom Jan. 3, 1883.
Banaranaike, Solomon W.R.D. —
Prime Minister of Ceylon since
1956.
Bayar, Celal, President of the
'Turkish Republic since 1950.
Boyd-On’i Lord ; A famous
authority on nutrition.
Bulganin, Marshall N.A. ; — Pre-
mier of the Soviet Union since
Feb. 1955.
Churchill, Sir Winston Spenar —
British Statesman ; Prime Mi-
nister of England 1940-1946
and 1951-65.
Chou En-Lai — Prime Minister of
China.
Coty, Rene — ^President of the
French Republic since De-
cember 1955.
Do Valera, Emon — ^Former Prmie
Minister of Irish Republic.
Disney, Walter E. — Originator of
Mickey Mouse films.
Dulles, John Foster — Secretary
of State for U.S. since Jan.
1953.
Eisenhower, D. D. — President of
the United States of America.
Haile Selassie I — Emperor of
Ethiopia.
Hammarskjold, Dag — Secretary
-General of the United Nations
since 1953.
Khrushchev, N. S, — First Secre-
tary of the Central Committee
of the Communist Party of the
U.S.S.R.
Kreisler, Fritz, — acclaimed by,
many as the greatest living
violinist.
Nasser, Lt. Col. Gamel Abdel —
President and Prime Minister
of Egypt.
Mao Tse-tung — Chairman of the
People’s Republic of China.
Tito, Marshal Josip Broz — First
President of Yugoslovia.
Ree, Syngman — President of
South Korea.
TOURISM IN INDIA
India offers unique attractions to satisfy all visitors to India.
It is a land of remarkable contrasts. The snow-capped peaks of the
Himalayas, panoramic valley of the Ganga, the desert of Rajasthan,
the back waters of Kerala, the palm-fringed coast of Malabar offer a
veritable paradise of bewildering beauty. So far as archaeological and
architectural beauties are concerned, India has unique and priceless
treasures to feast the eyes of the most critical visitors. The cavesi
of Ajanta and Ellora, the Dilwara Temple of Vimala Shah in Mount
Abu, the South Indian temples famous for their Dravidian archi-
tecture, Taj Mahal of Agra, the deserted city of Akbar in Fatehpur
Sikri, the Gol Gambuz or the whishering Tower of Bijapur, the
temple of Khajuraho at Bundelkhand, Bhuvansewar and Madurai,
Buddhist Tope at Sanchi, the Sun Temple at Konarak (Black Pagoda)
etc. all afford a sumptuous feast for tourist’s eyes.
For the sportsman, India fiumishes sport such as few countries
do : tiger, panther, bear, buffalo and bison in the forests, trout and
masheer in the river, the wily snipe and strong-winged duck on the
jheels. To the mountaineer, the Himalayas offer the highest mount-
ains in the world, with their many famous peaks which have not yet
been sealed.
The art collector and souvenir hunter will reap a good harvest
in this country, India’s arts and crafts have always been prized
abroad. Kashmir is justly renowned for the enquisite patterns and
colours of its hand-embroidered shawls. The brocades of Banaras,
the jewellery of Delhi and Jaipur, the ivories of Mysore and
Travancore, the inlaid metal ware of Moradabad and Hyderabad
and the glass bangles of Firozabad are some of the infinite varie^
of Indian crafts which appeal to the eye and satisfy the aesthetic
urge of the connoisseur and the layman alike.
An elaborate network of internal air services provides comfor-
table and speedy transport to a large number of cities and towns
scattered all over India. There are 28 national highways, hundreds
of State highways and thousands of local roads. Most of the national
and State highways are suitable for motor traffic. The railways of
India which are now nationalised, carry tourists from one end of the
country to the other.
The Tourist Organisation in India at the official level was stiarted
in December, 1949, as part of the Ministry of Transport.^ Its broad'
objective is to disseminate tourist information and organise publicity
in foreigpi countries and to ensure that overseas visitors^ are provided
all necessa^ facilities on arrival and during their sojourn in this
country. Since its incepton the story of the tourist organisation in
India has been one long series of expansional activities in close and
constant collaboration with the State Governments, travel agents,
hoteliers and carriers.
TOURISM IN INDIA
G49
Tourist Information Offices have been established in twelve
important tourist centres in India (Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
Agra, Aurangabad, Banaras, Bangalore, Darjeeling, Jaipur, Ootaca-
mund and Simla) and in five cities abroad (New York, San Francisco.
London, Paris, Melbourne and Colombo). ‘One more Tourist Office
overseas (in Frankfurt) and three more in India in Bhopal
(Sanchi), Cochin and Bhubaneshwar are expected to be opened in
the near future. The functions of these Tourist Offices are to dissem-
inate information, maintain close contact with the travel trade, do
promotional work and train and provide guides. More than six
million pieces of travel literature are being annually produced in Eng-
lish, French, Spanish, German and a few Indian languages and distri-
buted through the travel trade. Government of India Tourist Offices,
Indian Missions etc., all over the world.
The improvement of facilities at important tourist centres visited
by foreign as well as Indian tourists has been pro^ammed in India’s
Second Five-Year-Plan drawn up in co-operation with the State
Governments. The entire plan is estimated to cost Rs. 337,87,000/-
out of which the contribution of the Central Government will be Es.
186,80,000/-. In addition road schemes costing upto about Es.
100,00,000/-are also expected to be taken up.
India is a member of the International Union of Official Ti’avel
Organisations (lUOTO) and is also represented on the Managing
Committee of the International Travel Research Institute (ITBI).
A senior official of the Ministry of Ti’ansport, Government of India,
has been elected the Chairman of the newly constituted South Asian
Travel Commission of the ITJOTO.
League of Nations in 1937 and United Nations in 1946 definied,
the tourist as a person who visits another country for a period of
more than 24 hours and less than six months for any non-immigrant
purpose.
The steps taken by the Government for the spread of tourism
in India are as follows —
(1) Customs regulations h.ave _ been_ considerably relaxed.
(2) Procedures concerning registration and customs check-up
have been simplified.
(3) A number of young Indians have received training for the
first time in schools of hotel-keeping in Europe and it is proposed to
set up a first class school of hotel trading in India_ by 1958.
(4) A large number of guides have been trained according to
international standards.
(5) A large variety of tourist literature are being produced an-
nually and is being distributed through travel trade channels all over
the world.
(6) Five Government tourist offices have been opened overseas
— ^New York, San Francisco, London, Paris, Colombo, Melbourne
which are operating as publicity and information centres for tourists
abroad.
(7) Twelve tourists offices have been opened in India.
(8) Indian Travel and Tourist Industry’s Council has been
formed in Bombay in 1955. This Council is represented by the respec-
650
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
tive association of hotels, airlines, travel agencies, steamship lines^
automobile and road transport. The main object of the Conncir is
to promote and co-ordinate the travel and tourist industry in India. '
(9) Visitors’ Bureapx have been opened at Srinagar, Mysore,
Darjeeling, Mussorie, Ootacamund, Nainital, Kodaikanal, Simla aTKf
Eaniket — Indif^’s leading hill stations for foreign as well as Indian-
tourists.
(10) Tourist introduction cards are issued to hona fide tourists
by Indian Missions abroad and Regional Tourist offices in India to-
assist visitors to obtain expeditious service, preferential considera-
tion for essential facilities.
The efforts in India for travel promotion is bearing fruit. The-
tourist ti-affic has been going up by about 20 p.c. every year and earn-
ing foreign exchanges. The earning was Rs. 10 crores in 1965.
Intel-national Body — ^There is a world organisation • called the
“International Union of Official Travel Organisations.” Almost all
the national associations of the world are members of the I. U. 0. T.
O. which is the active international consultive body of the travel
trade. This body was reorganised in 1947 for the development of
tourism on world-wide scale. It works in close co-operation with
the U. N. and its regional bodies like E. C. E. and E. C. A. F. E.
DESCRIPTION OP INDIAN SHOW PLACES
Bombay
In the State of Bombay, there are two historic rock-cut caves of
Ellora and Aj'anta. A little more than an hour’s flight from
Bombay, Aurangabad is 233 miles by train via Manmad on the-
Central Railway. The caves can also be easily reached from Jalgaon
near Bhusaval on the Western Railway. Prom Jalgaon, Aj’anta is
only 37 miles away ; Ellora is about 57 miles from Aj’anta. There-
is a good motor road right up to the foot of the caves. Monuments
of Ellora are Buddhist. Hindu and Jain origin. They are spread over
li miles to the north and south. Of the 34 caves here, 12_ are
Buddhist, 17 Hindu and 5 Jain. The Hindu cave kno-wn as Kaijash
has been hewn entirely out of solid rock. Its massive pillars, inti-
cate gallaries, painted ceilings and enormous statues are famous not
only in India but also throughout the world.
Aj’anta caves have four Chaityas and 25 Viharas built 22 centu-
ries ago. They took 1,000 years to complete. Though some of the
paintings and carvings are disfigured, still the caves present their
full glory to the visitor. The wall paintings are scenes from the
Jatakas and stories of the birth of Buddha, of the market place, busy
streets, marriage festivals, dancing girls, etc. etc. Cave No. 10 is
the largest in the group, about 100 ft. in length and its paintings
show the beautiful dresses, hair-styles and j’ewellery of the period.
In addition to the above caves, there are the Eleplianta Caves
about 19 miles from Bombay, the Karla Caves on the Bombay-Poona
road and Pandav Leni near Nasik.
Saurashtra which has now merged with Bombay has some_ im-
portant show places. — The most important is the Gir forest which is
TOURISM IN INDIA
652 >
the only abode of lions in Asia. The Somnath Temple in Patan aisc*
forms part of Bombay. This ancient temple was destroyed by Mo-
hammad of Ghazni in 1023. Its subsequent history is the periodic-
destruction and rebuilding. A modem temple is being built on the-
site of the original temple.
The famous hill stations of Bombay with enchanting scenery amf.
invigorating climate are Mahabaleswar and Matheran.
Madhya, Pradesh.
This State has a rich heritage with a wealth of ancient monu-
ments representing various forms of art and architecture. The State-
has within its borders massive palaces, forts, beautiful temples
and caves. The State is a renowned centre for big game huntingr
and southernmost district of Bastar offers a good field of research-
for anthropologists.
The best preserved Buddhist monuments in India are found im
Sanchi, 28 miles from Bhopal on the Bombay-Delhi line of the-
Central -Railway. Relics of Buddha are believed to be preserved in-
the famous stupa. Sanchi, however, is closely associated with two-
of Buddha's disciples, Sariputta and Mahomagolanna, whose relics--
were discovered in 1831 by General Cunningham.
Khajuraho temples in Bundellchand which can be reached fronn
Harapalpur Station on the Jhansi-Manikpur Section of the Central'
Railway are said to be the culmination of Indo-Aryan architecture-
Only 20 of the original 85 temples are in existence. Among the im-
portant shrines are the Laxmanji, Khandarya Sfahadeva and the-
Vamana' temples.
Other important places worth visiting are : Ujjain on the-
Bhopal-Ujjain Section of the Central Railway which can also be-
reached by the Western Railway via Nagda. It was once the capital!
of King Vikramaditya and was the centre of culture in ancient India..
It is one of the seven sacred cities of the Hindus.
Gwalior has the imposing Gwalior fort which retains impressions--
of the dynasties that ruled, has an extraordinary chain of defence-
The tombs of Mohammad Ghaus, Tansen and the Chhatri of Ranii
Laxmibai of Jhansi are other attractions for tourists.
Orissa.
Orissa attracts thousands of pilgrims from all parts of India-,
for the temples at Puri, Bhubaneswar, Sakhigopal, Konark and other-
places of religious interest. Puri which has Jagannath temple is one-
of the foremost sacred centres of pilgrimages. The massive temple-
is 215 feet high. Bhubaneswar on the main Howrah-Madras line-
272 miles from Calcutta is full of temples. The most famous of
Bhubanes-war temples is the temple of Lingaraj. It is the quinte-
sence of the Kalinga tirpe of architecture and one of the best archaeo-
logical monuments of India. The sun temple at Konark is the-
grandest achievement of the eastern school of architecture. It is-
about 55 miles from Puri. The temple is shaped like a chariot, -with-.
12 pairs of wheels drawn by magnificient horses carved from stone-
The temple was built in the 13th century and is one of the richest^
endowments to Indian art.
*352
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
J’unjab
There are many show-places in the Punjab. Of these, the follow-
ing may he prominently mentioned — Amritsar is perhaps the most
famous of all places in the Punjab. It lies about 280 miles from
Delhi and is the most largest, and perhaps the most picturesque ci^
-of Punjab. The Golden Temple is by far the biggest attraction in
Amritsar. The famous battle-field of Panipat is now known as
'Kumkshetra, the land of Kurus where the battle of Mahabharate
was fought for 18 days. For the tourist who wishes to feast his
. -ayes on gorgeous mountain scenery, perhaps there is no better place
in India than Kangra and Kulu. A further attraction is the various
"types of hillfolk in their many-coloured costumes. A number of
Tlajput princes took refuge in the sheltered valleys of Kangra to
escape the power of the Muslim rulers in the plains. Here they pro-
j)agated Hindu culture.
-Assam
With its variegated landscapes, magnificent rivers, lofty hills, a
rich variety of flora and fauna, lovely hill stations and picturesque
"hill tribes, Assam offers great attraction to tourists. Shillong, the
•capital of the State, in the Khasi Hills, is among the finest hill sta-
"tions in the countiV- Cherrapunji. the wettest place on earth,
•provides the visitor with a magnificent view of the Sylhet plains.
The wffd life sanctuaries are growing in popularity and Kaziranga
is world famous. Arrangements are being improved to enable
itourists to see the single-homed rhino. Assam is an anglers’ para-
•dise and shooting facilities are abundant.
There are numerous ancient temples and shrines held in
•deep reverence by Hindu and Buddhists. The most famous among
■them is the Temple of the Goddess Kamakhya, near Gauhati. From
•the historical point of view Sibsagar’s principal attractions _ are
•the relics of palaces, temples and tanks built by the Ahom kings
-who ruled over Assam for many centuries. The three_ temples, Debi-
-dol, Bishnu-dol and Shiva-dol, are said to have been built jn 1734 A.D.
Tjy Rani Ambika, second wife of the Ahom King Shiva Singh. _ Eight
miles to the east of the town, at Gargaon, the principal^ capital of
•the Ahom kings, a seven-storeyed palace, built in 1752, still survives.
Delhi
Delhi is a real Museum of Indo-Islamic architecture. The Qutb
"Minar, Red Fort and Jami Masjid are famous throughout India.
“Examples of ancient Indian architecture, like the two Asoka
Fillars and the famous Iron Pillar at Qutb can be seen here. _ Huma-
yun’s tomb is probably the most beautiful and impressive building in
“Delhi. Red Fort is a typical ^lughal Palace. TTie Great Jami Masjid
is to be reckoned among half-a-dozen of the finest mosques in the
-world.
Kerala
Kerala is the land of coconut palm charmingly set between the
“Western Ghats stretching from north to south and the blue
“watere of the Arabian Sea. In Trivandrum, the main place of inte-
rrest is Padmanabhaswami Temple — a. fine specimen of the Dravidian
INDO-PAKISTAK AFFAIRS
65S
style of architecture. About 170 mUes from Trivandrum is a unique-
wild life Sanctuary on the fringes of the Periyar lake in the heart
of mountains and dense forests. The port of Cochin is the only all-
weather harbour on the West Coast, south of Bombay affording safe
anchorage to ships.
Government of India Regional Tourist Offices —
Ministry of Transport (Tourist TrafiBc Branch), New Delhi.
Regional Tourist Officer, 123, Queens’ Road, Churchgate, Bombay.
Regional Tourist Officer, Esplanade Mansions, 14-16, Govt. Place
East, Calcutta.
Regional Tourist Officer, 88, Queensway, New Delhi.
Regional Tourist Officer, 35, Mount Road, Madras.
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, Govt, of India, The Bund,
Srinagar.
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, 15B, Mall, Banaras.
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, 16A, Mahatma Gandhi
Road, Bangalore.
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, The Mall, Agra.
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, Station Road, Aurangabad-
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, Municipal Building,
Ootacamund.
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, Chaurasta, Darjeeling.
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, Municipal Building, Simla-
Tourist Reception and Information Officer, Circuit House, Jaipur.
Travel Agendes
American Express Co. Inc., Bombay, Calcutta, New Delhi.
Bharat Travel Service, 310/311, Linghi Chetty Street, Madras.
Cox & Kings (Agents) Ltd., Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi.
Grindlays Bank Ltd., Bombay, Calcutta.
Mercury Travels (Ltd.), 15, Chowringee Road, Calcutta.
Orient Express Ltd., Norton Buildings 1 & 2 Old Court House Street,
Calcutta.
Thomas Cook & Sons, Bombay.
Trade Wings, Bombay & Calcutta.
Jeena & Co. 10, Veer Nariman Road, Fort, Bombay.
Hari Singh & Sons, 32R1, Dalhousie Square, Calcutta.
Latiro Lines, 2, Church Lane, Calcutta.
Panurge Co.; 30 /B, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta.
INDO-PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
1. AGREE3IENT OF INDUS WATERS — The Government of
India and Pakistan have reached an agreement for ad hoc transiti-
onal arrangement for the use of waters of the Indus system of rivers
■till March 31, 1957, it was officially announced on September 26, 1956.
The agreement provides for continuance of arrangements establishing
■ad hoc amounts for additional canal withdrawals by India from the
three eastern rivers (the 'Ravi, Beas and Sutlej) on lines similar to
‘those of the previous transitional agreements which ran from April
1, 1956 to March 31, 1957. the discussions between the represen-
tatives of the two Governments continued under auspices of the World
'Bank at Washington.
PAKISTANI CLAIM OVER CHITRAU— Pakistan claimed
-Chitral to be her territory. Chitral is situated in Kashmir. On June
.1, 1956, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the Chief Minister of Kashmir,
.repudiated this claim of Pakistan. He declared at a Press Conference
at Srinagar on that day that Chitral, Punial Hunza and Nagar are
■vital and important parts of the State of Kashmir. Nehni also
•claimed that Chitral is part of India. By virtue of a treaty signed in'
1878 between Aman U1 Mulk, the Mehtar of Chitral and the Maha-
maja of Kashmir, it was obvious that paramountcy and suzerain^ of
the Maharaja of Kashmir was acknowledged by the Mehtar of Chitral.
Tihis paramountcy and siizerainty now vests "with India because the
State of Jammu and Kashmir acceded to India in 1947. _ Till 1947 the
Mehtar of Chitral was paying tribute to the Maharaja. In return
he received a subsidy of Rs. 12,000 in coins then cment in the State. ’
The Kashmir Premier said that Pakistan had no business to be
'in Gilgit. By occupying GUgit Pakistan was violating international
law. Gilgit was a part of Kashmir. GUgpt was leased to the British
Government by the Maharaja and it was returned to him in August
in 1947. Even the British Government had recognised the Maha-
raja’s suzerainty over Gilgit. Under Article 2 of the Treaty, it was
-agreed that the Maharaja's flag would fly on all Goverment offices
.and agencies throughout the year and tribute paid to the Maharaja
-on the birthday and other occations.
Historical facts supporting India's title to Chitral, a tributary
State of Kashmir were provided by a British subject in a letter to the
. Daily Telegraph published on June 6, 1956. The letter states that the
Mehtar of Chitral made an agreement with the Maharaja of Kashmir
in 1878 in which he acknowledged his subordination to Kashmir and
undertook to receive an agent from the Durbar. In 1888, CajJtain
Durand visited Chitral and made a formal alliance with the British
. and the Kashmir Raj. In 1895, Kashmir called on the British
for help in defending Chitral from Umra Khan and the Chitral relief
■force was the sequel. The letter muter was one of the force.
INDO-PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
655
KASHMIR DEVELOP3IENTS
Addressing a public meeting at New Delhi on April 13, 1956,-
Sri Nehru disclosed that he had suggested to the Pakistani leaders
to hold discussions to settle the Kashmir issue by demarcating
the borders of the State on the basis of the present cease-fire line.
He said that India did not wish to disrupt things in Kashmir which
had settled down following the recent economic prosperity in the
State. He added that the entire procedure so far followed regarding
the Kashmir question had to be viewed afresh in the light of
American arms aid to Pakistan and the SEADO and the Baghdad
Pact.
The question of plebiscite was dependent on the clear stipulation
that the entire^ Pakistan army should first withdraw from the terri-
toi^r of Kashmir. Pakistan has failed to fulfil this important stipu-
lation during these last nine years, when the face of Kashmir had
been changed.
On April 2, Sri Nehru stated that there was no doubt the
legal and constitutional fullness of the accession of Kashmir to India.
If the law is thrust upon us, we have the law and the aggressor is
the guilty party. Sri Nehru pointed out that there was no doubt
that the people who invaded Kashmir and committed aggression
there had been aided and abetted with arms and transport and petrol
by Pakistan.
Pakistan’s Proposal for U. N. Force: Mr. Noon, the Foreign
Minister of Pakistan made a proposal that there should U. N. Force
for Kashmir, India rejected this plan outright. By making this
proposal Mr. Noon has sought to revive an old formula which India
had found unacceptable three years ago as it infringed her
sovereignty and questioned her legal and constitutional rights over
Kashmir. Acceptance of the proposal would amount to equating the
status of India in regard to Kashmir with that of Pakistan and sur-
rendering the little that India had gained from the otherwise unsatis-
factory handling of the Kashmir issue before the Security Council.
Sir Owen Dixon and Dr. Frank Graham had both conceded thah
after the accession India was constitutionally responsible for the
security of the State and all subsequent schemes of demilitarisation
had taken cognisance of this special status of India. Mr. Noon’s pro-
posal for U. N. Force is nothing but an invitation to abdication.
The Pakistan Foreign Minister has expressed his readiness to join
India in a no-war declaration only after the Kashmir question had
been settled. A logical conclusion is that Pakistan does not rule out
war as a means of solution of the dispute. BIr. Noon’s proposal for
a phased withdrawal of Pakistani troops is only conditional upon the
stationing of a U. N. Force in Kashmir.
Part II of the UNCIP resolution of August 13, 1948 states
categorically that “as the presence of troops of Pakistan in the
territory of the State of Jammu and Kashmir constitutes a material
change in the situation since it was represented by the Government of
Pakistan before the Security Council, the Government of Pakistan
agrees to withdraw its troops from that State.” It has to be noted
also that the new proposal conveniently glosses over the issue of the
656
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
so-called Azad Kashmir Force, 32 battalions of which were built up
by Pakistan by 1949, during the cease-fire, and this force would con-
tinu to remain in the State.
Moreover, the proposal had been firmly rejected by the U. N.
long ago. In a memorandum accompan^ng his letter of August 19,
1948, the then Minister of Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Rela-
tions for Pakistan had inquired from the UNCIP if the Commission
intended to secure the services of international or neutral force to
safeguard the security of Pakistan and the population of the area sub-
sequent to aggressive action of the Government of India. In _ an
appendix attached to its reply of August 19, 1948, the Commission
said :
“The Security Council resolution of April 21, 1948 was adopted
with cognisance of the presence of Indian troops in the State of
Jammu and Kashmir. The presence of Pakistan troops in
Jammu and Kashmir, however, constitutes a material change in the
situation inasmuch as the Security Council did not contemplate the
presence of such troops in that State, nor was it apprised thereof by,
the Government of Pakistan”.
On December 13, Sri Nehru declared in the Lok Sahha that
no question can arise of any outside force coming into Kashmir which
is Indian territory.
The Kashmir Constituent Assembly has meanwhile adopted the
new Constitution for the State of Jammu and Kashmir, fully acced-
ing to the Indian Union. The formal accession took place on Janu-
ary 26, 1957, the Day of Indepence. Pakistan has lodged a com-
plaint with the Security Council protesting against the merger of
Kashmir with India. The Kashmir affair debate started in the Secu-
rity Council on January 16, 1957. On that day Pakistan asked
the Security Council for a reiteration of the undertaking for a plebis-
cite, in Kashmir and for an injunction against the integration of the
State with India as envisaged by the State’s Constituent Assembly.
This move by Pakistan was supplemented with the demand for an
injuction and the suggestion for a U.N. police force for Kashmir.
With regard to the first the Indian view is well knovro, namely,
that the plebiscite stage is now over because there is a radical change
in the set of conditions under which such a referendum was ag^reed
to. The new changed conditions are : the arming of Pakistan by
the USA and Pakistan’s membership of the SEATO.
As for the objection to the constitutional formality of integra-
tion India took the stand that Kashmir accession is_ already an accom-
plished fact and that the recent constitutional step is no more than the
public announcement of a contract.
So far as the proposal for a U. N. force is concerned India clear-
ly stated in the Security Council that she would now allow the pre-
sence of foreign troops in India as she regarded it as an infringement
of her sovereign rights. In any case it is not for Pakistan to make
such a suggestion ^ter committing aggression in Kashmir. This
brings us to the central theme of India’s reply ; the aggressor
has already been named (that is, Pakistan) and the aggressor must
be made to obey the Security Council’s directions to vacate Kashmir.
INDO-PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
657
The Security Council in its January sitting (1957) passed the
resolution by 10 to 0 vote (U.S.S.R. abstaining) that India and
Pakistan should withdraw from ICashmir and hold a plebiscite, inspite
of the stout opposition of India. Another resolution was brought in
the Security Council by four Powers for sending its president Mr.
Gunner Jarring of Sweden to India and Pakistan to negotiate with
the Governments under time-limit of April 15, 1957 a plan for demili-
tarisation of Jammu and Kashmir bearing in mind the previous reso-
lutions (earlier in Jan. 1957) about plebiscite and Pakistani proposal
for a U.N. force. Both U.S.S.R. and Colombia objected to this
resolution and put forward amendments.
On Feb. 20, 1957. Soviet Union vetoed the above four-Power
resolution. So a three-Power resolution was again brought in the
Security Council for sending Mr. Gunnar Jarring of Sweden to India
and Pakistan to examine with the Governments of the two countries
any proposals which in his opinion would help in the settlement of
the Kashmir Problem having regard to previous resolutions of the
Security Council and U.N. Commission for India and Pakistan.
EXODUS OF THE HINDUS FROM PAKISTAN— There has been
streams of people migrating from Pakistan to India ever since the
partition in 1947. In the first week of May 1956 (May 5) a confer-
ence on minority exodus was held in Dacca. The important causes of
exodus are the feeling of insecurity among the minorities, economic
discrimination, forcible requisition of property and crops. The whole
tenor of the discussion at the conference was that if Pakistan put
its own house in order and restored confidence among the minorities,
there would be no urge for migration and automatically the issue of
migration certificates would and should be reduced.
The communiques of the conference reads :‘'In view of both the
delegations the causes of the exodus are many and varied. But
broadly speaking they come under the categories of psychological
factors, economic conditions, social requirements, grievances, the latent
gravitational pull of leaders' relations and friends who have already
migrated to India, free facilities for crossing over to the other side
in expectation of rehabilitation among persons of their own culture,
religion and ceremonial observance, and propaganda carried on by
some persons vdth the sole object of misleading the Hindus into
quitting their hearth and homes and migrating to the adjoining Indian
States of West Bengal, Assam and Tripura.”
Refering to Pakistan’s demands for stricter control of the issue
of migration certificates and also proper interrogation of migrants
to ascertain why they were leaving, Mr. C.C. Biswas, the Indian
Minister, said that the Indian Government had already instructed the
Deputy High Commissioner in Dacca along these lines and these
instructions had already been given effect to.
Judging from the joint communique issued by it here on May 6,
1956, the Indo-Pakistan conference on klinority exodus has apparent-
ly not achieved much more than what had already been done by both
the Governments towards checking migration prior to the conference.
The communiques referred to an agreement that some positive steps
should be taken to eliminate as far as possible the factors that tend
42
658
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
to encourage the recent exodus and promised wholehearted co-opera-
tion of both sides in this regard.
Some tangible concessions were made by India to effect greater
restriction on the grant of migration certificates. Pakistan agreed
to remove the causes of exodus. Nearly 40 lakhs of Hindus have
so far migrated from Pakistan to the India Union. Most of these
people are agriculturists tied to their lands. They are coming over
to India because there is no future for them in Pakistan. At the time
of partition there were 1.25 crores Hindus in Pakistan, of them 40
lakhs have now migrated to India. India declined to accept Pakis-
tan’s charge that rehabilitation facilities in West Bengal had led the
minorities in Pakistan to go over to India to try their luck.
The Indian delegation agreed to further restrict the grant of
migration certificates by introducing a system of scrutiny of each
application. The Indian delegation agreed to do this in the hope that
Pakistan will fulfil the assurances of giving scrutiny to minorities in
Dacca. The Pakistan delegation agreed to try their best to attend
to the grievances of the minorities so as to tone up the administra-
tion, try to fill the 23 per cent quota of services by appointing mino-
rity candidates, facilitate cultural including educational developments
and trade and commerce.
The Pakistan delegation is also understood to have assured that
the suggestion for derequisitioning of Hindu property would be looked
into. It was agreed that the minority boards at the provincial level
— ^with subsidiary boards on various levels, like districts, subdivisions
and thana — ^would also be set up in East Pakistan to directly examin-
ing the minorities’ grievances and try to remove them. It was fur-
ther agreed that district magistrates and superintendents of police
will directly take up the cases of crimes against minorities of vital
nature.
BORDER INCIDENTS— On March 28th, 1956, Sri Nehru
declared in the Lok Sabha that during 1955, 29 border incidents in
which Pakistani nationals had violated the cease-fire line in Kashmir
had been reported to the U.N. observers. The observers had declared
ten of these cases, including the Nekowal incident in which Pakistani
military forces were directly involved, as violations of the cease-fire
line by Pakistan. As a result of these violations 13 Indians — 12 of
them in Nekowal — had been killed and property worth about Rs. 1
lakh was lost or destroyed.
A strong contingent of Pakistani troops tresspassed into_ Indian
territory and attacked an Indian military petrol with automatic wea-
pons in the Chhad Bed, a small pasture island in the Eann
(marshlands) of Kutch on February 17, 1956. On 22nd February
Sri Nehru declared in the Lok Sabha the Chhad Bed was a part
of Indian possession. India has given grazing rights to contractors.
Chhad Bed has a small population consisting mostly of graziers.
For some time, stray intruders from across the border have been
harassing the local population and asking them not to pay Indian
taxes. _ The people ignored these intruders and informed the Indian
authorities of these periodic visits. India rejected the Pakistani
proposal that the Chhad Bed dispute should be settled in accordance
INDO-PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
659
with the procedure laid down under the Inter-Dominion agreement
of 1948 as Chhad Bed is not covered by that agreement.
On March 21, Indian and Pakistan border police exchanged heavy
fire across a 10-mile stretch on the Attari-Wagah frontier in thc^
Punjab. The exchange began when Pakistan police tresspassed into
Indian territory at Nauchera Dhalla and suddenly opened fire on an
Indian patrol. Following this incident, the General Officers Comman-
ding East Punjab area and Tenth Infantry Division (Pakistan) at
their meeting on March 21 agreed that all controversial issues should
be discussed and settled by negotiations by commanders at all levels
to avoid unnecessary tension and bloodshed. It was agreed that no
uniformed bodies of Pakistan armed personnel should approach guide
bund or deploy near guide bund. All additional troops brought in ac-
tion on either side of the border due to the incident during March 17
to 19, to be withdrarvn forthwith. The place of incident is also known
as Hussainwala,
PAKISTANI DEBT TO INDIA — Pakistan owes to India Rs. 94
lakhs in respect of canal water dues. Under the agreement of May
1948, the Government of Pakistan was required to pay on account of
canal water charges such ad hoc sums as might be specified by the
Indian Prime Minister. A part of these sums relating to seigpiiorage
charges and the interest on the capital cost of the Madopur HeadJ
works and channels was disputed by Pakistan,
The payment of disputed charges had been withheld by Pakistan
since July 1950. The Government of India had sent a communi-
cation to the Government of Pakistan in this connection and only
interim replies had been received from Pakistan. Up to the end of
June 1956 Pakistan had cleared the account in respect of undisputed
dues to the extent of Rs. 18 lakhs.
JOINT FLOOD CONTROL MEASURES — ^An agreement has been
reached between India and Pakistan for joint flood control measures.
In pursuance of this agreement flood warnigs will be furnished from
Dibrugarh, Gauhati, Patna, Silchar, Gomti, Khawai and Dholal by
India. Like\vise, India will give heavy rainfall data to Pakistan from
Shillong. India has also agreed to fuminsh other information rela-
ting to the Brahmaputra Valley or any other kind of assistance that
may be considered necessary for formulating flood control measures
in East Pakistan. Pakistan reciprocated by undertaking to give flood
warnings from Khatrai in Pakistan to India as well as heavy rainfall
data from Sylhet and Habibganj.
INDO-PAKISTAN TRADE PACT — A new three-year trade
agreement providing for greater volume of trade between India and
Pakistan was signed in New Delhi on January 22, 1957. The agree-
ment has been ratified by the two Governments and has come into
force on the first of February 1957. Under the agreement the two
Governments have undertaken to explore all possibilities for expansion
of trade between the countries on the basis of mutual advantage.
The two Governments have agreed to facilitate imports and ex-
ports of commodities specified in two schedules attached to the agree-
ment to the extent permitted by their laws and regulations and
660
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
procedure. The two Governments have also agreed to accord to each
other’s commerce the most favoured-nation treatement. They have
also agreed to continue border trade between East Pakistan and the
adjoining Indian territories with a slight modification. Under the
existing agreement certain commodities up to a maximum of a boat
and a cartload can be sold across the border, but in the new agreement
it has been restricted to a head-load.
Along with the signing of the agreement a letter was also
exchanged between the two delegations. This provides for the_ con-
tinuance of the existing facilities for carrying paddy from Tripura
State to East Pakistan by “Ziratia” tenants for consumption. These
tenants cultivate land in Tripura but live in East Pakistan. In retam
for this facility, East Pakistan has agreed to improve the facilities
for the transport of essential commodities from West Bengal to Tri-
pura through its territory. The commodities that will be exported
from India to Pakistan include coal, chemicals, drugs and machines,
millboard and straw-board, machinery and mill work, workshop
equipments, cinema films, electrical instruments, sugar, tea for
blending, coffee, betel leaves, bidis and hooka tobacco and bidi leaves.
The articles that will be exported from Pakistan to India includes
raw jute, hides and skins, fish, poultry and eggs, betel nuts, spices,
honey, cinema films, machine tools, bicycles and spare parts, surgical
instruments and sports goods. Exqjort or import of commodities not
listed in the schedules will also be' permitted in accordance with the)
laws, regulations or procedures of either country. The two Govern-
ments have agreed to enter special arrangements for commodities
listed^ in a separate schedule up to quantities or values specified for
each item. These include coal, hard and soft wood, stone boulders and
sea salt for export from India and rock salt and forest produce for
export from Pakistan to India.
Under the agreement India has agreed to supply every month
roughly one lakh tons of coal to both wings of Pakistan, 45,000 tons
for West Pakistan and 65,000 tons to East Pakistan — an increase
of about 22,000 tons over the quantity specified in the present agree-
ment. Under the new agreement more Indian films will be imported
by Pakistan under the existing agreement. Pakistan has agreed to
import a minimum of ten Bengali films and seven Hindi or Urdu
films every year. India will place the import of Pakistan films
on free licensing.
West Pakistan will export to India 50,000 tons of cement
during 1957 and India will export the same quantity to East Pakistan.
No quantity for the purchase of raw jute by India from Pakis-
tan has been specified in the agreement.
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
1. YUGOSLAVIA, INDIA AND EGYPT
In July 1966, the attention of world public opinion was drawn
to Brioni, an island in the Northern Adriatic, and to Cairo,
Capital of Egypt, where meetings took place between Heads of
Government of Egypt, Yugoslavia and India. On July 13, an ex-
change of views took place between Egypt’s President Nasser
and President Tito of Yugoslavia. The talks were joined on July
18 and 19 by Prime Minister Nehru of India. On July 20, Nehru
and Nasser had further talks in Cairo. The leaders of the three
countries met to discuss questions of considerable international inte-
rest. Their meetings aimed at securing a further easing of inter-
national tension. The communique published after the Nasser-Tito
talks drew attention to the successful development of relations be-
tween Egypt and Yugoslavia. It was decided to extend cultural
and economic co-operation, including co-operation in the peaceful
use of atomic energy. With this aim in view the two sides have
decided to hold in the near future a meeting of experts on economic
questions, to conclude a cultural convention and to arrange for mutual
help and exchange of information: The two Presidents affirmed
their support for the decisions of the Bandung Conference on this
question.
On July 18, Prime Minister of India joined in the talks. The
participants in the talks condemned the division of the world into
blocks and proclaimed their support for the idea of collective security
on an international scale. They also expressed themselves in favour
of disarmament, the prohibition of H-bomb tests and the utilization
of atomic energy solely for peaceful purposes.
The joined statement issued by Nehru, Nasser and Tito draws
attention to the great importance of international economic, trade
and financial co-operation, and also of co-operation in the peaceful
use of atomic energy. The three leaders announced that the Chinese
People’s Republic must be given its place in the United Nations.
They noted that the German problem must be settled in keeping
with the wishes of the German people, by means of agreement reached
through peaceful negotiation. They also expressed their sympathy
with the strivings of the people of Algeria for freedom.
2. INDO-ARAB AMITY
Accepting the invitation of His Majesty King Baud during his
visit to India in 1955, the Prime Minister of India visited Saudi Arbia
from September 24 to September 29, 1956. On this occasion His
Majesty the King and the Prime Minister considered recent develop-
ments in the international situation as well as the further growth of
friendly relations between their two countries. On September 28,
662
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
India and Saudi Arabia issued a joint declaration advocating a
negotiated settlement of the Suez Canal dispute. They have also
expressed the hope that there •svould be no recourse to political and]
economic pressure in dealing with this matter.
The Statement of September 28, 1956 declares adherence to the
Bandung principles. The Bandung principles are designed to govem-
intemattonal relations. These includes respect for fundamental
human rights and the purposes and the principles of the Charter of
the United Nations, respect for the sovereignty and territorial inte-
grity of all nations, recognition of the equality of all races, absten-
tion from intervention or interference in the internal affairs of another
country and refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use
of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of
any country. They are resolved to promote co-operation _ between
their two countries in every field on the basis of these principles.
As regards the Suez Canal dispute, the two leaders, after recog-
nizing the importance of this waterway, say that there can be no
settlement by methods of conflict or denial of Egjqjt’s sovereigpi
rights over the Canal. They at the same time declare that the right
of all countries to free navigation through the Canal on payment of
reasonable dues has to be accepted. It is their view that, in spite of
the difficulties and tensions it is possible to reach a negotiated
settlement by maintaining the interests of other countries in the un-
restricted use of the Canal as an open waterway.
3. INDIA AND THE ALGERIAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEJIENT
India took active interest over the Algerian demand for indepen-
dence. On May 22, 1956, Prime Minister Nehru presented in the Lok
Sabha five proposals for peaceful settlement of the Algerian dispute.
The proposals are as follows :
1. The atmosphere of peaceful approach be promoted by formal
declarations by both sides of the substance of their recent statements
in favour of ending violence ;
2. The national entity and personality of Algeria be recognized
by the French Government on the basis of freedom ;
3. The equality of the people in Algeria irrespective of races be
recogrnized by all concerned ;
4. Recognition that Algeria is the homeland of all the people in
Algeria, irrespective of race, and that they shall all be entitled to the
benefits and share the burdens arising from the recognition of the'
Algerian national entity and personality and freedom.
5. Direct negotiations based on the above basic ideas and in
accordance^ with the principles of the U.N. Charter be inaugurated.
Sri Nehru expressed the Government of India’s concern at
the continued hostilities in Algeria. “The conflict, it must be recog-
nized,” he said, “is one in which basically all the urges, the passions,
the hopes, the aspirations and that mass upsurge of people which go
to make the great movements of rising nationalism, are engaged.
Too often are such movements and their consequences regarded as
mere challenges to constituted authority which can and must be
suppressed.
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
663
"The position taken by the Government of India in regard to all
such movements for national liberation, and specifically with reference
to Algeria, has been repeatedly stated. It was also adopted by the
Government of India, in unity with the other independent Governments
of Asia and Africa, at Bandung last year when they joined in dec-t
laring their support of the rights of the peoples of Algeria, Morocco
and Tunisia to self-determination and independence, and appealing to
the French Government to bring about a peaceful settlement of the
issue without dealy. This approach has two essentia] aspects which
must be always remembered — our support to freedom movements and
our adherence to a peaceful approach.”
France began to occupy the Algerian Sahara in 1890. The
actual conquest and the policing were done by the French Foreign
Legion, recruited mainly from citizens of other countries. The occu-
pation was completed in 1901, but the skirmishes between the native
Berber tribes and the Legion did not cease then and have not ceased
yet. World War II brought havoc to Algeria and only in 1943 waSi
order restored. An ar-my was reformed, composed largely of native
troops. The nucleus of it, however, remained the foreign legion with
four regiments and with general headquarters in Oran and Algiers.
Algeria is a French dependency under a Governor-General who
is flanked by a Consultative Council. Legislative power, however,
rests with the National Assembly in Paris, to which body each of the
three Algerian provinces or departments sends one senator and several
deputies.
The original population are Moslems. French- citizenship was
granted in 1919 to all monogamous Algerians who (1) fought in world
war I, (2) were landowners and <S) could read and write the French,
language. In 1944 this law was modified and citizenship was con-
ferred on all-French speaking Algerians with no strings attached in
regard to their Moselem practices. Government positions were
opened to all Moslems who were qualified for French citizenship.
All of this goes back to 1944 but in 1966 the facts to be reckoned,
with are : (1) the colons or settlers who have found security on
Algerian soil and wish to hold fast to it as well as to what they have
themselves created, (2) the natives, who having had a breath of
freedom, now demand independence and (3) French economy which
cannot afford to lose Algeria. The commissioned and non-commi-
ssioned officers of the ‘Legion Entrangere’ are native bom Frenchmen,
whereas the Legionnaries, the men without a country or a name,
become eligible for French citizenship after one term of service of!
five years and may retire on a pension after three five-year terms of
service. These retired Legionnaries, for whom Algeria has become
a place of immunity, are kno^vn as “les Colons” or settlers. Among,
them may also be found many of the penisoned officers and non-coms,
who after serving a long time in the African colonies also have no>
other place to go.
4. INDIA’S FRONTIER AREAS
Situated on the southern periphery of the Asian mainland and
flanked by huge mountains over hundreds of miles of her terri-
664
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
tory, India is surrounded by strong Mongoloid units within and with-
out her confines along the Himalayas. For defence reasons, the British
Gkivernment in India had all along followed a policy of maintaining*
independent friendly principalities around the Himalayan frontiers
where they refused entry even to their own subjects. These countries
in their turn refused ingress to foreigners from the other side.
By certain conventions and treaties the rulers of these States agreed
to be gaiided by the advice of the British in matters of defence and;
external affairs against British pledges of non-interference in the
internal administration of these States. The British subsidized them
for keeping order in their remoter regions. Promotion and regu-
larization of free frontier trade were some of the salient features of
the British frontier policy.
After independence, India took over Britain, among all other
matters of foreign policy in Asian and world affairs, responsibility
for the defence of these frontier regions and has since come to pursue
,the old policy of friendship, help and protection towards these
northern neighbours. For, although Britain advocated this policy
in a different context, security reasons made the continuity of
the policy desirable in the post-1947 period. But while the British
mainly concentrated on the watch and guard of the North-IVest
Frontier Province, India’s attention is focussed on the north-east in
view of the political change-over in China and its repurcussions iii
the South-East Asia and Tibet. Of course, Pakistan’s interest in
Kashmir and her economic and political pressure on the north-eastern
regions of India adjoining Pakistan have created fresh problems
in the defence of India. The 1948 troubles in Kashmir disturbed peace
and order in Ladakh whose strategic importance in the defence of the
frontier betu'een India, China and Russia cannot be exaggerated.
Ladakh, a political minority, lies between the Indian frontier and
China, and Russia. Her destiny is linked with that of India. _ Close
relations between Ladakh and India arose out of cultural affinity be-
tween them and now the link is bound to be strengthened because
of political and strategic considerations.
The tribal areas, "the Mongolian fringe” in India, extend-
ing from the Balipara Frontier Tract adjacent to Bhutan in the west
to the Naga Hills adjacent to Burma in the east and up to the
Sadiya frontier tract near Tibet in the North, constitute a useful
buffer for India. India’s land route to South-West China passes
through here. From as early as 1840, India has had a flourishing
trade with these remote regions. The large strip of the Duars, which
once proved a bone of contention between Bhutan and India, has
yielded to India magnificent forests and rich tea estates.
NAGA LAND — The quiet north-east frontier gained tremendous
international importance during World War II when Japanese
invader appeared on the Naga land. It may again acquire
strategic importance in view of the political trends in the south-
east Asian countries of Burma, China, Indo-China, Malaya and Thai-
land. The British Government was seldom called upon to spend much
on the maintenance of this frontier. And India may not have
to spend much either if the tribal people inhabiting these frontier
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
665
areas are handled with imagination and foresight and if their culture
and customs get proper appreciation from their Indian adminis-
trators. _ India needs their co-operation in watching and regulating
the intricate mountain border. Of course they must get some educa-
tion necessary for a proper understanding of the defence of the
frontier.
_ BHUTAN — Bhutan and Sikkim together, culturally and ethno-
logically Tibetan lands, have always served as a unique buffer be-
tween India and Tibet. The first British action against Bhutan was
the annexation to Assam in the 1840, of a large part of the
passes leading to the Bhutan Himalaya. This was a punitive measure
against the Bhotia’s repeated acts of aggression against territorial
regulations and non-payment of tribute to the British. This was con-
sidered necessary for the safety of life and property of the people in-
habiting the foothills of Bhutan — Gooch Bihar. For there was al-
ways a chance of the Bhotias rushing down the fertile plains of Assam
and disturbing peace and order on the British Government’s first
frontier along the eastern Himalaya in the early of their rule in India.
The Sinchula Treaty signed after the conclusion of the Anglo-Bhutan
war of 1864-65, ceded the entire Duar strip, 250 miles long 25 milesi
broad, to Assam and Bengal. In consideration of this cession, the:
British Government agreed to pay to Bhutan an initial annual sub-
sidy of Rs. 26,000 revised later on to Rs. 50,000 and Rs. 1,00,000.
Present cordial relations between Bhutan and India go back to
the days of Younghusband military mission to Lhasa in 1903-04, when
the Government of Bhutan worked earnestly for an amicable settle-
ment between Tibet, her earstwhile suzerain, and India. India does
not want to lose the friendship and co-operation of such a significant
and strategic buffer. Hence the fresh treaty of 1949 revising the
old one of 1865. The Bhutan — India treaty of 1949 revised those of
1865, 1907 and 1910, respectively, marks India’s desire to pursue an
active policy of friendship and goodwill with her neighbours and for
making a solid contribution to peace and prosperity in Asia.
SIKKIM — Sikkim serves as a unique wedge between India,
Bhutan and Nepal and the Tibet area of China. Early in the 19th
century, Britain intervened to settle a dispute between Nepal and
Sikkim which ultimately led to Titaliya Treaty of 1817 by which the
British assumed the position of the “Lords paramount” of
Sikkim “putty”. The ruler of Sikkim was bound by this treaty
to refer to British arbitration all disputes between his subjects and
those of the adjoining States of Bhutan and Nepal. Later on,
the aggressive Tibetian influence in Sikkim spoiled the free reci-
procal intercourse established by the treaty of 1861. The Sino-British
convention of 1890 for delimiting the Sikkim-Tibet frontier declared
this small Himalayan principality to be a protectorate of Brtish
India. On April 1, 1906, administrative control of Sikkim was for-
mally transferred from the Government of Bengal to the Government
of India. Since that time the Gangtok political agency has played a
signal role in the furthering of India’s interests on the north-western
frontier, especially her interests in Bhutan and Tibet. A standstill
agreement governed all relations bewteen India and Sikkim
666
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
after August 15, 1947. But a new treaty signed on December 5, 1960
granted a special political status to Sikkim. This treaty provides
for the continuence of Sikkim as a protectorate of India in a view of
her geographical situation and strategic border importance. India
is responsible for the external affairs, defence and communication of
Sikkim with no interference in her internal affairs, subject to the
responsibility of the Government of India for the maintenance of law
and order in the State.
NEPAL — Nepal, the last of the major border States, nestles in
in the bosom of the southern slopes of the central Himalaya between
India and Tibet. In the past India and Nepal were drawn towards
each other by intimate bonds of common heritage. Nepal’s tie with
Tibet dates back to the marriage of the Nepalese princes
Bhrikuti Devi, around 640 A.D. with srong-btsan Gampo, first natio-
nal king of Tibet. Nepal remained immune from the peaceful
penetration policy of British and was never a part of the British realm
in the East.
Introduction of constitutional reforms in the country, symbolizing
democratization of her age-old institutions, and her desire for full
participation in the field of international activity are evidences of
progress. Any other policy would not only to be wrong but unwise
in the light of recent world events. Border interests of India and
Nepal are indentical in view of their need for common defence and
security. “India cannot tolerate,” said Prime Minister Nehru in
Parilament in 1950, “any invasion of Nepal from any foreign country
because invasion of Nepal would inevitably involve the safety of
India.” The desirability and need of perpetual peace and friendship
betw’een India and Nepal secured 'by regular treaties on August 1, 1960
was proved beyond doubt by development in Tibet later on.
6. INDIA AND WORK OF UNESCO
As one of the original member States, India has taken part in the
work of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul-
tural Organization) since the very beginning, more than ten years ago.
In 1949 an international commission met for the first time and in July
1952, the Indian National Commission for UNESCO was set up on a
permanent basis with Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the Minister for
Education, as its Chairman. Virtually in every aspect of UNESCO’s
activities, India’s influence has been felt. In December 1962, Bombay
played host to a major regional conference on free and compulsoi^
education, in South East Asia and the Pacific countries. Studies in
compulsory education, women’s education and rural teacher training,
have been published by the UNSECO. Handbook on Education for
World Understanding has been completed by the Indian Institute for
Eductaional and Cultural Co-operation. In fundamental education,
which is aimed at raising rural living standards, co-operation between
UNSECO and India has been especially fruitful. The adult education
programme of Mysore State has served as a practical classroom for a
UNESCO centre where an international group of educators was
trained as fundamental educational leaders. In 1952, Mysore was
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
667
also the site of a course in the use of visual aids in education conduc-
ted by two Indian educators, a Candian artist and a British Book
illustrator. Previously, the team had conducted a similar course at
the Central Institute of Education at Delhi.
PART IN SCIENCE PROGRAMME : India’s participation in
UNESCO’s science programmes has been equally important. Since
1948, Delhi has been the headquarters of UNESCO’s South Asia
Science Co-operation Office set up to facilitate the exchange of
scientific research in the region. UNESCO’s arid zone programme
was initiated in 1948 as the result of a proposal by the Indian dele-
gation at the third session of the UNESCO General Conference and in
1953, the Indian Government acted as co-sponsors with UNESCO
of a symposium on the utilisation of wind and solar energy in India's
desert regions. UNESCO is now planning to allocate new and bigger
resources to help solve the vital problem of arid lands. This project
is passed by the General Conference which met in New Delhi in
December 1956.
India’s interest in science has been underlined with the annual
award of the Kalinga Prize, donated by Mr. B. Patnaik, a Cuttack
industrialist, for outstanding achievements in the interpretation of
science to the general public. Since 1952, it has been awarded to
Prince Louisde Broglie of France, Dr. Julian Huxley of Great Britain,
Mr, Walderaar Kaempfert of the United States, and Dr. Piy Suner of
Venezuela.
In the social sciences, India enabled an American sociologist,
Gardner Murphy, to carry out a study of social tension which appeared
in book form 1953. In 1957 UNESCO is establishing in Calcutta
a Research Centre on the social implications of industrialisation in
Southern Asia. The aim of this centre is to bring the resources of
science to bear upon the basic problems of social development, in order
to assist India and neighbouring countries in their economic progress.
CULTURAL ACTIVITIES : The same pattern of co-operation
has marked the relations between UNESCO and India in the sphere
of cultural activities. In 1951, the Indian Government and UNESCO
launched the Delhi Public Library as a pilot project to show the way
for the development of public library services in adult education
throughout India and South Asia. Indian contributions to UNESCO
studies include work on the philosopical basis of human rights, the
main cultural currents in the present day world, humanism in edu-
cation and the teaching of philosophy, as well as the organization of
a seminar on the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi. It is also worth
noting, one of the most successful publications in the UNESCO world
art series is devoted to the paintings of Ajanta.
Another phase of UNESCO’s programme, the UNESCO coupon
scheme has been well received in India. This country is one of the
world’s biggest users of UNESCO coupons. The UNESCO coupons
are a form of international currency facilitating the purchase of books,
educational films and scientific equipment by buyers in countries
were hard currency allocations are controlled. More than 880,000
worth of UNESCO coupons has already been allocated to India.
668
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE : India’s association with UNES-
CO has yielded immediate and practical results in the field of technical
assistance for economic development. UNESCO technical assistance
in India has been trageted to complement the Government of India’s
long term plan to expand scientific research and training. It has
supplied for instance an international team of specialists to the Indian
Institute of Technology at Kharagpur near Calcutta. In this connection
UNESCO aided the Institute in establishing a course in the tech-
niques of industrial production to aid students in applying their
academic training to the production line. A similar mission will
begin work in 1957 at Bombay at India’s second regional technological
institute. Previously at Poona at the Central Water and Power
Research Station, UNSECO scientists worked with Indian engineers
in solving harbour problems and in setting up the nationa’s most
modem ship-testing tank. Another UNEISCO team worked as advi-
sors in the establishment at New Delhi of the Indian National
Scientific Documentation Centre. By the end of 1955, the Centre has
met requests for 5^00 documents and 500 translations a year.
7. INDIA AND DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE
At the session of the 12-nation World Disamament Commission
held in New York in July 1955, India urged the United Nations to ban
all further nuclear and atomic weapon tests. India is not a member
of the 12-nation Commission but has been given special permission
to appear before it to press its case for a ban on all further nuclear
tests. Mr. Menon argued that the stoppage of tests explosions would
be first step towards disarmament as well. Mr. Menon quoted the re-
port of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences that a progressive
increase in the tests would produce enough radiation by 1962 to give
everyone in the world the maximum amount of radiation.
The U. S. reports also had said that 13 months after the first
Bikini explosion contaminated water had spread one million square
miles of ocean. It is quite clear that the result of a fallout lasts a
very long time and as time goes on it does not die out. It is hot
extin^ished like a fire. Japan and India are in the midst of these
experimental explosions by the Soviet Union and the USA. The wind
carries radioactive particles. The Japanese Ministry of Welfare
had reported that fruits and vegetables in Japan were radioactive.
In India scientists in Calcutta had examined foodstuffs and reported
many common vegetables and rice contaminated. Two per cent of
the children bom in the world were already affected by normal
radiation.
The Indian representative drew attention to the effects of radio-
strontium which international scientists have agreed is probably the
greatest hazard from fallouts. Strontium 90 attacks the bone tissue
causing tumours. It fall on vegetation, is picked up by cows and can
be transmitted to human beings through the cow’s milk.
The Indian representative suggested that no more fissionable
material be made available for the maunfacture of bombs. H the
tests were stopped and no new bombs made there would be no further
use for nuclear weapons as they would become outdated. The USA
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
669
and the Soviet Union should, as a token step towards positive nuclear
disai-mament, be willing to dismantle a limited number of weapons
and pass on the fissionable materials for peaceful purposes.
8. INDIA & THE NATIONALIZATION OF SUEZ CANAL
Over the nationalization of the Suez Canal, India counselled
patience and peaceful means for the settlement of the dispute. On
7th August, 1956, Sri Nehru stated in the Lok Sabha that the
announcement of the nationalization had worldwide repurcussions.
A grave crisis which, if not resolved peacefully, can lead to conflict,
the extent and effect of which will be wide. The canal itself
is in Egypt and an integral part of Egypt. The sovereignty of
Egypt is thus beyond the question. This is recognized both in the
Charter given to the Company in 1856 by the Viceroy of Egypt under
the Ottoman Empire as well as in subsequent agreements and until
as late as 1954.
Sri Nehru pointed out that the position in regard to the
sovereignty of Egypt on the one hand and the character of the inter-
national waterway is well set out in the Anglo-Egyptian agreement
of 1954. Article 8 of the agreement reads : “The two contracting
Governments recognize that the Suez maritime canal, which is an
integral part of Egypt, is a waterway economically, commercially
and strategically of international importance and express the deter-
mination to uphold the convention guaranteeing the freedom of navi-
gation of the canal signed at Constantinople on October 29, 1888”.
Sri Nehru agrees that the Suez Canal Company is an European
company and in Egypt’s view, subject to the laws of Egypt,
the concession of the Suez Canal Company would have expired in
1968 and the Egyptian Government, the present and previous ones,
have publicly declared that the concession would not be renewed.
The assets and obligations would then have reverted to Egypt under
the agreement of 1856. The present decision of the Egyptian Gov-
ernment therefore would appear to ante-date the taking over by them
of the Company. No question of expropriation has arisen since
the shareholders are to be compensated at market value.
At the first London Conference which was held between
August 16 and 23, 1956, India jointed on certain conditions. Indian view
is that Egypt has the right to nationalise the Canal, but it should
be kept open for international navigation in peace or war. India’s)
acceptance of the invitation to join the conference was announced by
Sri Nehru on August 8 after clarifications had been obtained from
the British Government that participation in the London Conference
would not injure the interests or the sovereign rights of Egypt.
Sri Nehru declared that India could not join any conference
which bound its participants beforehand. Neither could she be party
to any arrangements for war preparations.
At the conference held in London, the 'Western Powers claimed
for international control of the canal. The Indian representative
Sri IL Menon opposed the western plan and presented instead a five-
point proposal which received the support of Egypt and the USSR.
670
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The Indian plan was formulated on the basis of “(1) recog-
nition of the sovereign rights of Egypt ; (2) recognition of the Suez
Canal as an integral part of Egypt and as a waterway of international
importance ; (3) free and uninterrupted navigation for all nations in
accordance with the Convention of Constantinople of 1888 ; (4)
the tolls and charges being just and equitable and the facilities of
the canal being available to all nations without discrimination ; (5)
the canal being maintained at all times in proper condition and in ac-
cordance with modern technical requirements relating to navigation ;
(6) the interests of the users of the canal receiving due recognition.”
. The Indian plan was, however, opposed by the Western
Powers. On August 22, India made a last minute appeal to the con-
ference not to endorse the American-sponsored proposal for inter-
national control as that would bar the door to negotiations with Egypt.
New Zealand with the support of Western Powers introduced a
resolution that a number of delegates should be chosen from the sup-
porters of the Dulles plan to approach Egypt to place the United
States statement before it and to find out whether Egjqjt would agree
to negotiate a Convention on that basis. Krishna Menon, supported
by Indonesia, Ceylon and Russian delegates, opposed the New Zealand
proposal. New Zealand subsequently withdrew the controversial
resolution and instead made a statement on behalf of the Western
Powers that they had requested Australia, Iran, Ethiopia, Sweden and
the USA to negotiate with Egypt under the chairmanship of the
Australian Prime Minister, Mr. Menzies.
India opposed the formation of the Suez Canal Users’ Asso-
ciation which came into being on October 1, 1956. Speaking in the
Lok Sabha on September 12, 1956, the Prime Minister said, “One
thing is clear, the action proposed (formation of the Users’ Associa-
tion) is not the result of agreement, co-operation or consent but is to
be taken unilaterally and thus is in the nature of an imposed action.”
Later on when Israel attacked Egyptian territory, India express-
ed her profound disapproval of the move. “The Government of
India has learned with profound concern of the Israeli aggression on
Egyptian territory and the subsequent ultimatum delivered by the
U.K and France to the Egyptian Government, which was to be follow-
ed by an Anglo-French invasion of Egyptian territory.” The Gov-
ernment of India considers this a flagrant \’iolation of the United
Nations Charter and opposed to all the principles laid down by the
Bandung conference. This aggression is bound to have far-reaching
consequences in Asia and Africa and may even lead to war on an ex-
tended scale.
When Britain and France subsequently attacked Egypt, India
condemned in strong terms and demanded withdrawal of the forces of
the aggressors.
On November 24, the General Assembly of the United Nations
adopted a resolution sponsored by India and other members of the
Anglo-Asian group, calling upon the three invading powers (Britain,
France and Israel) to quit Egypt forthwith.
The continued occupation of Egyptian territory by the troops of
the Western Powers posed a great threat to the security of the world
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
671
in general and of the Middle East and Asia in particular. This pro-
test was voiced again at the conference of four Colombo Powers held
in New Delhi from November 11, 1956 (Pakistan remaining absent).
The conference condemned aggression in Egypt and Hungary.
Following the adoption by the United Nations General Assembly,
a resolution on November for an international force in Egypt for the
maintenance of peace, India has sent a contingent to that inter-
national force. This is just a temporary measure.
9. INDIA AND THE ATOMIC ENERGY CONFERENCE
The world atomic energy conference was held in Washington
since September 20, 1956. Representatives of eighty-one nations met
in this conference to discuss the draft statute of the proposed inter-,
national “atome for peace” agency. Participants in the conference
included all the seventy-six members of .he United Nations and its
specialised agencies. The draft statute for the proposed International
Atomic Energy, drawn up with the participation of twelve countries
including India, USA, U.K., USSR, France, Canada and Austra-
lia, said that the agency shall seek to accelerate and enlarge contri-
bution of atomic energy to the peace, health and prosperity of the
world. To that end the agency would be authorized to provide mate-
rials, services, equipment and facilities to meet the need for research
on, and development and practical application of atomic energy for
peaceful purposes, including the production of electric power.
The Indian point of view was presented by Dr. Homi J.
Bhaba, who said that the various safe^ards proposed to be included
in the statute would divide the world into atomic “haves” and “have-
nots”. Criticising the draft statute. Dr. Bhaba said that it gave the
agency power to interfere in the economic life of States which came
to it for aid, though a control over the fissionable material required
their future electric power generation. It therefore constitutes a
threat to their independence which will be greater in proportion to
the extent that this atomic power generation is developed through
agency aid.
Dr. Bhaba pointed out that the safeguards would not affect the
countries already ahead in the development of atomic energy and
atomic weapons. The safegjuards would hit hardest the underdeve-
loped countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Subsequently at the plenary session on atomic energy held in
October in New York, a 23-article statute for the establishment of a
world atomic energy agency was unanimously adopted on October
23. The statute would come into operation with the ratification
by eighteen countries including at least three of the following
States, the U.S.A., the U.K., the USSR, France and Canada.
The agency, w’hen it comes into being, would supply fissionable
materials to member-States for chemical processing. It would have
authority to send inspectors to the countries receiving atomic
aid in order to ensure that the fissionable materials supplied by the
agency and their by-products were used solely for peaceful purposes.
672
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The controversial safeguards clauses had been approved by the confer-
ence.
At the final plenary session on October 26, 1956, the conference
elected an eighteen-nation preparatory commission tmder the
chairmanship of Senator Carols Alfredo Bemardes of Brazil to con-
tinue the work until the statute came into force after the requir^
ratifications. The members of eighteen-nation preparatory commis-
sion were Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, India, the Soviet
Union, Britain, the U.S.-A., Australia, Pakistan, Egypt, Argentina,
Japan, Peru, Indonesia, Belgium, Portugal and the Union of South
Africa.
10. TRANSFER OF FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA
A treaty of cession transferring to India in fuU sovereignty the
former French settlements of Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam
was signed in New Delhi on 28th May, 1956 by the Prime Minister,
Sri Nehru and the French Ambassador to India, M. Ostorog. The
de facto transfer of these settlements took place nearly two
years ago and the present treaty marks the de jure ratification by
the Parliaments of the two countries which is expected to take place
before long. The treaty does not mention Chandemagore which was
ceded to India in 1949. The four establishments mentioned in the
treaty came under India’s control on November 1, 1954 under
an agreement siggied by the two Governments on 21st October, 1954.
The present treaty follows more or less this agreement.
It gives to the peoples of these territories the right to opt for
Indian or French nationality. The establishments will have the
benefit of the special administrative status in force before November
1, 1954, any constitutional changes in this being made after ascer-
taining the wishes of the people. The Government of India shall
succeed to the rights and obligations resulting from such acts of the
French administrations as are binding on these administrations.
Article 4 states that French nationals bom in the territory
of the establishments and domiciled therein at the date of the_ entry
into force of the Treaty of Cession shall become nationals and citizens
of the Indian Union, with the exceptions enumerated under Article 5.
The article 5 provides that persons in these territories may, by means
of a written declaration drawn up within six months of the entry
into_ force of the treaty of cession, choose to retain their French
nationality. Persons availing themselves of this right shall be deem-
ed never to have acquired Indian nationality.
11. INDIA AND DEVELOPMENTS IN HUNGARY
India condemned in unequivocal terms the Soviet aggression
against national uprisings in Hungary. At the UNESCO meeting
at the New Delhi, Sri Nehru also condemned the Soviet aggres-
sion. He reco^ised that the people’s revolt in Hungary against
Soviet domination was spontaneous and it was a revolt for national
liberation. The meeting of the Colombo Powers held at Delhi in the
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS 673 '
middle of November also demanded the vrithdrawal of Soviet forces
from Hungary.
On 9th November the U.N. General Assembly adopted a resolu-
tion providing for election in Hungary under the supervision of the
United Nations Organization. India voted against the resolution.
Indian view point was that India respected the sovereign rights of
each State and therefore the provision of election under UN control
was against the sovereignty of the State of Hungary and therefore!
India objected to that resolution.
On November 20, in a debate over foreign affairs, Sri Nehru
referred to the events in Hungary and said these had powerfully
affected the people and had raised deep passions. “I have no doubt
that in Hungary there has been a popular movement, a popular rising
in which large number of people, including workers and trade unions
have participated." He said that it had been admitted by everybody
that in the past numerous mistakes were committed in Hungary by
the ruling authorities there. It was also admitted that the Hungarian
people were justified in raising their voice and objecting to those
things, which were now admitted to be mistakes. “But it is said that
they went too far in that direction. May be they went too far, butt
the point is, it was undoubtedly a popular upheaval against certain
leading people in their own country.”
Sri Nehru reminded the House (Lok Sabha) that he said two
things right from the beginning. First, the Hungarian people should
be allowed to fashion their own destiny, and secondly, the Soviet or all
foreign forces should be withdrawn. India had expressed her view-
points and had sponsored a resolution in the U.N. along with some
other countries, suggesting that the U.N. Secretary-General and some
U.N. observers should go to Hungary because very grave charged
had been made about large-scale deportations. Those charges were
denied by the Hungarian Government. “When charges are made and
denied, it does not seem to us to be becoming for any responsible
organization to pass judgment without an enquiry. That is why we
suggested that the Secretary-General should go and report.”
He was very sorry that neither the Hungarian nor the Soviet
Government had agreed to the Secretary-General or U.N. observers
going to Hungary. “They hove said that this will be an infringement
on their sovereignty, that these people from outside might unsettle
the settled things. They said that there are hundreds of foreign
correspondents and that they do not hide things. But the fact re-
mains that it is most unfortunate that they are not allowing the
Secretary-General or the U.N. observers to go there,” he added.
The Prime Mininster then referred to the resolution that was
before the UNO about deportations from Hungary and India’s substi-
tute resolution on the subject and said “naturally the whole conception
of deportation is not only distasteful but exceedingly bad, but we do
not approve of the resolution suggesting that U.N, must immediately
send people to Hungary and take action before finding out what the
facts are. Therefore India’s resolution asked the Hungarian Govern-
ment to allow representatives of the UJl. to go into tho matter of
43
674
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
deportation. It is a wrong thing for an organization like the U.N. to
pass judgement without inquiring.
As regards India’s vote against the five-Power resolution on
Hungary, Sri Nehru asked to critics to see the context in which it
was moved and the objective behind it. “Unfortunately these difficul-
ties that have arisen in Egypt and in Hungary have both led to am
intensification of the cold war. The Soviet Union forgets about
Hungary, puts a cover on it and talks about Egypt and the Angloi
French aggression only.”
On November 22, 1956, India moved a reslution at the United
Nations General Assembly urging Hungary to accept U.N. Observers
“without prejudice to its sovereignty.” Mr. Menon assured the
Hungarian authorities that if they agreed to the entry of U.N. obser-
vers that would be no violation of their sovereignty.
12. INDIA AND THE COMMONWEALTH
Any doubts concerning India’s continued membership of the
Commonwealth were effectively removed by Sri Nehru in the Rajya
Sabha on December 7, and also the Lok Sabha on November 20, 1956.
urging India’s withdrawal from the Commonwealth was climaxed with
His unreserved opposition to a Communist member’s resolution
the remark that although he would have normally opposed such a reso-
lution in the past, “in the present circumstances I oppose still more.”
His main reason was that India’s policy was to promote any kind of
contact with other countries which helped the cause of peace with-
out restricting freedom of action. In this it was totally unlike being
a member of a military alliance.
Sri Nehru said that it had been India’s privilege to be a bridge
between countries and not to break bridges that already exist. As'
an example of India’s policy of seeking closer relation with other
countries in spite of difference between them Sri Nehru men-
tioned India’s welcome to the Chinese Prime Minister and his own
proposed visit to the U.S.A. He said that if the Government were
to start functioning merely on the basis of reactions and sentiments,
then the country would be pushed aside this way or that. He said
that there was enough breakage in the world “for, us not to add to it.”i
India’s policy had been not to break with any country but to get
closer. In the course of history, India happened to be associated with
the Commonwealth. India has certainly always stood for indepen-
dence as oppsed to Dominion Status. There is confusion in India
between the asociation and the old idea of Dominion Status. There
is a vast difference between the two. When in 1947 we became inde-
pendent, we were for a certain period what is called a Dominion. Later
we became a Republic. We accepted that Dominion as a provisional
stage till we formed a constitution of our own. For us to have accept-
ed Dominion Status permanently would certainly have been in contra-
vention of what the national movement stood-for.”
India today had many types of association with countries, trade,
cultural, etc. She had no political association “which binds us the
slightest with any country.” Perhaps Switzerland was another
INDIA IN WOELD AFFAIRS
675
county in the •world which had no such thing. “We have the closest
associa'tion ■with many countries and sometimes opposing countries.
We have relations -with Indonesia and Ceylon. We may not agree ■with
much of what Russia and China do but our relations ■with them ard
also very friendly. Our relations ■with the USA are also friendly.
The idea that one could be friendly only ■with a person or a country
whose policy was identical, was a dangerous conception. The opposite
of that conception was that “you must be in conflict ■with any country'
from whom you difl'er.”
13. INDIA AND THE UNITED NATION’S ELEI’TINTH SESSION
1. EXPANSION OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL : On Decem-
ber 17, 1956, Sri V. K. Krishna Menon, the leader of the Indian dele-
gation at the U.N., made a strong plea for Asian-African representa-
■tion in the Security Council. This was said when the General
Assembly was considering a resolution submitted by 19 Latin American
countries and Spain, proposing that the Charter be amended to allow
an increase in Security Council membership from 11 to 13. Mr. Menon
said that an increase in membership of the Security and other Coun-
cils was necessary from many points of ■view. India could not
subscribe to the argument that increase in strength was necessary
recalled that the Security Council came into existence as a result of
only because there had been an increase in U.N. membership. He!
decisions made at San Francisco. These pro\nded for five permanent
members of the Councils as well as six non-permanent.
Later on, the so-caUed London agreement was reached, an un-
written pact about the allocation of these non-permanent seats to
different areas of the world. When thinking of the U.N. membership,
it was enough to observe that 20 new members were recently admitted.
Since the Council was established, there had been 29 new members,
20 of them coming in a year. Therefore even before the recent
admission there was a case for the enlargement of this body (the
Security Council). When the U.N. was founded, Sri Menon conti-
nued, there were only two Asian countries in membership — China and
Philippines. India also helped to found the U.N., but she was not
independent. Today there are 17 entrants from Asia and Africa and
altogether 27 countries belonging to this unrepresented area.
Not only were some areas of the world totally neglected as in
the case of Africa, or very much under-represented as in the whole
area of Asia and Africa, but it followed ■natorall^y that other areas?
were over-represented. The six non-permanent members of the
Security Council were assumed to be representing the world other
than those parts represented by the five permanent members (Britain,
France, the USA, the Soviet Union and China). In other words the
world as the UN then knew it. It was well known that when a
country went into the Security Council it did not totally represented;
the area.
India’s view point is that the geographical factor in the Council
was not the only one, but it was a very important factor because
the Council was concerned with international peace and security, in
which geography plays an important part.
676
■ HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
It was common- ground that there should be an additional. Asian
member. But even with the addition, the Council would remain un-
balanced as it would mean representation of 24 countries by two
members. Millions of Africans have no actual representation whatso-
ever. The Union of South Africa might be nominated for the Com-
monwealth seat, but the masses of Africans would not consider
South Africa as a suitable representation for them. In contrast.
West Europe had three seats, including one Permanent seat. India
does not hold the view that one European is equal to 10 others. If
any arrangement is to be made in the future it must be done by the
General Assembly and not by means of a “gentleman’s agreement”.
The other example of disproportionate representation is that of the
occupation of three seats by the American continent and four, if
Canada got the Commonwealth seat, while the Soviet Union and
Eastern Europe had two.
If India is to seek election in the Asian group she would be in
the Council once in 26 years and in three years time once in 36 years-
The same applied to Pakistan. In the Commonwealth group India
would be in the Council once in 14 years and next year once in 16
years. This does not represent the state of the world. India is not
agreeable to any amendment which gives one seat for Asia and one
for Weastem Europe. “We cannot sell our people the idea that it
takes 20 Asians to make one non-Asian.”
14. INDIA AND KOREA
When the Korean issue came for hearing before the Political Com-
mittee of the General Assembly, India pleaded that not only South
Korea, but also North Korea should be invited to represent her case.
The Political Committee on January 3, 1957, rejected the Indian pro-
posal that North Korean as well as a South Korean representative be
invited to participate in discussions on the reunification of Korea.
India was supported by Ceylon and the Soviet group. The Com-
mittee discussed two reports, one from the UN Commission for the
unification and rehabilitation of Korea and the other from the Indian
Government on the problem of ex-prisoners of the Korean war.
India recalled that whenever the U.N. had made an effective decision
on Korea it had taken the two parts of the country as de facto.
India holds that there is no unity for the territory as a whole and “if
we are to bring about the unity we must either impose it or
bring it about by conciliation, by adjustments a'nd by finding an
accommodation between points of view.” India does not believe that
there is only one Korea and one authority in Korea. India believes'
that unity on a democratic basis only be brought about by contact
between the two sides.
The U.S. resolution, however, was passed by 51 to 10 votes, with
12 abstentions. The resolution invited only the South Korean Gov-
ernment to represent its case, the North Korean Government was nob
invited as it was held to be the aggressor.
16. INDIA AND TOGOLAND
On January 7, 1967, the General Assembly’s (UNO) Trusteeship
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
677
Committee was formally asked to send a five-man U.N. mission
to report on Governmental institutions in the new autonomous
Republic of Togoland. The request was made by Canada, Denmark>
the Dominican Republic, Thailand and the USA in a draft resolution,
France had asked the Committee, at the request of Togoland to
end the_ trusteeship agreement for Togoland,
India submitted a draft resolution referring the matter back to
the 14-nation Trusteeship Council to make special report on the ques-
tion for presentation to the committee next year. The Council origi-
nally considered the question, but at its session last December failed
to act and passed it on to the Assembly’s Trusteeship Committee.
On January 8, 1957, India threw its support behind a move
to send a fact-finding mission to French Togoland, A revised Indian
proposal, incorporating this feature was tabled at the General
Assembly’s Trusteeship Committee. The autonomous status was
granted to Togoland in August 1956, The USA urged India to join
it and four other nations in sponsoring a proposal to send a fact-
finding mission to French Togoland. 'There was only one difference
between the two proposals. 'The one sponsored by the USA, Canada,
Denmark, Dominican Republic and Thailand expressed satisfaction at
the degree of autonomy already granted and enjoyed by the Togolese
people ; the Indian resolution did not. The revised draft resolu-
tion authorised a despatch of a five-man U.N. mission to report on
practical governmental operations under the new statute.
16. INDIA AND APARTHEID IN SOU’TH AFRICA
On January 7, 1957 in the Genegal Assembly’s Special Political
Committee, India said that it was prepared to initiate and pursue
negotiations with South Africa on the question of treatement of
persons of Indian origin in the Union. The South African Government
holds the UN has no right to interfere in a matter which fell within
the domestic jurisdiction oiDa member State, saying, "matters relat-
ing to persons of Indian ori^n in South Africa are essentially of a
domestic character and are thus not the concern of the U.N.”
India declared that the South-African Government’s reply was a
challenge to U.N. itself. The South African Government has enact-
ed the Group Areas Act under which very cruel action has been taken.
India asked the committee : "Is the head of a Goverament to
refrain from telling his Parliament what is happening in South
Africa when human rights are violated in this way, particularly where
people of Indian origin are concerned ?" (Sri Nehru criticised
the apartheid policy of the South African Government in the Indian
Parliament and South Africa complained against that speech. The
speech referred to here is that of Nehru’s in Indian Parliament in
1955). India accused South Africa of having defied Assembly reso-
lutions and of having attempted the illegal and unwarranted annexa-
tion of mandated territory.
Under the Group Areas Act, mass prosecutions are taking place.
There are mass trials of people. India warned the Assembly that it
must not fall into the trap of drawing communism like a red herring
across the trail. Any Indian or any African who asks for higheii
678
HINDUSTAN TfEAR-BOOK
wages is a communist. Under the Suppression of Communism Ac
they are tried en masse under conditions of degradation. India was
prepared to enter into talks with South Africa, but not if the UN
was excluded ; neglect of the. problem was bound to lead to disastrous
consequences and the UN should realize this challenge and take
action.
' On January 8, 1957 Mexico, the Soviet Union, Egypt, Iran anc
Sudan condemned the policies of racial discrimination in South Africe
when the debate was resumed in the Special Political Committee of the
U.N. General Assembly. On January 9, the Special Political Commit-
tee adopted by 49 votes to none with 11 abstentions a .five-Power reso-
lution urging India, Pakistan and the Union of South Africa te
enter into negotiations to facilitate a settlement of the problem oi
the treatment of people of Indian origin in South .Africa. The reso-
lution particularly urged South Africa to co-operate in the
matter. It authorized the three countries to submit a report on the
progress to the General Assembly jointly or separately.
17. INDIA AND KOREAN ELECTION
On January 8, 1957 the Political Committee of the UN
General Assembly passed a resolution by 57 to 8 votes with 13
abstentions to U.S. resolution which reaffirmed the U.N. objective of
bringing about the establishment of a unified, independent and demo-
cratic Korea by peaceful means. The resolution called for free elec-
tions throughout Korea under U.N. supervision. India, Afghanistan,
Burma, Ceylon, Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria,
Yemen and Yugoslavia abstained from voting. India objected to this
resolution. India thought that every _ encouragement should be
given to both sides to enter into discussions on the terms of an elec-
tion for the whole country. Supervision should be by an international
commission that commanded the respect of both North and South
Korea. The Committee adopted another resolution expressing grati-
tude to the Government of India, Argentina and Brazil for their
valuable co-operation in settling the problem of ex-prisoners of the
Korean War.
18. INDIAN PRIME MINISTER ADDRESSES THE U.N.
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
During his visit to the USA in the middle of December 1956, the
Indian Prime Minister Sri Nehru addressed the United Nations
General Assembly on December 20, 1956. He denounced military
pacts and urged the nations to rely on the protection afforded by
world opinion. He declared that developments in Egypt and Hungary
had shown that world opinion was a strong enough factor not to tole-
rate what it considered “evil doing.” He said ; “In its _ eleven
years of existence the United Nations had grown and in this year
particularly, I believe it is correct to say that it has assumed an even
more important position in world affairs than previously. Of
course, even if the United Nations did not do anything wonderful,
INDIA IN WOELD AFFAIRS
679
the mere fact of the United Nations itself is of the greatest signi-
ficance to the world.” He added : “But recently it has shown that
it can face problems courageously and deal with them with a view to
their ultimate solution.”
“I think the first thing to remember and to strive for, is to avoid
a situation getting worse, to avoid finally a situation leading to
major conflict because as we all know a major conflict means the des-t
truction of all the values one holds, however justified one party may
think in having it.” “In the final analysis the United Nations itself
is a restraining factor in regard to countries misbehaving or taking
advantage of their so-called independence to interfere with the inde-
pendence of others.”
19. INDIA AND THE UNESCO SESSION
The UNESCO session was held in India from November 6
to December 5, 1956. Nehru made the inau^ral address. He
said that it was found today that the high principles of Panch Shila
•were mere words to some countries, who claimed the right to decide
problems by superior might. This is the ninth general conference.
It adopted the programme for the next two years with an over-
all expenditure budget of $22,679,638. The conference resolved to
publish selections from Mahatma Gandhi’s works and described him
as “an apostle of peace and a guiding spirit of UNESCO's work.”
The resolution was sponsored by Prof. Gameiro of Brazil. The next
session will be held in Paris in November 1968.
EUROPE AND ASIA 1957
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INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS i
1. MOROCCO AND TUNISIA "WIN INDEPENDENCE
Two Arab countries — Morocco and Tunisia — won independence.
The joint Pranco-Moroccan statement proclaiming Moroccan indepen-
dence was signed on March 2, 1956. It crowned the stubborn struggle
of the Moroccan people against the colonial regime established more
than half a century ago, when Prance, following the Algerian con-
ference, occupied the main regions of the country. The Pez 'fteaty of
1912 imposed a Prench protectorate on Morocco. The steadily grow-
ing national liberation struggle of the Moroccan people forced the
Prench rulers to make concesions. In November 1955, _Ben Moulay
Arafa, their puppet sultan, was removed and Sultan Sidi Mohammed
Ben Youssef, exiled two years ago to Madagascar, reinstated.
Pollowing talks between Ben Youssef and M. Pinay, the then Prench
Foreign Minister, agreement was reached to form a Moroccan Govern-
ment which was to continue negotiations on the status of Morocco.
The Guy Mollet Government began negotiations with Moroccan
representatives on February 15, 1956 in Paris. The document drafted
during the negotiations and signed by Christian Pineau, the French
Foreign Minister, and Si Bekkai, Prime Minister of Morocco, says
that “the treaty concluded on March 30, 1912, at Fez does not any
longer correspond to the demands of the situation and cannot regulate
Pranco-Moroccan relations”. It goes on : “The recognition of the
independence of Morocco presupposes in particular, the existence of
a diplomatic service and an army and its own intention to respect for
the integrity of Moroccan territory, as guaranteed by international
agreements.”
The Moroccan Empire had been divided into_ three zones :
Spanish Morocco, French Morocco and Tangier. Spanish and French
zones of Morocco have become reunified into an empire under Sultan
Sidi Mohammed ben Youssef. Tangier is now a premanently
neutralised and demilitarized area administered by a committee made
up of French, Spain, Britain, Italy, the United States, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Sweden and Poitugal.
Following France, Spain also recognised the independence of
Spanish Morocco on April 7, 1956. A meeting between the Sultan
and the Spanish rulers took place in Madrid. The negotiations on_ the
status of the Spanish zone ended in the signing of a joint Spanish-
Moroccan declaration by which the Spanish Government recognized
the territorial uni^ and sovereignty of Morocco and its right to have
its own diplomatic service and army. Spain accepted Morocco s
proposal to establish by May 7, 1956, a joint commission to transfer
administrative power to the Moroccan administration.
On March 20, 1956, Christian Pineau and Tahar Ben Amman,
Prime Minister of Tunisia, signed an agreement recognising the
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
683
independence of Tunisia after 76 years under a French protectorate.
The agreement states that relations between the two countries can no
longer be governed by the Bardo Protectorate Treaty signed on May
12, 1881. The agreement also points out that a number of provisions
of the agreement of June 3, 1955, on the internal sovereignty of;
Tunisia do not correspond to the present situation. The agreement
recognises Tunisia as a sovereign State with sovereign rights in
foreign policy, security and defence. The signatories also decided to
define their relations and establish co-operation in spheres of mutual
interest as soon as possible,
2. SAAB REJOINS GERMANY
The Franco-German Treaty re-incorporating the Saar in Ger-
many was signed in Luxemburg on October 27, 1956, by the French)
and German Foreign Ministers, M. Pineau and Herr Von Brentano.
It may be recalled that after the failure of the draft of the European
Statute for the Saar, rejected by the population of the region in the
referendum held on October 23, 1955, the Ruhr concerns demanded
that this important industrial region be immediately included in the
Federal Republic of Western Germany. The pro-German pa^cs —
the Christian Democratic Union, the Saar Organization of the German
Social Democratic Party and the Saar Democratic Party won the elec-
tions to the Saar Landtag on December 18, 1955, and the Municipal
elections on May 13, 1956. After winning the majority of seats in
the Lnadtag and forming a Government of their representatives,
headed by Gubert Nei, leader of Christian Democratic Union, the pro-
German elements began a persistent campaign for the inclusion of the
Saar in the Federal Republic, and supported the Bonn Government
in its talks with France. There are many economic and political
French monopolies in the Saar and under these circumstances they
decided to barter the Saar for maximum economic concessions in the
Ruhr.
The Saar provides 6.1 per cent of the total output of the steel
.and 7 per cent of the coal of the European Coal and Steel Community.
It is therefore clear that by this treaty there would be further losses
for the French in this super-cartel. The chief demands of the French
Trusts, primarily of Lorraine heavy industry, were that West Ger-
many should consent to the construction of the Moselle canal and
guarantee for continued deliveries of Saar coal. The Lorraine iron
and steel industry has an important interest in the West German
market, as German machine building works are its old clients.
Since the second World War, the Ruhr iron and steel concerns have
successfully competed with the French in this field with the aid of
high railway tariffs. The cost of transporting Lorraine steel to the
sea ports would be reduced by 70 per cent with the building
of the Thinoville-Coblenz stretch of the Moselle canal. The cost
of sending Ruhr coal to Lorraine would be halved. With guranteed
deliveries of coal, the Lorraine trust can considerably raise their com-
;petitive capabilities. The Ruhr monopolies adopted a very hostile
attitude towards the Moselle canal project and the West German
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HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
experts claimed that the canal would not be a profitable undertaking.
These differences were, however, compromised at the Luxemburg
talks on June 5, 1956. French has agreed to the political reunifi-
cation of the Saar with the Federal Republic of Germany fron
January 1, 1957. The economic reunion is to be effected graduallj
during a period of three years, beginning with January 1, 1957.
France has received the right to exploit the Wamdt coal- mines until]
1970, during which period she wUl extract 66 million tons of coal.
The West German Government has promised to sell to France as
additional 24 million tons of coal during this period as compensation
for French investments in the Saar. West Germany will construct
the Moselle canal at a cost of DM 550 million, out of which West
Germany will contribute DM 300 million and France DM 250 million.
3. FREEDOM FOR MALAYA
It was announced by Britain on February 1957 that Malaya
would be granted full independence within the British Coinmon%vealth
on August 31, 1957. Discussions on the status of the British colony
of Singapore parliamentary delegation conducted with the
British Government for three weeks, came to an end in
London on May 15, 1956. On the following day the press carried a
statement which said that the conference had arrived at the conclu-
sion that further discussions were useless.
Singapore is an island occupying 217 square miles, with a popula-
tion of 1,211,000 — Chinese, Malayas, Indians and Europeans. _ Cris^
mas Island Is a part of the colony. The city of Singapore situated,
at the southern extremity of the island, is a major commercial port
in South-East Asia and the colony’s administrative centre.
Lying at the crossroads between the Indian Ocean and the
Pacific, Singapore is of great strategic importance with the_ naval
base in Seletar, on the Island’s north coast and large milita^ airfiel^.
Up till March 1946, Singapore was part of the British Straits
Settlements colony. Then, by a special decree of the British Govern-
ment, it was proclaimed a separate colony. In view of _ the
rising national-liberation movement in South-East Asia, Britain
had to give certain concessions to the people of Singapore. In
1948, local authorities — legislative and executive councils — were set
up. But most of the officials in these agencies were appointed by the
colonial administration. As a result of, the continued fight
of the people of Singapore for independence, a new constitution wM
adopted in February 1955 and a general election was held in
April of the same year under its terms.
The candidates at the elections represented five Singapore
parties : People’s Action, the Labour Front, the Democratic Party,
the Progressive Party and the Malaya-Union Alliance. Later, the
Democratic and Progressive Parties merged to form the_ Liberal-
Socialist Party. In addition the Malayan-Chinese Association was
recognized as a Singapore political party. The most successful
the left-wing parties, the Labour Front and Peoplo|3 Action. The
Executive Council of Singapore which had been in existence till 1955,
was replaced by a Council of Ministers, the first (^vemment to bo
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 689
brought into being by universal suffrage. It was headed by the
Labour Front Leader, Mr. David Marshall.
These reforms did not however change the colonial status of
Singapore. Power is still in the hands of the Governor, who is ill
charge of security, defence and foreign relations. He has a right
to disagree with the Legislative Assembly. Colonial legislation is
still in force in Singapore.
Three months after the Government was formed, differences
arose between Chief Minister Marshall of Singapore and the British
Governor, Sir Robert Black. The Governor refused to approve the
inclusion of four more ministers in the Cabinet. In reply, the
Cabinet declared that the people of Singapore was resolved to
put an end to colonialism. On July 25, 1955 the Assembly passed
a motion calling for immediate self-Govemment. Mr. Lennox-Boyd,
the British Colonial Secretary, immediately left for Singapore to
remedy the situation. The Governor was compelled on August 17 in
the Assembly that he would act in accordance with the advice of Chief
Minister Marshall. On the other hand, however, he reserved the right
to dissolve the Assembly or adjourn it. He also said that the Govern-
ment of the United Kingdom was prepared to discuss a constitution
for Singapore in London early in 1956. In December 1955, Mr.
Marshall went to London for preliminary conversations with the
British Colonial Secretary. In March and April 1966, the Singapore
Government, supported by political parties, held a “merdeka Week
“(Freedom Week)”, during which 200,000 inhabitants of Singapore
signed a demand for the immediate g^ranting of independence.
The delegation which went to London on the Merdeka Mission in-
cluded representatives of all the authorised parties of Singapore.
Seven delegates represented the Government and six the opposition.
On April 5, the Assembly, by an overwhelming majority, instructed the
delegation to seek independence for Singapore within the British
Commonwealth of Nations. The Assembly resolution envisaged that
Britain should retain control over the external defence and foreign
policy. However, Mr. Marshall said that his Government would not
compromise with Britain on internal security which should be under
Singapore jurisdiction.
The conference which started on April 23, failed after the British
delegation demanded that Britain should keep the right to suspend
the Constitution, as well as control over the internal security of Singa-
pore. The delegates of Singapore rejected the demand, and the
British turned dovTi the compromise proposed.
4. COMINFORM DISSOLVED
The Information Bureau of Communist and Worwers’ parties
— commonly known as the Cominform — came into being in late
1947 at a conference of nine European Communist Parties held at
Warsaw, capital of Poland. The participating parties belonged to
the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Ruma-
nia, France and Italy. The Information Bureau, in which each of the
participating parties had two representatives had been entrusted with
the task of organizing “interchange of experience among the parties,
44
690
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and if need be, to co-ordinate their activities on the basis of
mutual agreement.” The headquarters of the Information Bureau
as well as of its organ “For a Lasting Peace for a People’s Demo-*
cracy” was established at Belgrade, capital city of Yugoslavia.
The Information Bureau sulFered a major shock when during the
middle of 1948, Yugoslavia, one of the founding members, left the
organization. Consequent upon this defection the headquarters of the
Bureau and of its or^n was transferred to Bucharest, capital of
Rumania. The activities of the Cominform came in for sharp criti-
cism in Communist, anti-Communist and neutral quarters as well.
The Communist criticism of the Cominform was by its very nature
indirect. The Yugoslav Communist Party was' the first to put up a
direct opposition to the policies proposed by the Cominform. For
that crime, the Yugoslav Party was expelled from the organization,
and the Yugoslav Party, Government and the leaders were abused in
the vilest terms.
The Cominform had published an open criticism of the poli-
cies of the Japanese Communist Party which the latter had refused to
accept at first. On second thoughts, however, the leadership of the
Japanese Party accepted the Cominform criticism and changed their
line thereby inviting a disaster to the Party. Having realized the
folly of accepting the Cominform directions the Japanese Party
abandoned that line soon afterwards and accepted a new policy
closely resembling its original position. In Asia only two Communist
Parties — those of China and Japan — escaped the rigours of following
the Cominform line and thereby they gained greater strength in the
national liberation movements. The most significant and most
weighty criticism of the Cominform was made by the neutral political
leaders, the notable among them being Sri Nehru who remarked
that it interfered in the domestic affairs of nations. The justice of
that criticism found expression in the announcement of the
dissolution of the Cominform itself, where the reasons for its dissolu-
tion were given.
The dissolution of the Cominform was made Imown on April 17
in a joint announcement by the Central Committees of the eight Com-
nist parties forming the Cominform. The announcement in the dis-
solution of the Information Bureau of the Communist and "Workers’
Parties said that the emergence of a number of changes in the inter-
national life had rendered the continued existence of the Cominform
incongruous. Those changes were : “The emergence of socialism
from within the bounds of a single country and the fact that it has
become a world system ; the formation of a vast zone of peace com-
prising both the socialist and the non-socialist peace-loving
countries of Europe and Asia ; the growth and consolidation of
many Communist Parties in the capitalist, dependent and colonial
countries and their increased activity in the struggle against the war
danger and reaction in the struggle for peace, the vital interests of
the working people and the national independence of their countries ;
and, finally, the now particularly pressing tasks connected with over-
coming the split in the working class movement and strengthening
the unity of the working class in the interests of a successful
struggle for peace and socialism”. Strict control and supervision
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
691
of the Communist Parties and movements in foreign countries bv
Moscow was an integral part of Stalinism. By dissol^ng the Com
inform, Stalin’s successors imply that such centralised control from
Moscow IS no longer necessa^. This does not mean that Moscow has
abandoned its faith in world Communism, It implies that Stalin’s
successors are inclined to the view that the existence of different types
of economy in the different countries is no obstacle to the ultimate
goal of world communism.”
5. ALGERIAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEJIENT
_ Algeria in North Africa has a settled European community
mostly French numbering about a million. The Arab community
number about eight million. Between these two communities there
is no equality. The Europeans have monopolized all the best lands
and all the good jobs in mining and utilities — the principal industries.
Arab standard of living falls much below that of the Europeans,'
is ruled as a French colony. The coastal strip is considered an inte-
Politically the sparsely populated desert area of Southern Algeria
gral part of metropolitan France. The heavily outnumbered Euro-
peans enjoy voting parity with the Arabs and occupy all the key
positions in civil and military administration. The Algerian-French
relationship were marked for a long time by the absence of any
friction. By 1954, however, nationalist sentiment developed suffici-
ently and the demand for national independence began to be voiced.
At the same time a National Liberation Army was formed whom the
French termed Fellaghas or outlaws. The 15000-strong guerilla
army reportedly operated from its headquarters at Cairo, and estab-
lished a military base in the mountains of eastern Algeria.
The first reaction of the French Government at Paris at the out-
break of nationalist revolt in Algeria was to crush the nationalist
movement by the force of arms. About 300,000 French soldiers
were despatched to Algeria. But the reign of terror let loose by
the French apparently failed to have any appreciable effect on the
Algerian nationalists, so that with every day the intensity of the
nationalist revolt began to spread through wider areas.
Ben Bella, in command of the Nationalist Army indicated thatf
his willingness to negotiate with France, if the French accepted
Algerian independence in principle. On May 22, Prime Minister
Nehru presented in the_ Lok Sabha five proposals for peaceful settle-
ment of the Algerian dispute.
The French however did not accept the Nehru Plan and there
was no settlement of the Algerian dispute.
6. NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS IN AFRICA
Africa is a vast continent. Seven hundred languages are spoken
there, scores of cultures flourish, tens of millions of people of African,
Asian and European origin live in over 30 different territories. It
is a continent as wide as the Atlantic, presenting almost every variety
of climate and vegetation— a continent of vast and largely undeve-
loped natural resources. An exceedingly rich continent where star-
692
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ration is too common for comment and millions own no property
beyond the rags on their back. This is the oldest and richest field
of exploitation of the old imperial Powers — Britain, France, Belgium,
Portugal, Spain. With the liberation of most of Asia, the impor-
tance of Africa as a field of profit, a source of cheap raw materials
and a base of strategic importance, has grorm immeasurably. Here
is not only an endless succession of mineral deposits of almost every
variety ; rich in agricultural resources, and it is a source of cheap
manpower. The British East Africa has great military bases built
by imperialist Powers. Morocco has the largest of all the U.S. air
bases overseas. Libya has a large Anglo-American base. The Union
of South Africa has industry that could rapidly become war industry.
And there are the startegic raw materials — copper, chrome, diamonds,
gold, iron, manganese, tin, uranium, etc.
Africa furnishes 98 per cent of the diamonds, 80 per cent of the
cobalt, 75 per cent of the sisal hemp, 70 per cent of the palm oU, 70'
per cent of the coconut and chocolate, 60 per cent of the gold, 35 per
cent of the phosphates, 30 per cent of the chrome and manganese,
20 per cent of the copper and 15 per cent of the coffee of the total
world production. These resources offer the temptation to the
imperialist Power for exploitation. And in opposition to this, the
entire continent is on fire- Having lost the chance to exploit Asia,
the West today is turning to Africa which is a great source of wealth.
By the mid-1890s the dividing up of Africa among the imperia-
list Powers was virtually completed, and with few exceptions orga-
nised African resistance had been crushed in a series of bitter wars
with the natives. With the introduction of the railways the exploita-
tion of the continent’s resources began in earnest. That exploitation
primarily took the form of gold and diamond mining in the South,
copper mining in the centre, and various kinds of agriculture in East
and West. In the South, East and centre where the climate is not
too extreme and the tsetse fly do not reign supreme, large scale
white settlement has taken place. In the West the Africans say ;
“The tsetse fly is our soldier ; it keeps out the white man.”
This pattern of economic development has given rise to its in-,
evitable consequence, that is, the emergence of an African prole-
tariat in the mines and in the mainly light industries which have deve-
loped rapidly in the South to serve the organization of African society.
It has produced in the West large numbers of small farmers and
agricultural labourers. Some limited education was introduced so
that Africans might work machines, drive lorries and perform the
main productive functions in society. In those areas where white
settlement was limited, education was allowed to develop rather fur-
ther so that an African administrative class might emerge. A native
middle class thus came into being, but it is of cardinal importance
to note that this has happened in certain territories only.
Thus in Kenya, where there is extensive white settlement, Afri-
cans have been deliberately held back and no sizeable native middle
class has yet emerged. On the other hand, in the Gold Coast (West
Africa), now exists a numerous bourgeoisie. The imperialist trv to
make it co-operate wnth them. In the Union of Soztth Africa the
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
693
fascist Stnjdom Government is trying to put the clock back by means
of the notorious Bantu Education Act, -which deliberately limits
African education to the strict minimum.
The national movement gained momentum -with the close of the
second world war. People by their millions had come to see freedom,
democracy and national independence as immediate and realizable
objectives. Their long-standing thirst for education and better
material conditions became closely linked in their minds -with the
larger demands. And the political and trade union organizations
which sprang into being all over the continent after 1945 reflected
these views. Nationalism reached the highest level in the three coun-
tries of the French North Africa — Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria. In
the course of this period four new independent States have emerged
— Lybia, the Sudan, Morocco and Tunisia.
THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA : The most important mass
actions today are centred around three things : opposition to the
Bantu Education Act ; opposition to the Group Areas Act ; and a
campign for a million signatures to the Freedom Charter. The third
of these is the most important and significant because it is the most
advanced expression of the growing unity of all progressive elements
in the country, and of the unity of Africans and Indians in the fight
against race discrimination for democracy. The charter was adopted
in summer 1955 at a Congress of the Peoples. It was the outcome of
united action by the African National Congress, the South African
Indian Congress, the Coloured People’s Organization and the Con-
gress of Democrats (a progressive organization of people of European
descent). The Charter expresses the_ basic demands of the peoples
of South Africa for education, decent Imng conditions, democracy and
freedom.
The Bantu Education Act is one of the most barbaric pieces of
legislation in the histo:^ of organized government. Among the aims
which teachers of African children are required to achieve is "the
realization of the Bantu child that he is a member of a particular com-
munity.” The aim is nothing less than to stop by artificial means
the progress of the African peoples. The Group Areas Act segre-
gates Africans in insanitary shanty towns — ^uprooting them in many
case from their homes.
The Asiatic population in South Africa — predominantly Indians
— ^is officially estimated at 410,000 or 3 per cent of the total population.
About 82 per cent live in Natal, with far smaller communities in
Pietermaritzburg, Witwatersrand, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth.
BECHUANALAND, BASUTOLAND AND SWAZILAND : The
Strijdom Government is demanding the incorporation in the Union of
South Africa of these British Trust Territories. In all three there
is a wide grooving ferment, which expresses itself in Basutoland in
popular opposition to the administrative changes proposed by the Bri-
tish Government last year. At a meeting of the Basutoland African
Congress a copy of the proposals was publicly burned, fllain criticism
is that the proposals do not even consider the widespread demand for a
Basuto Legislative Council.
694
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
In Bachuahaland the popular movement rallies round the deniand
for the return of Seretse Khama, Chief of the Bamangwato, who was
banished from Ms country by the British authorities four years ago,
after the South African Government had objected to his marriage to
an English girl. Seretse now lives in London. Repeated attempts to
foist another CMef on the Bamangwato have failed. Seretse has
come to symbolise the demand of the national movement for racial
equality and democratic advance.
CENTRAL AFRICA : When the federation of Northern and
Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland was being discussed in 1951, Sir
Stev/art Gore-Browne, a member of the Northern Rhodesian Legis-
lative Council said : “The general verdict of the African public as
disclosed at numerous meetings and gatherings in all parts of the
country is overwhelmingly against federation. .. .We cannot honestly
say that the time is opportune.”
Opportune or not, federation was imposed upon the three terri-
tories a year later, and one of the prime reasons for it_ stemmed pre-
cisely from African opposition. For the white minority which
governs the area and exploits it had begun to fear the rapid rise of
African national feeling and demands for democracy. The intensi-
fied exploitation of the Northern Rhodesian copper resources had
brought into being a militant and well organized African proletariat.
The industries of Southern Rhodesia were beginning to produce the
same development. It was felt that federation would extend to
Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland the more stringent racial laws of
Southern Rhodesia. It was felt too that grreater quantities of foreign
capital would be attracted to the larger and more stable state.
Ever since the federation was established, the struggle of the
Africans has intensified. In the copper mines the African Union is
now fighting for equal pay with the white miners. In Nyasaland
there is now a growing popular movement for separation from the
federation. The demand for an independent Nyasaland is growing.
KENYA : In Kenya full scale war is being waged against the
Kikuyu and other peoples. In the three years since the official emer-
gency was declared over 10,000 Africans have been killed in the
fighting alone. The Africans themselves give their casualties from
fighting, violent deaths during detention and starvation resulting from
deportation at 90,000. According to the Times newspaper, some
67.000 Africans are in captivity.
The land question is the heart of the matter in Kenya. The
30.000 white settlers, of whom 3,000 are engaged in farming, hold
exclusive title to one-half of the cultivable land in the country, though
they only form one-tenth of this area. The 5.5 million Africans now
own none of the good land and are relegated either to working on
European land, or cultivating poor land as best as they can. The
main demand in Kenya is for land. And every other demand is
linked with it.
The j^ricans have built up an efficient military and administrative
organization in the forests. They have held 13,000 highly trained
troops and thousands of police in the field for over three years and
they are still undefeated. They have a recruiting organization, tax
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
695
coRection, a properly established supply system, hospitals, transport,
information services and local courts. A Kenya Parliament under the
leadership of a Prime Minister, Dedan Kimathi, has been established
in the Maquis. The crisis^ in Kenya and the unpopularity of the war
among^ the people of Britain have forced the Kenya authorities recent-
ly to seek some political formula which might help to retrieve the
situtation. Having long ago imprisoned, killed or exiled the most
democratic and popular African leaders and banned all political orga-
nization, they recently lifted the ban. Immediately, a Kenya African
National Congress was formed at a meeting of 1,000 people in Nairobi.
The Congress was subsequently banned. Seeking to confuse African
opinion, new proposals have been presented for the franchise of Afri-
cans. They are a travesty of democracy, with most Africans debarred
from voting at all and some “safe” elements receiving as many as
three votes each. They have found no popular African support
whatever.
NIGERIA : The situation in Nigeria affords a striking contrast
to that in Kenya. There is no white settlement — only a small minori-
ty of administrators and businessmen. Hence, unlike Kenya, the predo-
minant issue is not the land qestion. It is the more general one of
Nigerian striving for independence, largely under the leadership of
the middle class people. With great natural resources and a popu-
lation of 30 millions, Nigeria is one of the most heavily exploited of
Britain’s African territories. Observing the emergence of strong
national feelings even before the end of the second world war, the
more foresighted English administrators took the precaution of seek-
ing a compromise vuth sections of the emerging Nigerian bourgeisie.
To head off the national movement, Nigeria was divided in 1947
into three regions, each with its own Assembly. The plan was in-
tended to last for twelve years, but it collapsed within four years and
was replaced in 1951 by a new Constitution. Within two years this
too had broken down in practice, and emergency changes were intro-
duced in 1954. In August, 1956, a new Constitutional _Conference_ was
held in Nigeria. At present the national movement is under middle
class leadership. The working class movement is growing and the
trade unions are recovering rapidly from reverses sustained at the
end of 1950. Lack of agreement among Nigerian political parties
enabled the British authorities at the Constitutional Conference to
restrict the outcome to some form of limited self-government on a
regional basis only.
THE GOLD COAST : The Gold Coast with a population of about
4,500,000 and an area of about 79,000 square miles, is situated in_ the
west of the African continent, on the shore of the Gulf of Guinea
between French West Africa and Togoland, which are under French
and British administration. The Gold Coast consists of the Bntish
Gold Coast colony proper, and the protectorates of Ashanti and the
Northern Territories. The Western part of Togoland, which is also
under British trusteeship, merges with it administratively, ihe
capital is Accra. The ethnic composition of the cdonies population is
heterogenous, consisting of various Guinea and Sudanese tribes.
696
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The Gold Coast’s mineral wealth is exceptionally varied ; it has
substantial deposits of gold, diamonds, bauxites, manganese ore, etc.
The Gold Coast is second among African countries for its gold output.
In recent years foreign monopolies have shown an increased interest in
its manganese and bauxite. The Gold Coast is a backward agrarian
country whose economy is dependent upon foreign, above all British
monopolies. In the eighteenth century West Africa became an
object of British expansion. The spread of British influence encoun-
tered serious resistance from the local population. The tribes of the
Ashanti state fought indomitably for their independence up to the
end of the 19th century ; the struggle of the Gold Coast tribes against
colonial oppression did not cease in the years that followed.
Great development of the Gold Coast national-liberation move-
ment took place during the second world war. In August 1947, when
the anti-imperialist mevement was gathering momentum, the first
political organization was founded in the Gold Coast, known as the
United Gold Coast Convention, demanding immediate self-government.
The United Gold Coast Convention demanded the resignation of the
British Governor and the immediate establishment of a _ national
government. The colonial authorities arrested six of the United Con-
vention leaders, including Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, its secretary-general.
The Constitution granted to the Gold Coast by the British Government ~
in 1951 was a concession to its national-liberation movement. In
February 1951, the people for the first time elected 75 out of the 84
members of the Legislative Assembly. The Convention People’s
Party won and Dr, Kwame Nkumah, its leader became the Gold
Coast’s first Prime Minister. The people of Gold Coast however de-
manded complete independence and the transfer of all legislative,
administratwe and judicial functions into the hands of the Africans.
On May 11, British Colonnial Secretary, Lennox-Boyd declared in the
House of Commons that the British Government was prepared to fix
a date for the independence of the Gold Coast within the framework'
of the Commonwealth if there would be a general election.
The constitutional proposals of the Nkrumah Government did not
meet with the support of the Gold Coast opposition parties, and parti-
culorly the influential National-Liberation Movement Party. In their
opinion, the proposals failed to take into account the aspiration of the
various Gold Coast ethnic groups. On June 5, the Gold Coast Legis-
lative Assembly was dissolved. In July, elections were held to the
new Legislative Assembly, which were won by the Peple’s Party. On
August 3, the Legislative Assembly adopted a resolution, which
empowered the Government to seek the independence of the Gold
Coast within the shortest possible time. The formal provisions advanc-
ed by Britain as a condition for Gold Coast independence have been
carried out.
SIERRA LEONE : In the small West Coast territory of Sierra
Leone the movement has largely taken the from in recent months of
demonstration against the payment of certain taxes. Thousands of
people have petitioned the Governor arousing his indignation. Police
restored to firing on demonstrators and about twenty were killed and
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
697
many wounded. As a result of the popular pressure some tax in-
creases were rescinded and enquiries have been promised.
UGANDA — After two years of enforced exile, the Kabaka of
Uganda recently turned to his country. Over one lakh people assem-
bled to greet him. Uganda demands selg-government. Uganda is
situated between Kenya and the Sudan.
7. EVENTS IN CYPRUS
On March 9, the British authorities arested and deported from
Cyprus Archbishop Makarios, one of the leaders of the Cypriots’
movement for the right of self-determination. They also arrested
Archbishop Kyprianos of Kyrenia, Makarios’ colleague of the same
ethnarchy, and two other priests. Later, it was annouced that the
plade of exile was the Seychelles Islands in the Indian Ocean. The
Church in Cyprus and carries great authority with the population, came
exile of Archbishop Makarios, who is head of the Greek Orthodox
as a complete surprise to many. During the last six months the Bri-
tish Governor of Cyprus, Field Marshal Sir John Harding, had been
negotiating with Makarios as the acknowledged representative of the
island’s Greek population, concerning the fate of Cyprus.
The Cypriots insist on the right of self-determination. At the
very outset of the talks, Harding made it clear that Britain intended to
keep the island for' strategic reasons. After a series of conversa-
tions with Makarios and a trip to London, which he undertook in
January 1956, to ask for further instructions, Harding offered the
Cypriots very limited self-government. The constitution which he
proposed provided that foreign policy, defence and internal security
should remain in British hands and that a considerable number of the
members of the Cypriot Assembly should be appointed by the authori-
ties, and not elected by the people. The Cyrpiots’ demand for an
amnesty for all participants in the national-liberation struggle was
rejected.
Archbishop Makarios made appreciable concessions during the
talks. He accepted Harding’s proposals regarding self-government
as a transitional stage on the road to self-determination. But he
asked for a certain extension of the Cypriots’ constitutional rights
and for a definite date to be set for the transition from self-govern-
ment to self-determination.
Britain turned down the Cypriots’ terms. Late in February Mr.
Lennox-Boyd, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, arrived
in Nicosia. He held discussions with Makarios in his turn, but failed.
At the same time, the British authorities in Cyprus resorted to re-
prisals. The Working People’s Progressive Party of Syprus (AKEL)
was outlawed on December 14, 1955 and ordered the arrest of its
leaders. Wholesale searches and police raids became common
occurrences. Nevertheless, the Cypriots carried on their struggle
for the right of self-determination.
In a special communique, the Greek Government condemned^ the
deportation of Makarios and sent a protest to the United Nations.
698
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
On instructions from his Government, the Greek delegate to U.N. once
again submitted the problem of Cyprus to that Organisation.
In Britain, after the exile of the four priests, opposition M.P.s
brought up the problem of Cyprus, Mr. Aneurin Bevan, Labour M.P.
tabled a motion denouncing the Government’s policy on Cyprus. The
United States has repeatedly showed an intention to intervene in the
dispute over Cyprus. At first it declared its support for Britain and
Turkey. In December 1955, Mr. Cannon, the U.S. Ambassador in
Athens, called on Greece to adopt a more conciliatory attitude. But
now he is voicing sympathetic concern for Greece. Britain is clearly
worried by U.S. meddling in the affairs of British possessions.
8. SUEZ CANAL NATIONALIZED
On July 26, 1956, the fourth anniversary of the revolution which
freed Egypt, President Nasser told a mass meeting in Alexandria that
the Egyptian Government had decided to nationalize the Suez Canal
Company and transfer all its property and rights to the Egyptian
State. The Egyptian Government declared that it was taking steps
to ensure uninterrupted navigation through the Canal and that Egypt
would continue to observe the 1888 Convention on the freedom of
passage through the Canal. The annual income from the Canal is
1 100 million.
The immediate cause of taking over the Canal is said to be
mainly economic. EgjT)t is in urgent need of large funds for the
erection of Aswan Dam. So long the U.K. and the U.S.A. had
given hope that they would finance the Aswan Dam. But following
the recent entente of Egypt and Yugoslavia, the USA and the UK
stepped back from their previous commitment and the position was
made further worse for Egypt when the International Bank for Re-
construction and Development also refused to grant loans to Egypt
following the refusal of the USA and the UK in the matter. Nasser
declared — , “The Suez Canal is an exploiting company. We shall
build the high dam by restoring our rights in the Suez Canal. We
shall take the income from the Suez Canal — $ 100 million a year — and
build the high dam.”
This is nationalization with compensation. Shareholders would
be paid in accordance with the last closing prices at the Paris Bourse.
The Suez Canal Company, with headquarters in Paris, is an Egyptian
registered company with a majority of foreign share-holders. Britain
is the largest shareholder in it. 'The 99-year concession granted to
Britain is due' to expire in 13 years after which under the original
agreement the canal would revert to Egypt.
The Suez Canal is the most important of the interoceanic
canals. It connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. In 1875
Sir Travers Twiss made a proposal for the neutralisation of the Suez
Canal and in 1883 Britain proposed an international conference with
a view to bringing about the neutralisation of the Canal. It took
several years to materialise the proposal and this was done on Octo-
ber 29, 1888 by the Convention of Constantinople. The parties to the
Convention were ; Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Ger-
many, Holland, Italy, Spain, Russia and Turkey. Egypt was not a
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
699
party to the_ Convention as she was a protectorate of Turkey at that
ume. The important provisions of the 1888 Convention are as
lollows :
"(1) The canal is open in time of peace as well as of war to
merchantmen and men-of-war of all nations. No attempt to restrict
this free use of the canal is allowed in time either of peace or of war.
The canal can never he blockaded.
, “(2) _ In time of war, even if Turkey is a belligerent, no act of
hostility is allowed either inside the canal itself or within three sea
miles from its ports. Men-of-war of the belligerents have to pass
through the canal without delay. They may not stay longer than
^enty-four hours, a case of absolute necessity excepted, within the
harbours of Port Said and Suez, and twenty-four hours must elapse
between the departure from those harbours of a belligerent men-of-
war and a vessel of the enemy. Troops, munitions, and other war
materials may neither be shipped nor unshipped within the canal and
its harbours. All rules regarding belligerents’ men-of-war are like-
wise valid for their prizes.
“(3) No men-of-war is allowed to be stationed inside the canal,
but each Power may station two men-of-wars in the harbours of the
Port Said and Suez. Belligerents, however, are not allowed to station
men-of-war in these harbours. No permanent fortifications are allow-
ed in the canal.
“(4) The signatory Powers are obliged to notify the treaty to
others and to invite them to accede thereto.”
During the Italio-Abyssinian war the canal was closed to Italian
shipping, although on Blay 6, 1936, the British Foreign Secretary said
that the “canal could not be closed except by League action”. Egypt
became a protectorate of Great Britain on and from 18th December
1914. Powers formerly conferred on the Sultan of Turkey were trans-
ferred by Germany and Austria to Britain under the terms of Peace
Treaty after the first world war. Later on Turkey, under Article 17
of the Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, surrendered all her rights
and titles over Egypt as from November 1, 1914. In February 1922
Britain declared the independence of Egypt. Under the Treaty of Al-
liance between Egypt and Britain in 1936, the parties recognised that
the canal was integral part of Egypt. But it being an essential means
of communications between different parts of the Commonwealth, pro-
vision was m.ade for the defence of the Canal by the British forces to
be stationed in the territory of Egypt in collaboration with Egyptian
forces.
During the second world war, the canal was closed by Britain to
the Axis Powers. In 1940, Britain took over the interests of the Suez
Canal Company. During the Palestine war in 1948, Egypt enforced
a lawful blockade of Israel and established her right to visit and
ships passing through the canal. In 1951, however, the Security
Council in a resolution declared that such blockade by Egypt was
illegal and called upon Egypt to terminate such restrictions imposed
by her, but without any effect. The Suez Canal is vital to the Com-
monwealth trade ; nearly 75 per cent of which passes through the
canal.
700
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
On July 27, 1954, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement on
evacuation of British troops from the Suez Canal zone. The agree-
ment provided for the evacuation of the estimated 73,000 strong
British garrison, concentrated in the canal zone area since
British soldiers, sailors and airmen left the main cities of Egypt in
1947. The chief points of the Anglo-Egyptian agreement were as
follows :
1. Evacuation of the British troops from the canal zone within
27 months ;
2. Reactivation of the base in the event of an attach on the
Arab States or Turkey ;
3. The duration of the new agreement will be seven years ;
4. The base is to be maintained by a British civilian contracting
firm.
The agreement will last until its expiry after seven years from
the date of its signature. During the last 12 months of this period
the two Governments will consult together to decide what arrange-
ments are necessary upon termination of the agreement. Parts of the
present Suez Canal base will be kept in efficient working order in ac-
cordance with the requirements set forth in Annexe I and capable of
immediate use in accordance with the following :
“A”. In the event of an attack by an outside power on Egypt,
or any country which at the date of signature of the present agree-
ment is a party to the treaty of joint defence between the
Arab League States or on Turkey, Egypt will afford to the U.K.
such facilities as may be necessary in order to place the base
on a war footing and operate it effectively.
“B”. In the event of a threat of attack on any of the above-
named countries, there shall be an immidiate consultation between the
U.K. and Egypt.”
The above agreement of 1954 recognizes that the Suez canal
which is an integral part of Egypt, is a waterway economically,
commercially and strategically of international importance and ex-
presses the determination of both parties to uphold the 1888 Conven-
tion guaranteeing the freedom of navigation of the canal.
Subsequently in October 19, 1954, Britain and Egypt signed an
agreement for the evacaution of the British troops from the Suez
canal zone within the next twenty months from the date thereof. The
whole of the 8,000 strong British garrison in the Suez canal zone
would leave Egypt by June 20, 1956 under the terms of the new
Anglo-Egyptian agreement. But the British troops are to return
to the base in the event of an armed attack by an outside Power on
Turkey or any Arab State.
THE SUEZ CANAL COMPANY
The Suez Canal Company, the Compagnie Universelle du Canal
Maritime de Suez — is an Egyptian stock company, its operations being
subject to a nine-power international convention signed in Cons-
tentinople (now Istanbul) in 1888 and elaborated in the British-
French agreement of 1904. One of the principal stockholders is the
British Government. If the stockholders’ position is infringed upon.
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
701
a suit can be carried to the International Court of Justice at the
Hague.
The Suez Canal Company is an international joint stock company.
Its capital consists of 800,000 shares, each of a par value of $ 80.60..
The shares are traded on the Paris Bourse and in 1955 fluctuated jn
price between a low of $ 267.20 and a high of $ 355.70. The
British Government holds 353,204 shares, the result of the purchase
of the Khedive of Egypt’s share by Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli
in 1875. This is 44 per cent of the stock. Of the balance, 78 per
cent is held by private share holders in France and 22 per cent by
individuals in various parts of the world. The Company’s board is
composed of sixteen French directors, nine British directors, five
Egyptian, one Dutch and one United States director.
The Suez Canal reduces by 6,700 miles the distance between
New York and Red Sea ports and by 3,500 miles the distance between
ports on the East Coast of the United States and those on the Per-
sian Gulf, as compared with the sea voyages around Africa.
The idea of the canal arose out of the rivalry between
Britain and France for the Indian trade in the eighteenth
century. Ferdinand de Lesseps, vice-consul in Alexandria in 1832 ob-
tained concession in 1854. In spite of British opposition, he
floated shares in 1858, more than half being taken up in France.
He began digging in 1859 and ten years later, after many physi-
cal and political obstacles had been overcome, the canal was opened
to traffic
ECONOMIES OF THE SUEZ POLITICS The Suez Canal was
officially opened on 17th November, 1869. It connects the Mediterra-
nean with the Red Sea and is the largest man-made canal. It is 101
miles in length as against 60 miles of the Panama canal which is the
second largest artificial waterway. In 1869, the canal was
177 feet wide and 26 feet deep ; in recent years much improve-
ments have been done in order to ensure passage of large vessels and
for that purpose excavation work was done in 1953. Now the canal
is 510 feet wide and 46 feet deep.
The Suez canal saves much time, as for example, the distance
between London and Bombay via Suez is .4,460 miles less than
that of the route between the Cape of Good Hope. In 1955, nearly
116» million net tons of cargo moved across the canal and on an
average it comes to about 120 million metric tons a year. About
50 ships pass through the canal every day.
The Suez Canal is the artery of trade between Asia and Europe,
particularly that of Britain. A large volume of strategic materials
passes through the Canal, including raw materials, fuels,
manufactured goods, oil and oil products, the last two forming the
largest proportion of cargoes. In 1955, the share of oil and oil pro-
ducts passing through the canal was 65 per cent of the total volume
of cargoes. ... , . r. • ^
Among the individual countries, Britain p trade is the heaviest
through the Suez. Nearly one-quarter of Britain’s imports and ex-
ports are with the countries to which the Suez _ Canal is the
speediest and most economic route. In 1965, 67 million tons of oil
702
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
moved across tlie canal and of this, Britain’s share "was 21 million
tons. Through the Suez Canal, Britain imports rubber from Malaya ;
■wheat, meat and -wool from Australia ; cotton, chrome, etc., from East
Africa ; tea, jute goods, cotton and cotton goods, manganese, hides and
skins from India ; ravr jute from Pakistan, and oUs from Ceylon.
The nationalization of the Canal has therefore -vitally affected Britain’s
foreign trade and -with regard to her import of strategic ra-w
materials, particularly oil, she stands to suffer.
The movement of the Middle East oil and oil products and the
Suez Canal are part and parcel of the same strategic importance.
About 663 per cent of the proved oil resources of the -world is located
in the Middle East and it -will not be an easy job to replace the Middle
East as a source of oil. In 1955, 21 million tons of crude oil, re-
presenting 75 per cent of Britain’s requirements, -were imported
through the Suez.
The Suez Canal, apart from its strategic impoitence, is also
economically -vital to Egypt. The region across -which the canal
novT passes -was -virtually an arid desert, -with a fringe of s-wamp at
the Mediterranean end. Today the canal region has brought prospe-
rity to Egypt, -with cultivated land, modem -well-planned to-wns and
good road and rail communications. The canal is a source of
employment to thousands of Egyptians. Both to Egypt and to
Middle East countries, the canal is economically and strategically a
vital route. Without the passage of the Middle East oil across the
canal, it -would he economical!;^ unprofitable. 67 per cent of India’s
exports and 72 iier cent of the imports pass through the Canal.
LONDON DISCUSSIONS ON THE SUEZ :~-An international
conference -was held in London between August 16 and August 23,
1956 to consider the issues arising out of the nationalisation of the
Suez Canal Company by Egypt. The conference -was proposed on
August 2 by the USA, UK and France jointly after five day’s consul-
tations. Of the 24 countries invited to attend the London conference,
two — ^Egypt and Greece — did not participate in it.
India’s acceptance of the invitation to join the conference
was announced by Sri Nehru on August 8 after clarifications had
been obtained from the British Government that participation in
the London conference -would not injure the interests or the sovereign
rights of Egypt. On August 16, the opening day of the London
conference, Mr. John Foster Dulles, United States Secretary of State,
presented the conference -with the American plan. Sir. Dulles laid
down the recognition of four principles -were essential for an equitable
solution of the Suez problem. Those principles were : First, the
canal should be operated efficiently as a free, secure, international
waterway in accordance -with the principles of the Suez Canal Conven-
tion of 1888.
Second, the operation should be divorced from the influence
of national politics. Third, there should be recognition and satisfac-
tion of all legitimate rights and interests of Egypt in the Canal
and its operation, including an equitable and fair return ; Fourth, pro-
vision should be made for the payment of fair compensation to the
Universal Suez Canal Company, Accordingly, Mr. Dulles put for-
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
703
ward the following four point plan for consideration of the conference :
First, the operation of the Suez Canal would be entrusted to hn
international board to be established by treaty and associated with
the United Nations. Egypt would al.so have her representative in
such a board which would be free from domination fay any one single
power.
“Second, Egypt would have the right to an equitable return which
will take into account all legitimate Egyptians' rights and sovereignty.
“Thirdly, the nationalized Suez Canal Company would be paid
fair compensation.
“Fourthly, difference on the last two points, that is, the right of
Egypt to an equitable return, and fair compensation to the company,
would be settled by an arbitral commission to be named by the Inter-
national Court of Justice."
The Soviet Foreign Minister opposed the Dulles plan, because it
“unfortunately takes into account neither the real situation, nor the
legitimate national requirements of Egypt.”
Mr. Dimitri Shepilov, the Soviet Foreign Minister, said that the
establishment of international authority would contradict the pro-
visions of U.N. Charter and of international law as it would amount
to interference in the domestic affairs and “would actually mean
the restoration of the former Suez Canal Company, but under a
new signboard and with the participation of some other States.” He
particularly warned against the dangers of the use of force for any
solution of the Suez problem and said that armed conflict, once start-
ed, could not possibly be restricted to the Middle East. Mr. Shepilov
said : “There are two aspects of the Suez Canal question : that of
nationalization of the Suez Canal Company and that of the free navi-
gation of the Canal.” Egypt’s competence to nationalize the com-
pany was beyond question. Only the second aspect — free navigation —
v/as a matter for international concern. With this end in view, M.
Shepilov suggested the conclusion of a new agreement "taking into
account new circumstances in line with the spirit of the times” in
place of the existing Convention of 1888 or of an agreement supple-
mentary to the Convention of 1888.
The Soviet Plan, as detailed by the Foreign Minister, con-
tained the following points: “There should be no resort to arms.
Egypt’s inalienable rights to the Suez Canal should be recognized as
well as “the importance in interaational commerce and for world com-
munications of the Canal, used by many States interested in the main-
tenance of free navigation in it.” The Canal should always be free
and open to the vessels of all countries on equal terms. Egypt would
ensure such freedom of navigation by all means. Tariffs and charges
would be fixed by discussions between Egypt and the interested
countries. The parties should undertake to guarantee the inviol-
ability of the Canal under all circumstances and not to _ m^-e it a
threate of war, not to subject to any kind of blockade. Soviet Govern-
ment endorsed the Egyptian Proposal of August 12 for a
broader 46-nation conference, and suggested that the Ufa A, UK and
USSR, India, Egypt and Prance might act as convenors for that con-
ference.
704
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
The British Foreign Minister, Mr. Selwyn Lloyd, opposed the
Soviet proposal for a wider conference. A draft declaration was for-
mulated by the Western Powers and circulated among the delegates.
On August 20, Indian delegation opposed the Western Plan and
presented instead a six-point proposal which received the support of
Egypt and the USSR. The Indian Plan :
“(1) That the Constantinople Convention of 1888 governing the
operation of the Suez Canal be reviewed to reafBrm its principles and
to make such revisions as are necessary today and, more particularly,
incorporating provisions in regard to just and equitable tolls and
charges and the maintenance of the Canal.
“(2) The Canal should be maintained on the basis of tolls and
charges being just and equitable, and facilities of the canal being
available to all nations without ^scrimination. The Canal should be
maintained at aU times in a proper condition and in accordance with
modem technical requirements relating to navigation.
(3) That all steps, not excluding a conference of the representa-
tives of the signatories of the 1888 Convention and all user nations of
the Canal, for the purpose mentioned in proposal one, be considered.
“(4) That consideration be ^ven, without prejudice to Egyptian
ownership and operation, to association between international interests
using the canal and the Egyptian Corporation for the Suez Canal.
“(5) That a consultative body of user interests be formed on
the basis of geographical representation and interests charged with
advisory, consultative and liaison function.
“(6) That the Government of Egypt transmit to the UN the
annual report of the Egyptian Corporation for the Suez Canal.”
The conference ultimately requested Australia, Iran, Ethiopia,
Sweden and the USA to negotiate with Egypt under the Chairman-
ship of the Australian Prime Minister Mr. Menzies.
THE MENZIES JIISSION AND LATER DEl^ELOPMENTS ON
SUEZ : — ^In pursuance of the first London Conference, a five-nation
committee (composed of Australia, Ethiopia, Iran, Sweden and the
USA) under the Chairmanship of Robert Gordon Menzies, Prime
Minister of Australia, was deputed to present the western point of
view to President Nasser of Egypt.
The Menzies Mission held extended conference with President
Nasser from September 3 until the 9th. The failure of the Menzies
Mission, was finally announced on September 10 when the Mission left
Cairo. After the Egyptian rejection of the Dulles plan, the Menzies
Mission drew the_ attention of Egypt to the Spanish proposal recom-
mending international participation on the present Egyptian body ad-
ministering the Canal (as contrasted with the Western proposal for
Egypt to be represented in an International Board to administer the
Canal).
President Nasser in his letter to Mr. Menzies said : “We find
ourselves in agreement with the eighteen countries when they state
that the solution of the Suez Canal question must —
“ (a) Respect the sovereign right of Egypt ;
“(b) Safeguard the freedom of passage "through the Suez Canal
IfJ'TER^'TATIONAL AFFAIRS 705"
. ' in accordance with the Suez Canal Convention of October
29, 1888 ;
“(c) Respect Egypt’s right of ownership ;
“(d) Ensure the efficient and dependable operation, mainten-'
ance and development of the Canal.
“When however, we come to consider the ways and means pro-
posed by the Committee to attack these objectives, we find that they
are self-defeating and that they lead to opposite result than those
aimed at.”
Summing up the Egj^tian stand. President Nasser said that his
Government’s policy remained to be :
“(a) The freedom of passage through the Suez Canal and its
secure use without discrimination ;
“(b) The development of the Suez Canal to meet the future re-
quirements of navigation;
“(c) "The establishment of just and equitable tolls and charges ;
and
“(d) Technical efficiency of the Suez Canal.”
For a satisfactory solution for questions relating to the above-
mentioned points the Egyptian Government proposed on September 10
in a memorandum to the U.N. Secretary-General for the formation of
a negotiating body representative of the different views held among
the Suez Canal users. The Egyptian Government further urged for
discussion to settle the composition, the venue and the date of the
meeting of such a body. To that body might also be entrusted the
task of reviewing the Constantinople Convention of 1888.
SUEZ CANAL USERS ASSOCIATION On September 13, the
British Prime Minister announced in the Parliament that the Western
Big Three — USA, UK and Prance — had decided on setting up pro-
visionally a Suez Canal Users’ Association (SCUA) which would
undertake responsibility for traffic through the Suez Canal. The
broad outline of the Users’ Association given by Sir Anthony Eden
indicated that besides the three Western Powers other users of
the Canal would be invited to join it. “The Users’ Association will
employ pilots, will undertake responsibility for co-ordination of traffic
through the Canal and in general will act as a voluntary association
for the exercise of the rights of the Suez Canal Users,” he said. The
Egyptian Government, that would receive appropriate payment from
the association in respect of the facilities provided by them, would
be asked to co-operate with the association. At a Press conference in
Washington on September 13, 1956, Secretary of State Mr. Dulles,
said that the formation of the Users’ Association had been decided
upon three things : (1) The Users had rights under the 1888 Con-
vention • (2) Those rights could not legally be nullified by unilateral
Egyptian action ; and (3) Co-operation among users was normal
when in times when they are in jeopardy. Mr. Dulles
added that though the USA would join the Association, in the event
of Egyptian opposition USA would not try to “shoot its way through
the Canal” and would rather detour its shipping around Africa, the
Cape of Good Hope.
45
706
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
' Gaon
A second London conference, attended by the representatives of
the eighteen States who had supported Dulles Plan during the_ August
London conference, was called on September 19 to _ consider the
establishment of aprovisional Suez Canal User’s Association. Much
of the edge of original proposal was lost when the conference decided
that payment of dues to the Users' Association would not be
compulsory for the users of the canal. Meanwhile on September
23, the British and the French Governments lodged a formal com-
plaint with the Security Council against Egyptian action. Egypt
also lodged a protest against Britain and France on September
The Security Council decided to discuss both the complaints which
would be taken up by the Council on October 5 for regdar
discussion. The Suez Canal Users’ Association formally came into
being on October 1, 1956.
ANGLO-FRENCH AGGRESSION ON EGYPT Israel created
a new provocation over the Suez Canal impasse by invading Egryptian
territory on October 29, 1956, As if, by pre-arrengement, Britain
and PYance sent an ultimatum to the Governments of Egypt and
Israel to stop fighting immidiately and threatened Anglo-French in-
tervention in Egypt, Compliance was demanded in twelve hours’ time.
The British-Franch demand did not end there. Mr. Eden told the
British Parliament on October 80, 1956, “Further, in order
to separate the belligerents and to guarantee freedom of transit
through the Canal by the ships of all the nations, we have asked the
Egyptian Government to a^ee that Anglo-French forces should
move temporarily into key positions at Port Said, Ismailia and Suez.”
Subsequently at the end of the 12 hours period, British and French
forces attacked Egyptian territory including Port Said.
Britain used her first veto in the Security Council on October 31
to kill a Russian backed United States proposal urging. aU nations
to refrain from the use of force or the threat of force in Egypt.
France also vetoed the resolution. It has thus been a practice to use
the veto power by the Big Powers ■when it concerns their interests.
The U.S. resolution expressed concern over the 'violation armistice
agreement by Israel and appealed to all members of the United
Nations to assist in the maintenance of the armistice agreement and
called on all members “to refrain from giving any military, economic
and financial asistance to Israel so long as it has not. complied
•with this resolution”. The voting was seven in favour, two against
(Britain and France) and two abstentions (Australia and Belgium).
The Anglo-French and Israel aggression over Egypt continued
meanwhile.
CESSATION OF HOSTILITIES AND CREATION OF INTER-
NATIONAL FORCE ; — The attempt of the Security Council to act
in the emergency having proved abrotive as a result of the Anglo-
French veto, the General Assembly of the. United Nations met in an
emergency ' session and adopted • a resolution oh November, 2,
calling upon an immidiale cease-fire' in Egypt. The . resolution
which was moved by the U'.S.A. was accepted, 64' votes_ to 5 ■witbi
seven abstentions. The opponents were the three invading 'cmmtriesi
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
707
Britain, France and Israel, and two Oceanian countries, Australia
and New Zealand. The resolution also called upon the belligerent
forces to withdraw behind Arab-Israeli Armistice line demarcated in
1949 and urged all member-nations to refrain from introducing mili-
tary goods in the area of hostilities and in general refrain from,
any acts which would delay or prevent the implementation of this
resolution.
The Governments of Britain and France in a joint statement on
November 3, 1956 rejected the General Assembly’s resolution.
Meanwhile in the Egyptian front, the British offensive redoubled and
British forces made their first landing in Egypt on November 4 — ^two
days after the world body’s call for a cease-fire. The British occu^
pied Port Said on November 5.
The United Nations General Assembly met again on November
4 and passed a Canadian resolution asking the U.N. Secretary-Gene-
ral to submit within 48 hours a plan for an ememgency*
United Nations force to “secure and supervise an end of hostilities
in Egypt”. The vote was 57 to nil with 19 abstentions. Egypt
signified her acceptance of the resolution on November 6. While
the resolution of the Assembly met the points raised by the British
Prime Minister, it was not until after a Soviet threat of massive
intervention in the Middle Eastern war delivered on November 5 in
an identical note to the Governments of Britain and France that the)
British Government thought it necessary or expedient to abide
by the resolution of the U.N. General Assembly. On November 6,
Eden declared in the House of Commons that he had ordered a
cease-fire with effect from the midnight of November 6-7.
The Secretary-General submitted his final report on the organi-
sation of a U.N. emergency force to the General Assembly on
November 6. The Assembly adopted two resolutions the following
day. In one of the resolutions, the Assembly called upon Britain
France and Israel to withdraw their troops from Egj^t. The vote
was 65 to 1 (Israel) with ten abstentions including Britain and France.
In the other resolution, adopted by 64 votes to nil, with twelve absten-
tions including Egypt, Israel and the Soviet bloc, the Assembly
decided upon the setting up of an emergency international police
force.
Replying to a question in the House of Commons on November
7, the British Prime Minister said that he could give an assurance
that British troops would be pulled out of Egypt if British and French
troops were not included in the international force (as a matter of
fact, British and French troops were eventually barred from parti-
cipation in the international force).
On November 19, the Egyptian Government in an aide memoire
to the U.N. Secretai-y-General accused Britain, France and Israel of
defiance of the U.N. resolutions. Mr. Hamerskjoeld was evidently
in anreement with the Egyptian point of view. On November 20,
Mr. Hamerskjoeld asked Britain, France and Israel to explain their
failure to withdraw their force from Egyptian territory in accor-
dance with the resolutions of the U.N. After such strong represen-
tation from the Secretary-General, the BritisTi Government offered
708 =
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOKX
to :witlidra'w. one battalion “as a token of good faitb,” as Mr, Selwyn
Lloyd put ;iti . .
t . •; On November 24, the General Assembly of the United Nations
adopted one more resolution sponsored by India, Egypt, Pakistan
and. eighteen other members of the Anglo-Asian ^oup, calling upon
the; three invading Powers to quit Egypt forthwith.
UNITED NATIONS FORCE— The United Nations General
Assembly in an emergency session adopted on November 4, a reso-
lution sponsored by Canada, Norway and Colombia to creat an inter-
national force under the command of the United Nations with
the duty of supervising the cease-fire between Egypt and the in-
vading force of Great Britain, France and Israel. The nucleus of
the U.N. force would be formed by the members of the U.N. Truce
Supervisory Commission in Palestine and would be under the overall
command of Major-General E.L.M. Bums of Canada, Chief of the
U.N. Truce Supervisory Commission. The permanent members of
the Security Council — ^were expressly excluded from contributing any
contingent to the U.N. force.
In a second resolution on the matter,, the General Assembly de-,
cided on November 7 that the U.N. command would be a temporary^
police force to patrol the area of fighting from the Suez Canal to the
old-Egyptian-Israel truce line established in 1949. India has offered
a battalion to the U.N. force which made its first landing on Egypt'
on November 13.
j Up to .November 26, 23 countries had offered to participate in
the U.N. force. About 2,400 men in all had been moved into Egypt
by . the. night of November 27. By the middle of December the
strength of the U.N. force in Egypt totalled about 4,100. Up
to November 26, the countries whose men were already part of the
U.N. force were Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Colombia,
India,. Canada and Yugoslavia. Other countries which had pledged
specific contributions or had promised general participation were
Pakistan, Ceylon, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, New Zealand, Burma,
Brazil,^ Iran, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Ecuador, the Philippines, Peru,
Afganisten and Chile. The United States of America, Canada,' and
Italy were providing articles for the international force while
other countries such as Yugoslavia were supplying some of their
own air transport.
9. DEVELOPMENT IN LAOS
The negotiations between the delegations of the Royal Government
of Laos and the Pathet-Lao armed forces on political issues ended
successfuly in Vientiane on August 8. Until recently, the situation in
this part of Indo-China, freed from French colonial domination, was
tense. The conclusion of the Geneva Agreements . in 1954 was
followed by the regrouping of the Laotian Royal Army and the
Pathet-Lao Resistance forces stationed in Phong Saly and Sam Neua
ptovinces in the North. The conflict continued, .however, the USA
using it as a' constant pretext to interfere in the country's internal
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 709
political problems. Negotiafons were started in November 1965, bnt
were broKen off by the previous Government.
On May 28, 1956, Prince Souphannonvong, Commander of the
Pathet-Lao forces, approached the Souvana Phouma Government with
a proposal to resume political consultation to work out a policy of
peace and neutrality. This initiative, supported by the Loatian Patro-
tic Front was welcomed by the Laotian National Assembly which on
June 21 voted in favour of resumption of negotiatoins. The talks
began on August 1 for the discussion of ;
(1) freedom, democracy, participation in elections and the orga-
nization of an election campaign ;
(2) the lawful interest of the Pathet-Lao units ;
(3) free national elections and a Coalition Government ;
(4) peace, neutrality and the Five Principles of peaceful co-
existence ;
(5) a peaceful solution of the Sam Neua and Phong Saly
problem.
The achivement of agreement was greatly facilitated by the Ipter-
national Commission for Supervision and Control in Laos. On August
6 and 8, the sides signed two joint communiqies. In the first, .the
Royal Government of Laos and the Pathet-Lao Command announced
their adherence to the policy of peace and neutrality and the Five Prin-
ciples of peaceful co-existence. The communique pointed out that
the two sides had agreed that Laos would not join any military alli-
ances and would not permit any foreign military bases, with the excep-
tions of those provided for by the Geneva A^eements, on her terri-
tory. Pending a political settlement, the two sides would order
cessation of hostilities in Sam Neau and Phong Saly. Prince
Souvanna phouma’s Government declared that it would grant all ‘the
rights and democratic freedom to the people, including the right to
take part in elections and organize elecrion campaigns. Furthermore,
the Royal Government undertook not to discriminate against the
Pathet Lao units and former members of the Resistance. The
communique further states that the administration of Sam Neua and
Phong Saly provinces would be placed under the authority of the Royal
Government and that the two sides would reorganize the administrative
bodies to accord with the Royal administrative system. The Pathet-
Lao forces would also be reorganized and place under the Royal Army
command.
10. SELF-GOVERNMENT FOR SOMALIS ,
A Government by Abdullah! Issa— the first Government of Soma-
lia, a territory under Italian trusteeship — was formed last May (1956).’
Somalia lies in the extreme east of Africa ; it is a narrow strip of land
stretching along the coast of the Indian Ocean for about 1,800 kilo-;
meters. She occupies an area of 514,000 square kilometres, which
is much larger than Italy’s and has a population of 1,300,000. Ethni-
cally it is not homogenous ; besides the Somalis proper, the country
is inhabited by 40,000 Arabs, 6,000 Swahilis and some 5,000 Europeans
— mostly Italians. Her capital is Mogadishu, a city of 78,000 situated
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK'
71t)
on the coast of the Indian Ocean. The Somalia have no written lan-
guage as yet, and the official language of the trusteeship territory are
Italian and Arabic. By far the majority of the indigenous population
are illiterate. Upwards of 850,000 people are nomads and only one-
third of the population is settled. The Somalis breed camels, cattle,
sheep and goats. Farming is very primitive ; the soil is not ploughed
but ftirrowed with an iron tipped stick to a depth of several centi-
metres. Their economic and cultural backwardness is a product of
prolonged colonial domination.
Owing to her strategic position, Somalia attracted the attention
of the major capitalistic countries of the West as early as the 19th
century. In 1889, Italy established her rule over the Sultanate of
Obbia, situated approximately midway along the Somali coast. The
same fate befell the Sultanate of Mijertain, which lies on the Gulf of
Aden, a few years later. Then Italy forced the Sultan of Zanzibar to
cede to her his right to the coastal area of El-Benadir. Late in the
19th century part of the territory inhabited by Somalis passed into
British and French possessions, and another part remained within
the boundaries of Ethiopia.
The colonialists seized the most fertile tracts of land; Economic
and political oppression increased in particular under the Mussolini
regime. After seizing Ethiopia, the Italian authorities turned the
whole area into a strategic bridgehead and a source of agricultural
raw materials. After the second world war, Somalia was delivered
from fascist tyranny. But the Somalis did not gain independence.
Somalia and other former Italian possessions in East Africa were
occupied by British troops.
In November 1949, the U.N. General Assembly passed a resolu-
tion transferring Somalia to Italy as a trusteeship territory for the
terra of 10 years. Legislative authority in Somalia was handed over
to an Italian administrator, under whom a Territorial Council with
advisory powers was constituted. Council members were appointed
mostly from among tribal chiefs. Elections to the Legislative
Assembly were held in February 1956, The first Somali Parliament
met in Mogedishu on April 80, The opening of the first Parliament
and the formation of a Government mark an advance in the Somalis’
fight for independence.
11. EISENHO'SVER’S SECOND TERM
Through his victory in the elections held on the 6th
November, 1956, Dwight David Eisenhower, at the age of
sixty-six, became the second Republican in this century to
win two suecessive presidential elections in the USA (Pre-
sident William Mackinly, elected for a second term in 1900),
was the other Republican to do so). President Eisenhower defeated
his Democratic rival, Mr. Adlai E. Stevenson by over nine million
votes. Eisenhower rolled up the biggest popular vote in history
(over S4.7 million according to incomplete figures) breaking his own
1952 record (33_,927,441). The President carried forty-one States —
two more than in 1952-— and Sir. Stevenson seven. Mr. Stevenson's
popular vote in 1956 was 25,427,361 against 27,314,992 in 1952.
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
711
President Eisenhower tvon 457 electoral votes against Stevenson's
74 (two hundred and sixty-six electoral votes were required for elec-
tion). This marked an increase over his electoral votes in 1952
which were 442 to 89 for Stevenson. But the Republican Party failed
to gain a majority in any of the two Houses -of the Congress. The-
position of the two parties in the Congress is as follows :
Senate : Democrats 49 and Republicans 47 ;
House of Representatives : Democrats 236 and Republicans 200.
This was the fifth time in U.S. history that a President-elect failed
to carry both the Senate and the House of Representatives.
12. EVENTS IN POLAND AND HUNGARY
In Poland there was anti-Russian revolt by the people
in October-November 1956 and Wladyslaw Gomulka was put
in power instead of Russian-bom General Rokossovski. The
return of Gomulka to power in Poland, the dismissal of
Marshal Knostanty Rokossovski, and the dissension between
Poland’s new rulers and Moscow pose very sharply three
great issues. These are : the future of the Communist regime in
Poland ; the future of the Soviet zone of influence in Eastern Europe :
and the impact of Polish crisis on de-Stalinization and on the political
balance within the Soviet Union itself. The recent conflict between
Warsaw and Moscow has one new aspect which distinguishes it from
Tito’s break with Stalinism and the East German rising in 1953.
Poland is the only communist country (followed by Hungary) in
■which de-Stalinization has brought to life a persistent dynamic and
nationwide movement from below, a movement which has forced the
hands of the Communist bureaucracy, which has imposed sweeping
changes in the communist leadership. In Poland Russia took -violent
measures to suppress anti-Russian movement. But ultimately
Russia had withdra-wn and Gomulka returned to power on the crest of
an anti-Stalinist mass movement defiance of Moscow.
On October 19, 1956, Krushchev, Molotov, Mikoyan and Kagano-
vich appeared suddenly in Warsaw in order to intervene in the crisis.
But their mission failed to check the growing demand for freedom
among the Poles. At present Poland lives through an upsurge of natio-
nal enthusiasm for Gomulka and of national unity. The Poles are united
in rejecting Russia's ■tutelage and the methods of government inherited
from the Stalin era. Gomulka’s name is the symbol of the rejection.
The trend of anti-Communist drive has its deep social and historic roots.
It has been fed by the violence which Stalinism has done to Polish na-
tional dignity. It has behind it a numerous and influential clergy, the
sentiment of vast sections of the peasantry and of the intelligentsia and
the hopes of considerable remnants of the urban bourgeoisie.
HUNGARY : The Polish crisis has ben followed almost at once by
a convulsive and bloody upheaval in Hungary. In Hungary, the two
currents of the violent reaction against Stalinism, the Communist
gained grounds. On October 23, vast crowds of workers, students and
middle class people came out in spontaneous demonstrations, calling in
unison for a reassertion of Hungary’s sovereignty, for a break -with
-HIITOpSTAN- YEAE-BOOK:
712
Bussia, . and for the -return to ' power of the ■ ' comihunist' he-
retic Imre Nagy. In Hungary, the anti-Communist , element
had dominated the movement. Unlike the Polish . Par^,
the Hungarian communist party had not indentified it-
self -with the popular revulsion against Stalinism. It had kept until
very recently, the compromised and hated Eakosi at its head. It has
long resisted de-Stalinization to be best of its ability ; and then it
sought .to confine it to a rehabilitation of the dead and to the grimly
provocative spectacle of Rajk’s state funeral. ... . .
In Hungary there has not developed a movement in. the factories
fox 'workers’ control over industry, comparable to the Polish movement,
to give de-Stalinization a proletarian class basis. Consequently the
Hungarian communist found themselves isolated and overwhelmed by
the popular upsurge during the critical day of - October 23. On the
night of October 23-24 the Communist Party was compelled to recall
Nagy to the post of Prime Minister. Nagy was to be the lightaing con-
ductor which was to sa're the Communist regime. By that time, how-
ever, Budapest had already become the scene of civil war. The anti^
Communist forces were bn the offensive^; and the Communists in the car
pitel were made to suffer for all the sins of Rakosi regime, and were
inasacred in great numbers. Na^ was helpless. He could not rally
enough strength to withstand the onslaught of the anti-Communists-;
and he seemed indeed cast for the role of’ a “Kerensky in reverse’'*,'
paving the way for a counter-revolution. Nagy’s first step was to proi'
claim martial law and to call in Soviet-troops to crush the strange and
historically perhaps unprecedented movement, in which the charcteris-'
tics of a revolution had in fact merged with those of a counter-
revolution.
On December 12, the United Nations General Assembly condemned
the Soviet Union for violation of the Charter in depriving Hungary of
its liberty and independence and the Hungarian people of. th'e exercise
of their fundamental rights. After three days of debatej the VD-na-r
tiori Assembly also called on the Soviet Union to arrange immediately
to withdraw its forces from strife-tom Hungary under United Nations
observation. The crisis in Hungary ultimately compelled Imre Nagy to
resign and Mr. Janos Kadar took over the charges of the Government
with the support of Russia. Nagy took shelter in Yugoslav -Embassy,
Later on, an agreement reached between Yugoslavia and the Hunga-
rian Government of Kadar, Nagy was allowed to leave- the Yugoslav
embassy. 'The Hungarian Government guaranteed that Nagy and
his supporters would be allowed to return home as free men. But
the Hungarian Government of Ka^r has deported Nagy to Rumania
against his will.
Over the Hungarian issue, there has again been a breach between
Yugoslavia and Russia. Pravda has accused Tito for interfering in
the internal affairs of nations and for splitting the communist camp.
Kadar Government was imposed on Hungary -with the might
of Soviet arms. The people and workers are however resisting the
Kadar Government by striking work and by resorting to guerrilla
war. Civil war is stUl raging in Hungary.
. INDIAN AFFAIRS
1. KASHMIR CONSTITUTION
After five weeks’ deliberations the Kashmir Constituent Assem-
bly finally passed on November 17, the Constitution of the State of
Kashmir. The Constitution envisages a socialistic order of society
in Jammu and Kashmir and declares that the State is and shall bej
an integral part of the Indian Union. Based on the principles of
justice, liberty and fraternity and parliamentary system of Govern-
ment, the Constitution treats the accession question as a closed chap-
ter and provides that the State Legislature now or at any future date
cannot amend or alter the provision about the State being an integral
part of the Indian Union.
The Constitution provides for a bicameral legislature and assures
separation of the judiciary from the executive. It provides for
appointment of the High Court Judges in the State by the President
of the Indian Union. The judges will be removable by him on
grounds of misbehaviour or incapacity when the two-third members
of the State legislature address him on such question. The Consti-
tution, consisting of 158 clauses and six schedules, provides for the
elected head of the State to be known as Sadar-i-Riyasat and a
Separate flag for the State.
The Legislative Assembly will consist of 100 and the Legislative
Council of 36 members. Twenty-five seats in the Assembly will be
kept vacant for people living in Pakistani-occupied parts of the State;
The Constitution has come into force on January 26, 1957.
' ' 2. PORTUGAL’S DISPUTE WITH INDIA
On March 16, 1956, the International Court of Justice fixed the
time limits for pleadings in the dispute between Portugal and India
on Portuguese right over passage over Indian territory. An appli-
cation to the Court was filed by Portugal in December 1955, just
after Portugal had become a member of the United Nations. The
legal action was brought against India for allegedly occupying the
Portuguese - Indian territories of Dadra and Nagar Havelli since
July 1954. These are two Portuguese enclaves, entirely surrounded
by Indian territory, 16 miles from the Portuguese coastal enclave
of Daman north of Goa.
Portugal was taking action against India for ‘‘occupying of these
territories by Indian bands.” Portugal also complained of the Indian
Government’s refusal to allow Portugese unarmed ofiicers to cross
Indian territory to reach the territories, so that they could contact
the Portuguese population and restore Portuguese sovereignty. On
March 16, 1956, the International Court announced that June 15 had
been fixed for the memorial of Portugal and December 15 for the
counter-memorial of India. The rest of the procedure' has been re-
served for further decision.
The Portuguese possessions in India consist of three separate
regions, all quite small, on the western coast of the Indian Penin-
sula. Their total area is about one eight-hundredth of the area of
India ; their population, about one six-hundredth of India’s total
714
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
population. The area of the Portuguese possessions in India is 3,982
square kilometres, , of -which Goa’s is 2,751 sq. kilometres, Daman’s
161 sq. kilometres and Diu’s 1,070 square kilometres. The number of
population of these areas is 637,846, of -which Goa’s is 547,703,
Daman’s 69,005 and Diu’s 21,138. Goa, the largest of the three -was
seized by Portugal in 1510. It lies in the south of the Konkan coast,
some 400 kilometres south of Bombay. The colony of Goa includes
also several islands — ^Angidiv, Morsegos and Sao Jorge. Its capital
New Goa or Panjim is at the same time the administrative centre for
aU of Portugal’s Indian possessions. Geographically, Goa is inte-
grally bound up -with the adjacent districts of Borubay State. Its
fertile soil and beneficent climate favour the cultivation of the most
varied agpioulturral crops. It is rich, too, in mineral resources, the
most important minerals being its manganese and iron deposits.
Daman consists of Daman proper, a to-wn at the mouth of the
river Daman-Ganga, and two small districts, Dadra and Nagar-Aveli,-
entirely surrounded by Indian territory. Diu, is a small island town
lying off the south of Kathiawar Peninsula, -with which the settle-
ment of Gogola, on the territory of Saurashtra State and the Pani-
kota fort on the island of Panikota, in Simbor 'Bay are united
administratively.
All these possessions are administered by a Governor-General
appointed by the Portuguese Government — an official vested -with
powers that are almost absolute. There is a so-called Legislative
Council, but it is not a representative body, and its powers are very
limited. Most of its members are either appointed by the Governor-
General or are officials of the Portuguese administration ; and the
Governor-General has the final word in its deliberations.
In August 1955, a number of changes were introduced in the ad-
ministrative system. In reality, the administrative reform was'
merely a manoeuvre to fool public opinion. The Legislative Council
has still no more than the right to express its opinion of whatever
legislation the Governor-General may choose to propose. The final
decision in the adoption or repeal of legislation still is vested in the
Governor-General. In an attempt to justify their right to these
possessions the Portuguese rulers claim that the population of these
territories is part of the Portuguese nation. This claim is however
absurd. Two overwhelming majority of the population (99.6 per
cent) is Indian and this fact is confirmed by Portugal's official statis-
tics. The people of the Portuguese territories are all Indian and the
local Indian tongues are predominant, though the official language
in all three colonics is Portuguese. Portuguese is forcibly taught
in schools.
Forcible conversion to Catholicism was one of the means of
ideoligical pressure on the Indian population. Catholic missionaries
and Jesuit priests made their appearance in India in the early sjx>-
teenth century, close on the heels of armed invaders, Goa was made
one of the centres for Catholic propaganda in the East. The best
lands are _ the church property. But Catholicism has made little'
headway in these territories. In Daman and Diu, Catholics consti-
tute only 4 per cent of the population.
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
715
The Portuguese possessions in India are economically under-
developed. This is the result of four and a half centuries of colonial
rule, during which the colonialists have systematically plundered the
native population and despoiled the natural resources, hindering nor-
mal economic development and promoting only such branches of eco-
nomy as they found profitable.
Rice is Goa’s main agricultural crop and the main foodstuff of
its population. It yields two harvests yearly. But it is grown
chiefly on flood lands, the food production in these colonies are in-
sufficient and they are compleled to import foodgrains. Far greater
economic importance belongs to fishing, fish being a large item in
Goan exports. The Portuguese possessions in India suffer from the
drawbacks of colonial economy, being industrially backward. Only
mining and the food industries have made some progress. The last
war increased the demand for Goan raw materials, particularly iron
ore and manganese in the U.S.A., the U.K. and West Germany.
Manganese is mined in the San^em district and there are also de-
posits in the Quepem and Bicholim districts. Good iron ore is to be
found in all parts of Goa, particularly in the districts of Bicholim,
Sanvordem, Calay, Calem and Sakurda. Rich ores are not infrequent.
The mineral resources have been turned over by the Portuguese
rulers to American and Japanese capitalists who are squeezing every-
thing that they can out of them. That is why the U.S.A. is suppor-
ting the Portugal in retaining her Indian possessions. The Shirgao
mines, one of the richest of the Goan iron deposits, yielding almost
two thousand tons of ore daily, are in Japanese hands. The iron goes
chiefly to West Germany and Japan ; the manganese ores mostly
to the U.S.A.
The Portuguese colonies maintain close economic relations with
the adjoining Indian districts — ^relations strongly rooted historically.
India accounts for as much as 80 per cent of Goa's foreign trade,
and supplies most of the food imports of which Goa stands in such
vital needs. Every year thousands of Goan field labourers seek
employment in India during the agricultural season, and a large
number of Goans work in the Indian cities. Many Goan students
emigrate to India to study in the Indian colleges and universities, for
Goa has only two higher educational institutions, a medical colle^
and a teachers’ college and in both of these institutions education is
ccAiducted in Portuguese. There are 150,000 Goans living in the Indian
Republic.
Since the second world war the movement against foreign rule
in these colonies has greatly intensified and a part of the general upsu-
rge of struggle for national liberation in the colonial and dependent
countries. And India’s attainment of independence has been a new
stimulus to this movement. A committee of action composed of
representatives of the National Congress, the United Front, and the
Goan People’s Party, has taken the lead in the struggle for liberation.
In 1964, the patriotic movement in Nagar-Aveli and Dadra liberated
more than sixty -iillages in which the local population set up its own
administrative organs and drove out the Portuguese authorities.
716
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOQK
The straggle for liberation from Portngnese rale in these colonies
merges integrally -with the struggle for reunion •with India. In the
face of ruthless reprisals by the Portuguese rulers, the population of
the colonies, comes out in active support of such reunion. And the
desire of Goa, Daman and Diu for integration ■with the Indian Repub-
lic is fully in keeping with the interests of the entire Indian people-
Goa, Daman and Diu, the Indian people firmly maintain, are Indian
territory, and al'ways have been so ; and they must therefore be united
with India. On July 25, 1955, Sri Nehru declared in the Lok
Babha that Goa is an integral part of India and must inevitably be-|
come a part of the Indian Union, ■while preserving its cultural and
other interests in accordance •with the wishes of the people there.
India, desirous of restoring its country’s territorial integrity, has
repeatedly proposed to Portugal that the question of the Portuguese
possesions be settled by peaceful negotiation. Such a settlement has
already been reached in the matter of the former French possessions
in India — ^Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanam which are novv part
of the Indian Republic. But Portugal does not intend to admit that
the days of colonial exploitation are jira^wnng to their close and clings
obstinately to her possessions in India.
In this policy Portugal has the support of the United States,
-Which regards the Portuguese possessions as American strongpoints
in India's rear. The USA is building an airdrome at Bambolin (Goa)
which when completed ■will be one of the largest airfields in Asia.
Other airdromes are being built, or enlarged in the vicinity
of _ Marmagan and on Diu island ; a naval air base is
being planned for Sao Jacinto Island. Armaments received
by Portugal (as a member of the NATO) from the USA are
reshipped to Goa, under the guise of “financial aid.”
Portugal has secured American support in the diplomatic sphere
as well. The USA regards Goa as “a Portuguese pro^vince in the
East.”
3. PROBLEMS ON NAGA LAND
The Naga rebellion has not yet abetted. The Nagas, under the
leadership of Phizo, demand a separate homeland for the Nagas.
The Naga rebellion is basically a political problem. Hardy and war-
like mountaineers, as they are, they cherish the sentiments of indepen-
dence and racial pride. Culturally and ethnically there is very little
that is_ common to the Indian people and the Nagas. Foreign agents
and missionaries have played a subversive role and encouraged the
Nagas to think in terms of national independence. The guns which
the Nagas are now using in the course of their hostile operations
have mostly come from non-Indian sources. Moreover, the Naga re-
bellion is also a reaction against ofiScial mismanagement and bung-
ling. The white-bureaucrat was supercilious and high-handed.
After India's freedom, the brown-bureaucrat has also not been much
better. The official class has usually treated the Nagas with con-
tempt and disregard. That is why the Naga hostile feels that he
must achieve freedom from the control of the Indian bureaucracy.
INDIAN AFFAIRS
717 >
The dual control of the civil and military has been prejudicial to an
efficient handling of the Naga problem.
The manner in which the operations in the Naga land have
dragged on for months is highly undesirable and dangerous too
India's failure to stamp out a little war on the North-East frontier
may have vride repurcussions. India's prestige has already suffered
and it has appeared that we cannot manage our frontier operations
efficiently.
About 4 to 5 lakhs of Nagas live within 3 different administra-
tive units. The Naga Hills District under the Government of Assam
■with the maximum area and population, the Tuensang Frontier Di-vi-
sion and the Tirap Frontier Division under the North-East Frontier
administration, that is, directly under the Government of India. Most
troublesome areas are the places under the State Government and the
area freshly brought under administration, the 'Tuensang division.
Nagas residing in the Tirap division are comperatively sober. Now, all
these administrative units have a portion of common international bor-
der ■with Burma. Some 3 years back, the Prime Minister of India and
the Prime Minister of Burma had a joint aerial survey of this region.
Official sources did not disclose much about this tour except that it
was a joint survey of the common border. But it was apparent that
this sudden joint survey was the result of a suspicion about a probable
alliance between the Nagas of India and the Karen rebels of Burma.
After this survey both the Governments officially strengthened the
border security forces to sever any connections between the two
rebel groups.
At present constructive approach is being directed towards the
solution of the Naga problems. On August 23, 1956, Sri Nehru
told the Lok Sabha that the Government had not treated the Naga
problem as a purely military problem, and it was because of this that
progress in the operations in the disturbed Naga area had not been
as fast as it might have been from the military point of view.
4. 'THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1957
The country went to the polls in March 1957, the people have
elected 600 representatives to the Lok Sabha and 3,102 members
to the Legislative Assemblies of the States. Following is
the Statewise distribution of 600 hundred members elected to
the Lok Sabha ; Andhra Pradesh 43, Assam 12, Bihar 53, Bombay
6G, Kerala 18, Madhya Pradesh 36, Madras 41, Mysore 26, Orissa 20,
Punjab 22, Rajasthan 22, U. P. 86, West Bengal 36, Jammu and
Kashmir 6, Delhi 5, Himachal Pradesh 4, Manipur 2, 'Tripura 2. Out
of these there -will be 76 members belonging to the scheduled castes
as against 72 at present, and 31 members of the scheduled tribes,
as against 26 at present. . -r . , f
There is 3,102 members m the Legislative Assemblies of the
13 reorganized States instead of 3,125 in the provisional Assemblies.
Under the new set up, there are 2,518 constituencies — ^1,934 single
member and 584 two-memhet constituencies. There will be only
three-member constituencies in the whole country which -will be re-
served for the scheduled castes. All of them will be in West Bengal.
718
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
INDO-D.S. AGREE5IENT ON AGRICULTURAL COSUIODITIES
On An^st 29, 1956, an agreement was signed between India and
the U.S.A. for the import of surplus agricultural commodities to
India. The agreement provides for a sum of $ 360 million, or
of agriculture commodities to India during the next three years. The
agreement provides for the payment of half of the shipping costs
amounting to Rs. 26 crores inclusive. It is the largest single agree-
ment so far between India and the USA, the previous largest
transaction being the wheat loan of 1951 which provided 190 million
dollars.
The imports are designed to btuld up a suitable reserve of
foodgrains which will assist considerably in controlling the foodgrain
and other prices during a period when large-scale development ex-
penditure and deficit financing are contemplated. India will import
3.5 million metric tons of wheat at a cost of Rs. 95 crores, 2
lakh metric tons of rice at Rs. 13 crores, 5 lakh bales of cotton at
Rs. S3 crores. 6 million lbs of tobacco at Rs. 3 crores and diary pro-
ducts worth Rs. 2 crores. In the matter of purchasing these coinmo-
dities India enjoys the discretion of meeting her requirements either
from the surplus stocks available with the U.S. Commodity Credit
Corporation or from the open market in the United States.
The financial arrangement underljung the agreement consists of
crediting a U.S. Government rupee account in India with the equi-
valent of dollars paid for the purchase of goods in the U.S. from,
time to time. These rupee credits are to be utilised in India for
certain agreed purposes. Nearly 80 per cent (Rs.137.1 crores) of
the total credits are to be earmarked for financing development
in India, the allocation among the various development projects
being governed by a series of supplementary agreement to be
signed later. The remaining 20 per cent (about Rs. 34.3 crores) will
be left free for the use in India by the U.S. Government. Some of
the purposes towards which these free balances are likely to be uti-
lised are developments of new markets in India for U.S. agricultt^l
commodities, financing of international educational exchange activi-
ties and meetings of U.S. obligations in India such as U.S. Embassyi
expenditure etc. Out of the sum of Rs. 137 crores earmarked for
financing economic developments, Rs. Ill crores will be made avail-
able to the Government of India as a loan on a long-term basis. Out
■of tbis, about Rs. 26 crores will be used as loans to the private sector.
MINERAL OIL IN INDIA
The First Five-Year Plan provided for systematic and detail-
ed investigation and surveys of Indian minerals by the Geological
Survey of India, the Indian Bureau of Mines and National Labora-
tories with a view to quantitative and qualitative assessment of the
•country’s reserves of important minerals. The search for mineral oil
in India has been assigned an important place in the second
Five-Y'ear Plan. The recent investigations establishes the facts of
possible oil bearing regions in diflterent parts of the countrj’.
INDIAN AFFAIRS
719
The new Industrial Policy of the Government of India issued
■on April 30, 1956, the mineral oil has been placed in the first category,
the future development of which will be the exclusive responsibility
■of the State. The industries placed in the first category will now be
set up by the State. This does not preclude the expansion of the
■existing privately owned units, or the possibility of the State
securing the co-operation of private enterprise in the establish-
ment of new units when the national interests so require.
A thirteen-man team of Russian oil experts which came to India
in November, 1955 has stated that there are indications of large
reserves of oil in Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Punjab (Kangra
Valley), Jaisalmer (Rajasthan), Saurashtra, Madras, Andhra
Coast, Travancore, Tripura and Andaman Islands. These areas are
potentially capable of giving an yield of about 7 million tons of oil
per annum which is almost double the present consumption of oil in
the country. The present consumption in India is less than 2 gallons
per head against about 800 gallons per head in America. The
India's share in the total world production which is about 750 to 800
million tons per year is less than .04 per cent. India’s production is
now near about 80 million tons per year.
The present production of oil in India is confined to two small
areas of Assam. The Digboi oil field and Nahorkatiya oil fields dis-
covered two years ago. This Nahorkatiya field is expected to yield
almost as much quantity of oil as the Digboi field.
Attemps are being made to tap new sources of oil in other
territories. Excepting Assam, the following areas jpve greater pros-
pects for development of oil — western desert of Rajasthan, Cutch and
Saurashtra, the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain extending from the
Punjab to West Bengal and the alluvial tracts of Gujerat and the
East Coast, Sundarbans and at the bottom of the sea in the delta
region of Orissa’s eastern coast and the areas in and around the Gulf
of Kutch. At present, exploration is pursued in Western India under
Government direction and in Eastern India under the Assam Oil
Co., and Stanvac. Among the foreign countries that have identified
themselves with Indian oil plans, Canada has offered to undertake
further airborne surveys under Colombo Plan. A Canadian team has
already made aero-magnetic survey of the Jaisalmer area and Gange-
tic vnllcy.
Oil and Natural Gas Division has been established under the
Ministry of Natural Resources. This Division has already carried out
(ieological Surveys in Jwalamukhi, in the adjacent areas of Punjab
and in the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.
The Government of India have launched a Rs, 30 crore programme
for oil prospecting and exploration under the second Five-Year
Plan and a firm allocation of Rs. 9 crore has been made in
195G-57. A Russian geologist has been appointed on a two year
contract to organise and guide the Oil and Gas Commission which will
govern thc implementation of the oil exploration and refining policy.
This oil exploration is costing Government of India crores of
rupees. On an average an exploratory well in India may 'cost any-
thing between 20 to 25 lakhs of rupees. The Government of India
720
HINDUSTAN. YEAR-BOOK
has therefore entered into contracts •with foreign firms, Burmah-
Shell, Standard Vacuum and Galtex for oil exploration. In all these
contracts, it has been clearly laid do'wn.that they -will train Indian
personnel in all phases of ■work. When" oil is struck, fresh contracts
•will be entered into ■with these companies for participation of the
State in the capital and management of the concerns.
Another significant advancement to^wards the production of
mineral oil is the conclusion of agreements •with three foreign com-
panies for establishment of oil refineries.
The first agreement for setting up of refinery -was concluded ■with
the Standard Vacuum Oil Company on November 30, 1951. The,
second agreement was signed ■with the Burmah-Shell Oil on Decem-
ber 15, 1951 and the third agreement has been concluded ■with the
Galtex Oil Company of America on April 9, 1953. The total capital
to be invested in the three refineries is about Rs. 55 crore in the
following manner — Rs. 17.3 crore in the Standard Vacuum Refi-
nery, Rs. 30 crore in the Burmah-Shell Refinery and Rs. 7.5 crore in
the Galtex Refinery. Of the total capital major shares are provided
by the foreign companies. Indians have been allowed 25 p.c. of the
shares in the Standard Vacuum , 30 p.c. in Burmah-Shell and 25 p.c.
in Galtex in the form of cumulative preference shares. The Standard
Vacuum Refinery started production in July 1954 and Burmah-Shell
Refinery in March 1955.' These two refineries are situated on Trom-
bay Island near Bombay. They have a refinery capacity of 12 lakh
and 20 lakh tons annually. The Galtex Refinery is expected to go into
production in 1957 and is located at Visakhapatnam.
For the Assam oils, a refinery is expected ■to be started in
Calcutta. The len^h of the pipe line would be 850 miles long. The
Government of India propose to start a rupee company ■with majority
of shares to be formed jointly ■with Assam Oil Co.
Only three of the 23 wells drilled in Nahorkatiya and the conti-
guous Hugrijan have been dry, while further success has now been
obtained at Moran, 25 miles to the west. This is the deepest weU
ever drilled in South-East Asia, reaching a depth of 13,379 feet and has
come in as a good producer, and a second well is being
drilled nearby. The Company has a smaU producing field at Digboi.
The estimates of the reserves in this area have gone as high as
3G5m. barrels ■with a possible production of 60,000 barrels a day -by
1959. So far, however, the company has confined itself to stating
that a production of 2im. tons (50,000 barrels a day) of oil and
45m. cubic feet of gas could be maintained for some years.
The foUo^wing are the oil-drilling undertakings taken in hand or
about to be taken — (1) In Jwalamukhi area in Punjab where work
was started two years ago, a Rumanian team is assisting the work..
(2) In Southern Saurashtra area, the Government ■will soon under-
take the programme of structural drilling operations "with equipments
ordered from Russia. (3) There is also a proposal from a private
sector to set up an oil refinery in Bhavnagar. (4) The oil explora-
tion programme in West Bengal under Indo-Stanvac projects is being
expedited.
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BCX)K
721
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NEW MAP OF INDIA
46
STATES IN INDIA
ANDHRA
Capital
. . Hyderabad
Hyderabad
.. 1,218,853
Language
. . Telugu
Warangal
.. 1,33,130
Population
.. 31,2600,133
Rajaraundry
105,276
Area
. . 105,96 Sq. m.
Kakinada
99,952
Big Cities :
Eluru
87,213
Vijayawada
161,198
Nellore
81,480
Guntur
125,255
Masulipatanam
77,953
Visakhapatnam
108,042
Vizianagram
67,104
Gjvering twenty districts in combined Andhra Md Telangan^ Andhra
Pradesh possesses the fertile deltas of the Godavari and the Krishna and
the rich Tungabadra basin of black soils.
Andhra Pradesh comprises the eleven districts of Andhra State, viz.,
Srikaknlum, Visakhapatnam, East and West (^davari, Krishna. Guntur,
Nellore, Kurnool, Cuddapah, Anantapur and Chittoor and the districts of
STATES IN INDIA
723
Hyderabad, Medak, Nizaniabad, AdJlabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, Kham-
tnam, Nalagarda and Mababoobnagar, portions of Raichur, Gulbarga,
Bidar districts and some revenue circles of Nanded district.
Forests— Forests in Andhra occupy 19 p.c. of the total area, which
IS higher than the Union of India (IS p.c.). The forests which cloth the
inaccessible parts of the Eastern^ Ghats contain useful species of timber.
River Resources — The State is drained by the Godavari, Krishna and
Pennar and their tributaries and their waters have been harnessed for
irrigation to some exient. The Godavari flows for 225 miles through the
State before it falls into Bay of Bengal. The remaining two-thirds depend
on rain, which is both inadequate and undependable.
Cottage Industries — A. number of handicraft products have received in-
ternational appreciation and recognition such as (1) carpets of Warangal,
Masulipatam and Eluru (2) Himroo cloth of Hyderabad (3) Kalanteri
printings of Masulipatam (4)_ Bidriware of Hyderabad (S) Nirmal toys and
furnitures of Adilabad district (5) Filgree industry at Karimnagar (6)
Laqucr toys of Nakkapalli and Kondapalli toys (7) Narsapur lace work
(8) glass beads of Papanasmdupet.
Industry — AndlKa Pradesh produces large quantities of tobacco, sugar-
cane, groundnut, castorseed, cotton, jute, hides and skins, all of which
are useful for industrial processing and utilisation. Coal is available in
Singareni ahd Kothagudem. Ilmenite and monasite sands are found in
abundance and uranium occurs in Nallore district. Nellore district bears
rich mica mines. Andhra holds the All-India record for tobacco crop and
is the leading earner of our foreign exchange.
There are 12 textile mills in Andhra Pradesh, three in Telanffana
area and nine in the Andhra State. There are two paper mills in Andhra
Pradesh, one is Sirur paper mills and the other is Andhra paper mills at
Rajamundry which is Government concern. There are nine sugar fac-
tories now working in Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh produces large
quantities of hides and skins and tanned staff. The only major ship-building
yard in India is in Visakhapatnam. The Caltex oil refinery is now situated
at Visakhapatnam. Sericulture is a growing industry.
Minerals — The mineral wealth of Andhra Pradesh is improving. Man-
ganese tops the list, mica comes next. Other minerals are barytes, abes-
tos and chromite. Telangana has a monopoly of coal production.
Ports of Andhra — The Andhra State has a long coast line and a
number of ports. Besides a major port of Visakhapatnam, there are minor
ports at Kakinada and Masulipatam and the small ports at Kalinaga-
patam, Bhimunipatam, Vadarevu, Narsapur and Kandaleru. Ports like
Kakinada and Masulipatam are favourably situated in having road, rail and
canal communications. . , „ . ,
Districts of Andhra Pradesh — It consists of 20 distncts — eleven in
Andhra State and nine in Telangana. The names of the districts are
Srikak-ulam, Visakhapatnam. East Godavari, West Godavari,, Krishna,
Guntur, Nellore, Chittoor, Cuddapah, Anantapur, Kumool. The nine
Telangana districts are — Hyderabad, Mahbubnagar, Adilabad, Nizamabad,
Medak Knrimnagore, Warangal. Khammamct and Nalgonda and also
the following six taluks— Narayankhed and Zaheerabad in Bidar district
Gadwal and Alampur in Raichur district and Tandor and Kodangal in
Gulbarga district
724
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ASSAM
Capital . . Shillong
Population . . 9,043,707
Area (sq. m.) . . 85,012
Language . . Assamese &
Bengali
Literacy . . 18.1 p.c.
Density of Pop. . . 176 per sqjn.
Big Tozvns
Shillong . . . - 53,756
Gauhati . - - . 43,613
Dibrugarh . . . . 37,991
Silchar . . - . 34,059
Nowgong . . . - 28,257
This extreme north-eastern frontier State is almost bottled up between
Bhutan and Tibet in the north, Burma on the east and East Paldstan on
the west, areas of ilanipur in the east and Cooch Bihar and Tripura on
the west thrown in, except for a narrow passage bordering along and
through Cooch Bihar. The 25 Khasi Hill States were merged with Assam
on 26th January, 1950 to be known as Khasi-Jainta Hill district and have
added 6,^7 sq. miles area. With the Khasi States, Assam continues to be
governed through the Governor of Assam. Assam occupies a strate^-
cally important posi-
tion after partition of
India. Assam is no
longer a mere part of
India, but she has be-
come the main frontier,
the veritable sentinel
of the Indian Union.
This State has the lar-
gest number of tribal
people of the Union
constituting about 32
p.c. on the whole and
about 12 p.c. in what
were hitherto known
here as the Excluded
and Partially Exclud-
ed areas ; and the
Constitution has provi-
ded for the setting up
of “autonomous dis-
tricts” and “autono-
mous regions” with
District and Regional
Coimcils for them.
Criss-crossed and skirted by hill ranges and forests, with the lower
Himalayan ranges overlooking in the north, the territory has an abundant
rainfall. Except for the Western Ghats where the average rainfall is about
the same, Assam has the highest rainfall in the whole of India. The
averages in different parts of the State vary from about 43 inches in
the Nawgong plains to about 500 inches at Cherrapunji. This makes agri-
culture and plmtation comparatively easy and worthwhile for the people
and planters, rice and tea being the most important crops. In tea parti-
STATES IN INDIA
725
cularly she holds about half the acrage of the Indian Union. Sugarcane,
cotton, jute, tobacco, rape and mustard and silk are also grown in small
quantities.
Forests occupy about 40 p.c. of the area of the State but all this area
Is not permanently dedicated to forestry. Only about 12 p.c. is so reserved,
the bulk of the remainder being subjected to shifting cultivation in the hill
districts by the tribal people. The forests of Assam have been in recent
years sustaining a production of about 200,000 pl 3 ^vood chest annually for
tea. The fore_sts also produce very large quantities of bamboo for paper
production. Assam is the biggest produceer of cane in India. There are
about 70 or more varieties of timber, of which 10 or 12 varieties are now
generally used.
Among mineral resources, coal, petroleum and kerosene alone have to
be exploited ; In the village of Nahorkatiya by the side of Burhi-Dehing
river, oil has been discovered in 1953 which is being drilled to a depth of
11,715 ft. giving an average of 20,000 gallons of crude oil daily, in addition
to the old petroleum facto^ at Digboi which gives 3,00,000 gallons yearly.
The climate of Assam is marked by coolness and extreme humidity. The
heavy and long-continued rain keeps the temperature comparatively mode-
rate. Assam enjoys an unusually long and bracing cold weather. The
spell of hot weather is very short.
Assam is fortunate in possessing probably the richest fauna of any part
of Asia and outside Africa there is no part of the world with so many
varieties of animals, birds, reptiles and insects. The most important
animal from the point of view of its rarity and interest is the great Indian
single-homed rhinoceros, _ of which Assam has by far the p-eatest number.
Assam rhino has the distinction of being the largest rhino in existence
today. Other animals such as the elephant, wild buffalo, bison, swamp
deer, rare birds like horhbill, king cobra, and other kinds of reptiles also
abround. Bengal tigers and leopards are there too. The largest single
population of elephants, outside possibly Burma is found in Assam. There
are in Assam today seven wild life sanctuaries and reserves in Assam,
such as (1) Tirap Frontier National Park in the North-East Frontier
Agency (2) Pabha Sanctuary of 20 sq. miles known as Milory Buffaloo
Sanctuary situated in the North Lakhimpur (31 Sonairupa Sanctury of
90 sq. miles in Darrang district containing wild elephant, gaur, sambur,
hogdeer and rhino (4) Orang Reserve of 24 sq. miles in Darrang district
on the north bank of Brahmaputra containing some 16 rhinos. (5l Las-
khovta Reserve of 26 sq. miles in Nowgong district containing 25 rhinos
and a few hog deer. (6) Khoziranga Reserve of 166 sq. mile on the south
bank of Brahmaputra containing largest number of great Indian one-homed
rhinoceros. It also contains wild buffalo, pig, hog deer, patridge and many
species of water birds. (71 Jlfaiius or North Kamrup sanctuary of 105
sq. miles containing buffalo, hogdeer, pelicans, wild elephant, gour, rhino,
barking deer, sambur etc.
Collage Industries — Second only to agriculture, weaving and sericul-
ture industry is by far the largest and oldest single main, as well as subs -
diarj' cottage industry in Assam. Among Assam’s^ cottage induslrieSj the
most important are sericulture and handloom weaving. About 1.2 million
people work in these as a subsidiary occupation.
Assam is famous for her non-mulberry silks of Eri and Muga, She
726
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
produces 65 p.c. of the entire quantity of non-mulberry silk pr^uced in
India. The golden colour muga j'am, besides being used for fabric, is also
used for embroidery work and fishing lines. The creamy colour of Eri fabric
is mainly used as wrappers, suitings and shirtings. Among other cottage
industries are ivory, bamboo and cane-work, bell metal work and bee-
keeping.
Industries — The main industry of Assam is tea industry, which employs
about 500,000 labour force. Assam has made vast stride in jute cultivation.
At present this industry accoimts for 34 p.c. of the total jute production in
the country. The distinction of being the only place where oil is produced
in India belongs to Assam. The Digboi field sdelds about 8 p.c. of tte
country’s requirements of crude oil. The new Nahorkatiya field givs
much promise to produce about half the countrj’’s requirements. Ojal is
worked in Ledo, Nazeia and Cherrapunji, but the output is not high. The
other industries of Assam are match-malang, plywood manufacturing, rice,
and oil milling.
North-East Frontier Agency — Presents an area of 35,000 sq. miles
inhabited by a tribal population of about 800,000. N.E.F.A. is constitu-
tionally a part of Assam. It is inhabited by some 800,000 tribesmen
divided into 30 or 40 tribal groups with varied customs and speaking
different dialects. The N. E. F. Agency constitutionally a part of Assam
is administered by the Ministry of External Affairs with the Governor of
Assam acting as agent to the President of India. The Governor is assisted
by an Adviser. The N.E.F.A. Secretariat is situated in Shillong. N.E.F.A.
itself is divided into six atoinistrative dirisions each under the control
of a Political Officer and each containing several tribes or classes.
The main tribes bring in the six dirisions are —
Kaineng Frontier Diinsion : Monpas, Akas, Mijis, Daflas, Sherdukpens. _
Suhansiri Frontier Division : Moyas, Tagins, Hill Miris, Apa-Tanis, Nisis
(Daflas), Sarahs.
Siang Frontier Division : Membas, Gallongs. Minyongs, Padams, Tagins,
Boris, Romos, Pailibos.
Lohit Frontier Division : Chulikatas or Idus, Digarus or Taroas, Mijus,
Khamptins. Singphos, Lamas, Padam Abors, Mishmis.
Tiiensang Frontier Division : Kon 5 raks, Phoras, Changs, Sangtams, Kalye
Kenguyus, Yira_ Oiungrrs, Simas.
Tirap Frontier Division : Nokteys. Wanchos, Tangsas, Singphes.
Various dialects in which the people of the Agencj- speak belong to
the Tibet-Burman group and Thai group of the Indo-Chinese languages.
The most of the dialects have no script of their own. Other than Hkamtis
almost all the tribes speak in dialects belonging to the Tibeto-Burman group.
The Hkarati dialect belongs to the Thai group.
The Districts of Assam — ^with Headquarters Goalpara (Dhubri),
Kamrup, (Gauhati). Darrang (Tezpur), Nowgong (Nowgong), Sib-
sagar (Jorhat), lakhimpur (Dibrugarh), Cachar (Silchar), (^ro
Hills (Tura), United Khasi-Jainta Hills (Shillong), United North
Cachar and Mikir Hills (Diphu), Lushai Hills (Aijal), Naga Hills,
(Kohima) .
STATES IN INDIA
727
WEST BENGAL
Capital . . Calcutta
Population . . 26,306,602
Area (sq. m.) .. 33,958
Literacy 24.5 p.c.
Density of Pop. . . 806 per sq ni.
Language . . Bengali
Calcutta (incld. suburbs) 33,448,39
Howrah . . 433,630
Tollygunj . . 149,817
Bhatpara . . 134,916
Kharagpur . . 129,636
Garden Reach .. 109,160
Behala . . 104,055
Berhampur . . 55,613
The old Bengal Presidency included practically all Northern and
Central India, but subsequently Bengal province consisted of part of
Bjoigal proper with B^ar, Orissa and Chotanagpur, In 1905 the Pro-
vince was divided but in 1911 it was reunited. This Province of Bengal
ceased to exist in 1947 when it was again divided. West Bengal forming
part of India and East Bengal part of Pakistan. State of Cooch Bihar
was merged with West Bengil on January I, 1950 and also Chandemagore,
on October 2, 1954.
West Bengal, a truncated and dismembered State as the result of
Partition has emerged in 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act of
1956. as a somewhat bigger State with an essential link between the two
hitherto isolated northern and southern segments. The much-desired link
between Darjeeling and the rest of the State has been forged. From
Pumea of Bihar 760 sq. miles with a total population of 280,000 and Purulia
sub-division of hfanbhum district of Bihar e.xdud)ng Chas and Chandil
thanas and Patamba police station of Barabhum Thana with a total of
2,140 sq. miles and population of 1.12 millions have come to West Bengal.
The area from Pumea forms part of Darjeeling district, while that of from
J.[anbhum district constitutes a separate district known as Purulia district.
This is one of the most densely populated states of the Indian Union,
with 806 persons per sq, mile as per 1951 census. The density is highest
in Calcutta (78,900 people per sq. mile) and lowest in Darjeeling district.
It has a tropical climate, rainfall averaging from about 69 inches in the plains
to above 120 in the hills.
Bhagirathi is the only channel left to West Bengal which receives
waters from the Ganga. This channel is of vital importance not only to
the State of West Bengal, but also to the whole of India, as on its bank
stands Calcutta, the largest port of India.
Agricullurc — In agriculture which gives occupation _ to the majority
of the people, she has the third largest area under rice in the Union, the
second in tea and the first in jute ; some amount of gram, barley, linseed,
mustard, and rape, sugarcane, maize, cotton, tobacco and other crops arc
also grown here. Of Sie total cropped area, 8S P.c. is utilised for growing
rice. After rice, jute is the most important crop and accounts for 10 p.c. of
total cropped area of Bengal. Tea plantations cover an area or 170,264
acres and it lies in the districts of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling. The chief
products of the State are rice, oilseeds, sugarcane, sugar, tobacco, jute, silk.
tea and coal.
Forest-— Fortst area of West Bengal is 5256 sq. miles which lies chiefl.r
in the districts of Darjeeling. Gxich Bihar. 24 Parganas (Sundarbans),
728
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Midnapore, Nadia, Murshidabad, Bankura, HoogMy, Burdwan, Birbhum,
Malto and West Dinajpur. The principal producis are timber, firewood
and charcoal.
Industry — West Bengal leads over all others in the field of industry.
Twenty three per cent of all factories registered in the Indian Union are
located in West Bengal. At present West Bengal has 90 jute mills cm-
ploj'ing over 310,000 people. The capital invested in the trade is about
Rs. 48 crores. Bengal accounts for one-fourth of all India’s coal production.
There arc 32 cotton mills in the State located within 16 miles of Calcutta.
West Bengal has also the largest number of paper mills of any State in
STATES IN INDIA
729
India. West Bengal has the largest engineering industry in India repre-
senting approximately 15 p.c. of the total all India output.
Easily the most important of the new industrial enterprises set-up in
West Bengal is the motor factory of Hindustan Motors, Uttarpara ;
Aluminiutn industry also holds a leading place in West Bengal. Both the
rolling mills of the country are located in the State — Indian Aluminium
Qimpany’s Works at Belur and the Aluminium Corporation’s plant in
Jaykay Nagar near Asansol. With the transfer of Purulia district of
Manbhum and a small portion of Purnea, West Bengal gains lac processing
centres at Jhalda and Balarampur, the monopoly of tasser silk around
Raghunathpur and jute fields in Pumca. The two great industrial projects
are Durgapur coke-oven and gas grid and Iron and Steel works at Durga-
pur. A coke-oven plant capable of handling 1,300 tons of coal and 65 tons
of coke and auxiliary plants for recovery of by-products are being set-up.
The iron and steel works are being started by a British Consortium.
River Valley Projects — ^West Bengal has two principal river valley
projects for the improvement of agricultural economy, improved industria-
lisation. The first is Mayurakshi Reservoir Project. The work was
begun in 1948. The river Mayurakshi originates from the uplands of
Santhal Parganas in Bihar and falls into Bhagirathi after a course of 150
miles. At Massanjor in Santhal Parganas, the river flows through a
narrow valley — an ideal site for a dam. So a multi-purpose scheme was
drawn up for irrigation, generation of power and flood control with the
first as the principal objective. The construction of the canal system was
started in 1948, while the Dam was taken up in 1951. Tilpara_ barrage
and the bend works were completed by June, 1951. The Massanjor Dam
is 112 ft. high above the bed level of the river._
The second principal river valley project is Damodar Valley Project
undertaken jointly by West Bengal and Bihar with the help of the Central
Government. This is a multi-purpose project which comprises eight storage
chains with hydro-electric stations, two auxiliao' plants with an installed
capacity of 240,000 k.w. and additional thermal power station at Bokharo
with an installed capacity of 200,000 k.w. The project will ultimately
control the flooding of the Damodar which is notorious _ for its vagaries
and destructiveness. Other important benefits will be irrigation, ample
electric power and chief water transport.
Cottage Industries — ^West Bengal’s cottage industry is also consider-
able, the most important of which is cotton handloom industry. This
industry provides employment to the highest number of people in West
Bengal" Ne.\-t in importance is silk industry. Other notable industries of
West Bengal are — leather industries, brass and bellmetal industry, ferrous
industries, agricultural implements and cutlery, ceramic industries, oil and
soap industries, woodworking, fibre industry, fire making, etc._ The value
of all the cottage industry products including those of textile industries is
about Rs. 45 crores roughly.
Coinmimications—XIcst Bengal has 2,462 miles of metalled and 2,652
miles of unmctalled roads. There are routes of National Highways falling
within West Bengal : Calcutta-Dclhi national Highway. Calcutta-Bombay-
Madras National Highway, Bihar-Assam National Highway, Calcutta-
Siliguri National Highway. Siliguri-Gangtok National Highway and
Calcutta-Bongaon National Highway. In addition to this, Calcutta’s airport.
730
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Dum Dum is the largest in India. On an average, take-offs and touch-downs
total 85 a day with passengers over 700.
Population — Regarding the population, Hindus form 78.44, Muslims 19.85
per cent of the total population. Unlike Bombay or Madras, only one language
dominates in the State. The number of persons speaking Bengali as their
mother tongue is 84.62 p.c. of the total population. The number of per-
sons speaking Bengali as a subsidiary language is 3.4 p.c. of the total popu-
lation. The literacy according to 1951 census of West Bengal is 24.55
per cent — 34,7 p.c. of the total male population and 12.7 P-c. of the total
female population. Percentage of literal of Calcutta is 53.12. In 1951,
there are 114 towns. There are seven cities in West Bengal each with _a
population of ovr 100,000 persons. They are Calcutta. Howrah. Tollyganj,
Bhatpara, Kharagpur, Garden Reach, South Suburbs _ (Behala).
Districts of West Bengal. — There are two Divisions in the State.
Burdwan and Presidency Division divided into following districts — The
districts of the Burdwan Division with headquarters in brackets — Bankura
(Bankura), Birbhum (Suri), Burdw'an (Burdwan), Hooghly (Chinsura),
Howrah (Howrah), Midnapore (Alidnapur), Purulia (Purulia). The
districts of the Presidency Division with headquarters in brackets — Calcutta,
Coach-Bihar ( Cooch-Bihar) , Darjeeling (Darjeeling), West Dinajpur
(Balurghat), Jalpaiguri (Jalpaiguri), Malda (English Bazar), Murshi-
dabad (Berhampore), Nama (Krishnagore) , 24 Parganas (Alipore). .
population of Districts
Area (sg. m.)
Population
Area
(sg. «i.)
Population
Burdwan
2.705
2,191,667
Calcutta
3,513
33,448,39
Birbhum
1,743
1,066,889
Nadia
1,509
1.444,924
Bankura
2,647
1,319,259
Murshidabad
2,072
1,715,759
Midnapore
5,253
3,359,022
W. Dinajpur
1,385
720,573
Howrah
560
1,611,373
Malda
1,392
937,580
Hooghlv (including
Jalpaiguri
2,374
914,538
Chandernagore)
1,212
1.604,220
Darjeeling
1,200
445,260
24-Parganas
5,640
4,609,309
Cooch Bihar
1,322
671,158
BIHAR
Capital
. . Patna
Big Cities
Population
.. 38,779.562
Pama
283,479
Area (Sq. m.)
. . 67,164
Jamshedpur
218.162
Language
. . Hindi
Gaya
133,709
Density of Pop.
.. 572
per sq. m.
Bhagalpur
114,530
Literacy
. . 12.3
p.c.
Ranchi
106.849
Darbhanga
84,816
Muzaffarpur
73,594
Physical Features
& Geography — Bihar lies
between
20.30 and
27.30’ North latitude and between 82.31' .and 88.26" East longitude and is
bounded on the north by the territory of Nepal and the Darjeeling district
of West Bengal, on the east by West Bengal and the Bay of Bengal, on the
south by the State of Orissa and on the west by Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh.
STATES IN INDIA
731
Bihar is clearly divided into three natural parts, viz., (i-) North Bihar,
i.e., the portion north of the Ganga, (ii) South Bihar, i.e., the portion south
of the Ganga, and (iii) the Choia Nagpur plateau which abounds in hills,
mountains and forests, and is inhabited largely by the Adibasis.
Area & Population The transfer of 3,165 sq. miles of Bihar territory
to West Bengal in 1956 with a population of 1,449,087, reduces the area of
the State from 70,330 sq. miles with a population of 40,225,947 to 67,163
sq. miles and population of 38,776,860,
Literacy : — The population of literate persons in Bihar is 4,921,634
(1951 census) — 41,72,890 males and 7,48,744 females. Thus the percentage
of literacy in the States as whole is 12.23.
Agriculture : — Bihar is essentially an agricultural State. Over 82 per
per cent of its population depend wholly on agriculture; only about 7.8 per
cent are engaged in mining and industry.
Bihar is one of the richest and most fertile agricultureal tracts in the
whole of India, and produces almost every crop cultivated in the plains of
India. The chief crops of this area are paddy, sugarcane, maize, wheat,
barley, rahar, jute, tobacco, chilly, potato, oilseeds, pea, khesari, etc. Form-
erly, there was an extensive indigo plantation also till synthetic indigo mono-
polised the market. Now indigo has been completely replaced by sugarcane
and rabi crops.
South Bihar is not so fertile as North Bihar. The chief crops of this
area are paddy, maize, jowar, rahar, sugarcane, tobacco, wheat, chilly, barley,
peas, mustard, potatoes and other rabi crops.
Forests ; — Forests in Bihar are confined mostly to the five districts of
Chota Nagpur Division and to the district of the Santal Parganas._ Appre-
ciable areas of forests exist in Monghyr and South Bhagalpur districts also.
In the southern hilly tracts of Gaya, adjoining Chota Nagpur, there exists
a belt of forests. The Rohtas hills of Shahabad also contain remnants of
forests. In North Bihar, Champaran is the only tract with forest area.
Minerals: — Bihar’s position in regard to coal, mica, iron ore, bauxite,
copper-ore, china clay, kyanite and pyrite fs very strong. The most important
coalfields in Bihar are Jharia, Bokaro and Karanpura in Manbhum and
Hazaribagh districts. Iron ore deposits occur in South Singhbhum and
extend into Orissa. The ore is of the highest quality. Bihar is the greatest
mica producer not only in India but also in the world. It occurs in Gaya,
Hazaribagh, Monghyr and Bhagalpur districts. Hazaribagh district pro-
duces the best type of ruby mica. Copper deposits are at present found in
Singbhum district. It is being worked at Mosaboni and Maubhandar near
Ghatsiia. Bauxite occurs on the plateau of Ranchi and Palamau. Lime-
stone occurs in Sahabad, Palamau, Hazaribagh and Singhbhum districts.
China clay occurs mainly in Singhbhum, Bhagalpur, Santhal Pargannas.
Bihar is tiie largest producer of Clrina clay in India. Kyanite occurs in
Bihar in Singhbhum and Manbhum along the copper belt. Bihar is the
principal producer of Kyanite in India. Chromite is worked^ in Singhbhum.
Bihar raises about 24 per cent of the value of India’s production of chromite.
The deposits of pyrites in Sahabad district of Bihar arc probably tlie largest
and best so far Imown in India.
Aboriginal Tribes of Bihar — The most important of the tribes inhabi-
taiing the State of Bihar are the Birhors, Hos, Kliarias. Mundas, Oraons,
Paharias and Santhals. The tribes can be particularly placed in two divi-
732
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK'
stons according to the language they speak. Mundari, Santhali, Bihari,
Kharia and Ho belong to the Munda group of languages which is regarded
as a branch of the Austro-Asiatic family of speech. Oraon and Malto, the
languages of Oraons and Sauria-Paharia respectively on the other hand
belong to the Dravidian language family.
Communication — Besides the Ganga and other rivers which are a good
system of communication in the interior, the Stale has a considerable mile-
age of railway and an extensive network of surfaced and unsurfaced roads,
besides 1,154 miles of national highways.
Industries — The most important of the major industries situated in
Bihar are the Tata Iron and Steel Works at Jamshedpur and its satellite
industries. In fact Jamshedpur has grown into a base of hearfy metal indus-
tries, and may well be called the Shelield of India. Bihar produces more
than 78 per cent of the total pig iron, and 87 per cent of the total steel pro-
duced in India. The iron deposits of Noamundi, Gua and Buda Bene in
Singhbhum supply about 54 per cent of the total consumption of the Tata
Iron and Steel Company and the Indian Iron and Steel Company,
The Tinplate Company of India, situated at Jamshedpur is the onb’
factory in Bihar manufacturing tinplates. It is fed by TISCO with iron
bars, and tin_ is imported from Malaya.
The Indian Steel and Wire Products Ltd., at Jamshedpur are engaged
in manufacturing galvanised vuires and tvire nails, etc. on a large scale.
Electric wires and cables are manufactured^ on modern lines by the
Indian Cable Company at Jamshedpur. Big foundries are situated at
Marhowrah (Saran), Muzaffarpur and Tatanagar. The Saran Engineer-
ing Co., Ltd., of Marchowrah and Messrs. Arthur Butler Co. of Muzaffar-
pur are big engineering firms which are engaged in heavy iron casting and
repairing of sugar and paper mill machineries.
Sindri Fertiliser Factory — The 23-crore giant Fertilizer Factory' at
Sindri, designed to produce annually 3,50,000 tons of ammonium sulphate,
is the first major industrial enterprise of the Union Government and is per-
haps the biggest fertilizer factory in the East. Recently it has taken an
important step fonvard with the opening of its now coke-oven plant.
Cement — Out of the thirt 3 ' cement factories in India, five are located
in Bihar. Hume pipes and other cement concrete products are manufac-
tured by the Indian Hume Pipe Co., Ltd., at Jamshedpur and Patna.
Lead — The Metal Corporation of India at Toondu (Katras) in the
district of Manbhum are engaged in the manufacture of lead.
Aluminium — ^The Indian Aluminium Company at Muri (Ranchi) are
engaged in manufacturing aluminium powder from bau.vite, mined near
Lohardaga in Ranchi district.
Shellac — Bihar produces 53 per cent, of the total production of stick-
lac in India but some portion has gone to Bengal after adjustment of ter-
ritories.
Paper, Paper Board and Straw Board — Tissue papers and paper boards
are manufactured at Dalmianagar (in Shahabad) by Rohtas Industries. Ltd.
Jute_ Tcriilcs — ^There are three well-equipped jute factoris in Bihar, trvo
of which are_ situated at Katihar, and the third at Muktapur, near Samasli-
pur, in the district^ of_ Darbhanga.
•11 Artificial Silk — Bhagalpur is famous for silk products, .Art-
silk factories, about 12 in number, are also working at Bhagalpur.
STATES IN INDIA
733
Tobacco Products— The annual production of tobacco in Bihar is esti-
mated at over 50,000 tons. A number of tobacco curing factories have,
therefore, been working in tobacco producing regions of the Slate, namely,
in the districts of Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga and Monghyr. At Monghyr is
situated a big and the only cigarette manufacturing factory in the State.
Sugar Industry — The sugar industry occupies an important place in the
rural economy of the State. About 4 lakh cane-growers and about 10
thousand morkers find employment in this industry. After Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar is the most important white sugar area in India.
Divisions and Districts — ^There are four Dizdsions in the State — Patna
Division, comprising the districts of Patna, Gaya and Shahabad, rvith head-
quarters at Patna ; the Bhagalpur Division, comprising the districts of
Bhagalpur, Saharsa, Monghyr, Pumea and the Santhal Parganas with head-
quarters at Patna ; the Bhagalpur Division, comprising the districts of
Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Saran and Champaran with headquarters at
Muzaffarpur; and the Chota Nagpur Division, comprising the districts of
Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Palamau, Singhbhum and Manbhum and Dhanbad,
with headquarters at Ranchi. These are thus 18 districts ; the number of
sub-divisions is 56.
BOMBAY
Capital
. . Bombay
Sholapur
.. 266,050
Population
.. 48,265.221
Surat
.. 223,182
Area (sq. m.l
.. 190,919
Baroda
.. 211,407
Literary
. . 24.6 p.c.
Kolhapur
. . 136,838
Density of Pop.
323 per sq. m.
Hubli
. . 129,609
Languages ;
Gujarati, Marathi.
Nagpur
.. 449,099
Big Cities ;
Jabalpur
.. 256.998
Bombay
.. 2,839,270
Bhavnagar
. . 137,951
Ahmedabad
. . 788,333
Rajkot
. . 132.069
Poona
.. 480,982
Jamnagar
. . 104,419
The new Bombay Stale has been formed by merging
States of Kutch
and Saurashtra and the Marathi-speaking areas of Hyderabad (commonly
known as Marathwada) and Madhya Pradesh (also called Vidarbha) in
the old State of Bombay after transfer from that State of the Kannada-
speaking areas of the Belgaum, Bijapur, Kanara and Dharrvar districts
which have been added to the State of Mysore and the Abu Road taluka of
Banaskantha district which has gone to Rajasthan.
The new State of Bombay is bilingual and brings together about 26
million Marathi-speaking and about 16 million Gujarati-speaking people.
Apart from this, there is linguistic minority totalling about 7i million which
is roughly 15 per cent, of the population, speaking various national languages
of our country. More than a million people have Hindi as their mother
tongue.
With Bombay as a starting point, the scenery of the new Stale ranges
from the lovely palm-fringed beaches and the craggy creeks of Saurashtra
to the majestic grandeur of the Western Ghats and ffie steep-sided edges of
the Deccan plateau. In the hinterland of Bombay, the black soil is ideal
for cotton growing. The landscape of Saurashtra ranges from the Gimar
Hills to the thick forest and desert scrubland. Kutch is a small peninsula
in the Arabian Sea. It is mainly an agricultural land. Cattle breeding
is the natural occupation of the people. On the South and West are the
734
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Gulf of Kutch and Arabian Sea. On the East is the little Rann (desert)
and beyond it are the areas of Saurashtra and North Gujarat. On the North
is the great Rann bordering the Pakistan territory. The Rann of Kutch
is a geographical phenomenon. It is a sheet of water during rains, and yet
dry enough to allow one to walk across in the other ocean. The entire
coast line bordering new Bombay State is studded with numerous ports —
major, intermediate and minor. Apart from Bombay the premier port of
the county and Okha at the northern tip of Saurashtra, the new State tvBl
have the recently-built port of Kandla in Kutch, the second major port in
the West Coast.
A wide diversity exists in the soil and climate of the State from the
north to the south, average rainfall in the north being above 30 inches, with
''about 30 'inches in the south above 100 inches in the middle. Agriculture,
the occupation of the majority of the people, naturally varies. On the whole,
Bombay has the largest area of the Union under jowar and bajra, second
in cotton and tobacco, third in groundnut and produces considerable quan-
tities of rice, wheat and ragi and small quantities of maize, barley, gram,
sugarcane, and oilseeds. The forest tracts of the State which constitute
about 16 p.c. of the area move along with the Western Ghats, Satpura Hills,
and the 'Vindhya ranges. While bauxite, manganese and_ glass-sand are the
only minerals that are being worked in sufficient quantities, other resources
' are also known to exist and await prospecting.
STATES IN INDIA
735
Industry and commerce flourish greatly in this maritime State, the
number of registered factories here being the largest in the Union. In the
hinterland of Bombay, the black soil is ideal for cotton-growing. Already
Bombay State is the centre of cotton textile industry and with the
integration of the Vidarbha and Marathwada areas, it will be the foremost
centre of this industry in the country. The Bomba/s premier position in
the cotton textile industry will now be reinforced by the rich cotton-growing
areas of Vidarbha and the entry of textile mills of Saurashtra and Nag-
pur. As many of 173 out of the country’s total of 291 textile mills will be
now within the territory of the new State. Regarding other industries,
Bombay leads the rest of the country in Vanaspati ; the cement manufacture
of the State has been greatly increased with the addition of Saurashtra’s
cement factories. In power alcohol, the output of Bombay State will come
a close second to West Bengal.
Ports — The entire coastline of Bombay is studded with numerous ports
— major, intermediate and minor. Apart from Bombay port and Okha at
the northern tip of Saurashtra, the new State will have the recently built
port of Kandla in Kutch, the second major port on the west coast.
Universities of Bombay — University of Bombay, University of Poona,
Karnatak University (Dharwar), Gujrat University (Ahmedabad),
N.D.T. Women’s University (Bombay), Baroda University.
Major Collage Industries — Textile (cotton). Textile (wool), gold and
silver thread, fibre, tanning and leather working, carpentary, wood-working,
etc., bamboo and cane-work, potteo', bricks, tiles etc., gur, vegetable oils,
crafts.
Districts — After reorganisation, Bombay has 43 districts divided into
six administrative divisions with headquarters at Nagpur, Rajkot, Auranga-
bad, Ahmedabad, _ Bombay and Poona,
The 43 districts comprising the new Bombay State are ;
(а) the territories of the old (prior to reorganisation) State of Bombay
excluding Bijapur, Dharwar and Kanara disticts and Belgaum district except
Chandgad taluka and Abu Road taluka of Banaskahtha district ;
(б) the area popularly known as Marathawada of Hyderabad State
— ^Aurangabad, Parbhani, Bhir and Osmanabad districts, Ahmadpur, Nilanga
and Udgir taluks of Bidar district. Nandcd district (except Bichkonda and
Kukk-al circles of Deglur taluka and Mudhol, Bhiansa and Kuber circles of
Mudhol taluka) and Islapur circle of Boath taluka, Kinwat taluka and
Rajura taluka of Adilabad district of the Hi'dcrabad State;
(c) Buldhana, Akola, Amaraoti, Yeotmal, Wardha, Nagpur, Bhandara
and Chanda districts known popularly' as Vidarbha of Madhya Pradesh;
(d) Saurashtra; and
(c) Kutch.
MADHYA
PRADESH
Capital
Bhopal
Area (sq. m.)
.. 171,201
Population
26.071,637
Language
.. Hindi
Litcrao’
13.5 p.c.
Cities :
Density of
Bhopal
. . 102,333
population (per
Gwalior
.. 241,577
sq. m.)
. 152
Uj jain
. . 129.817
Indore
.. 310,859
736
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Madhya Pradesh is true to its name and lies in the centre of India. In
fact the geographical centre of India has been located at Sihora near Jabal-
pur. Girdled by six States, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra, Bombay
and Rajasthan, it lays claim to be the heart of India. The State is the second
biggest in India, after Bombay, with an area of 171,201 sq. miles. It is
composed of what formerly were Madhya Bharat, Vihdhj'a Pradesh. Bhopal,
17 Hindi districts of former Madhya Pradesh and the Sironj sub-division
of Kotah district of Rajasthan excluding the Sunel enclave of the Mansador
district in the former Madhya Bharat
For administrative purposes, the State has been divided into seven divi-
sions. each under a Commissioner.
Population of Madhj'a Pradesh which gives a density of 152 per sq.
mile live mostly in tillages (87 per cent). Over thirty lakhs acres are forests
which are nearly 30 per cent of total forests of India.
The econom 3 - of the new State is predominently agricultural and 78 per
cent of its population is dependent on it for its livelihood. The State is self-
^fSdent in food. The State possesses soils of almost every class from rich
black cotton soil to the dry red earth. Nearly third of its area is
STATES IN INDIA
737
br 9 ught under the plough, with major crops like rice, wheat, jawar, maize,
bajra, pulses, oilseeds and cotton. The chief food crops are wheat in Malwa,
Narmada Valley, Satna, Chhatrapur and Bhopal ; rice in Chhatisgarh,
Shahdol, Rewa, Jabua, Dhar and Indore and Jawar in Bhopal, Sagar,
Honsangabad, Nimar, Khgone, Ujjain, Shajapur, Mandsor and Guna and
pulses all over the State. Cash crops include cotton in Malwa and Nimar
and sugarcane and oilseeds all over the State.
Nearly 30 per cent of the State’s area is covered by forests. This is
the largest forest area in India and in proportion to the total area of the
State, the second largest next only to Assam. The forests are chiefly saj,
dhaora, tenu, mahua, bamboo, teak, sal, paisa, babul, salai, anjan and
harra. The largest products of the best quality teak in India come from
these forests.
Mineral wealth of the State is varied as well as extensive and the State
contains extensive belts of mineral deposits. Key minerals like coal, iron,
bauxite, manganese ore, limestone, clay, steatite, marble, red and yellow
ochres, graphite, _ mica, copper etc. which are at present being exploited
from about 290 mines spread over the State. Madhya Pradesh also possesses
some of the best known manganese ore deposits. The reserves of iron
ore are estimated at 1,530 million tons. The diamond mines of the Vindya
Pradesh produce 90 per cent of India’s diamonds. The diamond mines at
Panna are shortly to be mechanised on the advice of the Russian experts.
Coal is available in Surguja, Raigarh, Bilaspur, Chhindwara and Shahdol
districts. Manganese is found mainly in Balaghat and Chhindwara districts.
Reserves of iron ore deposits are mainly confined to Drug district and the
Bailadilla and Rowghat regions of the Bastar district.
The one million ton steel plant established with the help of the Russian
Government is coming up at Bhilai as per schedule. The estimated cost is
Rs. 110 crores.
The State can boast of having the first newsprint mill in India. Cost-
ing over Rs. 6 crores and estimated to produce hundred tons a day, Nepa
Mills expect to meet third of the country’s .newsprint requiremnts. Big-
gest cement factory in the country is located at Kegmone in this State which
has also in all 18 textile mills.
Parts of Madhya Pradesh are well-known for traditional village and
home crafts, such as chanderi sari, leather toys, cloth, paper and clay toys,
pottery, grass mats, etc. Handloom industry, of course, takes the pride of
places with about 68,000 of them working all over the Slate.
Perhaps few other States in India will compare with Madhya Pradesh
in the diversity of the ethnical constitution. This is reflected in the variety of
dialects spoken all over the State. As many as 377 names of languages
and dialects were returned as mother tongue at the_ 1951 census. Roughly
speaking, its population can be split up into two divisions — first being the
settlers from outside, the other being the indigenous Adibasis. The former
comprise a mixture of all social trends from the earliest inhabitants to the^
last of the immigrant waves. And the latter, 12 per cent of the popula-
tion comprise the Mundas, Baiga, Gond, Maria, Mandia, Bhathra and other
Dravidian tribes, split again into numerous local groups inhabiting the
farthest jungle recesses.
Hindi is the chief language commonly understood and spoken throughout
the State. There are, however, local and regional dialects mainly among
47
738
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
which are Malwi in Malwa, Nimari in Nimar, Bimdelkhandi in the Nar-
mada valley, Baghel-Khandi in the former Rewa State and Chhatisgarhi in
Chhatisgarh. The aboriginals have their dialects too including Halbi,
Gondi, etc.
Cultural heritage of Madhya Pradesh is outstanding. The great
stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut, the remains of Tripuri, the glories of Kha-
juraho, the Gwalior Fort, the temples of Naresar, the Udaigiri caves, the
Bagh paintings, the exquisite Udayeshwar temple, the pillar at Mandasor, the
observatory of Ujjain, the Sripur excavations, etc., are the landmarks of the
golden age of Indian history.
Administrative Set Up — For administrative purposes, the State has been
split up into seven divisions with a Commissioner at the head of each, the
headquarters being located at Bhopal, Bilaspur, Gwalior, Indore, Jabalpur,
Raipur and Rewa, with the following districts under their charge:
Bhopal — Sehore, Raison, Bhilsa, Sironj plus Hoshangabad, Betul, Raj-
garh and Shajapur.
Bilaspur — Raigarh, Bilaspur, Surguja and Mandla.
Gwalior — Gird, Bhind, Morena, Shivpuri, Guna and Batia.
Indore — Indore, Ratlam, Ujjain, Mandasaur, Dewas, Dhar, Jhabra,
Neemar and Nimar.
Jabalpur — ^Jabalpur, Balaghat, Chhindwara, Sagar, Damoh and Narsimha-
pur.
Raipur — Raipur, Drug and Bastar.
Rewa — Rewa, Sidlii, Satna, Panna, Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh and Shah-
dol.
MADRAS
Capital
. . Madras
Salem
. . 202.335
Population
.. 29,974.936
Coimbatore
. . 197,755
Area (sq. m.)
50,110
Mangalore
.. 117,083
Languages
. . Tamil
Vellore
. . 106,024
Tanjore
. . 100,680
Literacy
. . 19.3
Tuticorin
. . 98,866
Density of Pop.
446 per sq. m.
Kumbakonam
. . 91,643
Tirunelvelli
. . 73,476
Big Cities:
Bellary
. . 70,322
bladras
. . 1,416,059
Palghat
. . 69,504
Ivfadurai
361,781
Cuddalore
. . 69.084
Tiruchirapalli
218,921
Erode
. . 57,576
Tiruppur
. . 52,479
The new State of Madras as formed under the Reorganisation of States
Act of 1956, is bound by the new Mysore and Andhra States in the North,
the Bay of Bengal on the East, and the ranges of Western Ghats on the
West. With the coming of five taluks from the Travancore-Cochin State
to Madras, the famed Lands’ End of India, Cape Comorin has come to this
State. It is southernmost State of the Republic : This reorganisation
has resulted in a reduction of the area and population of the prede-
cessor State 65 - one-sixth. Madras now ranks in area as the eleventh
among the 14 States of the Union, though on the basis of population it
takes fifth place. With the transfer of South Kanara and Malabar
STATES IN INDIA
739
districts to Mysore and Kerala respectively, the State has become a compact
linguistic unit.
Poverty of water becomes pronounced after the reorganisation of the
Slate. The State lias only one big river, the Cauvery and its waters are
already utilised to the last drop. Other smaller rivers have all been
harnessed. . , . . , , , , .
Forests — The forests mainly consists of timber and sandal bearing
tracts. Forests in Madras State show an amazing variation both in their
composition and value with a rainfall varying from 30" to 300" per annum.
Wiiilc the West Coast forests provide such well-known timber species as teak
and rosewood, the comparatively do' forests in the eastern districts contain
valuable sandal wood in which India holds almost a world monopoly. The
timber forests are mostly confined to the high rainfall regions of the Western
Ghats in South Kanara, Coimbatore, kfadurai and Tcrunclvelli
with more than forty marketable species. Next to teak, sandal is the most
740
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
important forest produce of Madras. India holds world’s monopoly in
sandal wood and nearly SO p.c. of the supplies come from Madras State.
The principal commercial crops of the State are groundnut, cotton,
sugarcane, gingely, cocoanut, tapioca and castor arranged in a descending
order of importance with reference to area. The staple foodcrops of "the
Slate are pady, millets, pulses, onions, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tapioca
and plantains.
Madras has some basic minerals such as iron ores, bauxite ahd gypsum.
The integrated Neiveli Project which aims to utilise hidden lignite wealth
of South Arcol is full of bright promise.
The most important industries of the State are textiles, engineering,
sugar, lobacco, matches, oil milling, bricks and tiles, cement, lime, potteries,
tanning, grinning ahd pressing. South India is noted for tanning industri'.
The State ejgports to the foreign markets hides and skins valued at more
than 11 crores of rupees per annum. Other industries, both perennial and
seasonal include hosiery, silk mills, woollen mills, foundries, iron and steel
mills, tea and coffee, breweries, rice mills, bones and manures, chemicals,
oil mills, paints, soaps, paper mills, printing, bricks and tiles, glass, saw mills,
rope works.
Power Projects — (i) Muchukund Hydro-electric Schemes, (iil Pykara
Electric Scheme, (lii) Moyar Hydro-electric Scheme, (iv) Madras Thermal
Scheme, (.v) Papanasam Electric System, (,vi) Mettur Hydro-electric
Scheme.
Principal Irrigation Projects — Lower Bhavani (Coimbatore and Tiro-
chirapalli districts), Mettur (Salem and Coimbatore districts), Araniar
(Chingleput district), Amaravati (Coimbatore district), Sathnur (North
and Soufli Arcot).
Districts — Madras (Madras), Chingleput (Saidapet)), South Arcot
(Cuddalore), Tanjore (Tanjore), Madurai (Madurai), Ramanathapuram
(Ramnathapuram), Tirunelveli (Tirunelveli) , North Arcot (Vellore),
Salem (Salem), Tiruchirapalli (Tiruchirapalli), Coimbatore (Coimba-
tore), Nilgiris (Ootacamund).
Main Industries — (1) Textiles, (2) Sericulture, (3) Sugar, (4) Oil
milling, (5) Vanaspati, (6) Soap. (7) Tiles, (8) Matches, (9) Cement,
(10) Chemicals and Fertilisers, (11) Glass, (12) Film Industry;
Main Cottage Industries — (l) Handloom Wearing, (2) Brass wares.
(3) Palmyra jaggery products, (4) Coir goods, (5) Pottery, (6) Mats,
(7) Umbrella (8) Khadi (9) Stone utensils (10) matches (11) Alu-
minium wares, (12) Lace works, (13) Glass bangles, (14) Wood-carvdng,
(15) Slates, (16) Ivory works, (17) Leather goods and leather tanning.
Minerals — ^The existence of about 2,000 million tons of lignite (brown
coal) in North Arcot district has been found out. Magnesite, bauxite and
iron ores occur in Salem district.
Cultural Heritage — Culture and civilization, language and literature, art,
sculpture and music developed in this area as nowhere else in the country.
The holy Gopurams and the important sculptures on rock in Madurai, Tan-
jore. Mahabalipuram and Kanchcepuram, the exquisite craftsmanship of
Tanjore and the delicate movements of Bharatanatyam artistes are the cul-
tural heritage of the State. Mahabalipuram, otherwise known as “Seven
Pagodas" lies at a distance of nearly 35 miles south of Madras and is
remarkable for monolithic temples and rock-cut caves which arc over 2,000
STATES IN INDIA
741
y^rs _old_ ; Tirukkalukkundram, which literally means the sacred hill of the
kites IS situated about 45 miles from Madras. Accordihg to a legend, two
y I ^ were originally two sages come every day to this temple to
take their food here: of all the holy places in the Madras State, ^mes-
waratn is prominent. Next in importance, Madurai which contains the
temple of Minakshi ; Snrangam is nearly 200 miles south of Madras, is
renowned for the temple of Ranganadha; Tanjore contains the famous temple
of Bnhadeswara.
ORISSA
^Pitel ,. Bhubaneswar Density of Pop. .. 244 per so.
Population .. 14,645,946 City;
Area (sq. m.) .. 60,136 Cuttack .. 102,505
Language . . Oriya Berhampre . . 62,343
Litteracy . . 15.& p.c. Puri . , 49,057
The State of Orissa, with a population of 1,46,45,346 is bounded on
me south-west and north-east by Andhra and West Bengal, respectively.
Bihar and Madhya Pradesh lie on the north-west and west, and the blue
waters of the Bay of Bengal wash its south-eastern shores. The whole area
of the State, measuring 60,136 squale miles, lies in the tropical zone and
IS divided into four distinct tracts, namely, the northern plateau, the eastern
ghats, the central tract and the coastal plains. There are 23,000 square miles
of forest and 300 miles of sea-board. The highest hill in Orissa is 5,4^ ft
The great Mahanadi, the Brahmani and the Baitarani are its principal
rivers. They run almost parallel from north-west to south-west There are
also some smaller rivers.
742
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The cold weather lasts from November to February. The hot weather
begins in March and terminates with the setting in of the rains in June,
which continue till the month of .October. The average rainfall in nor-
thern districts is about 60 inches, while in the southern districts it is about
50 inches. Last year some places recorded over 100 inches of rainfall.
An analysis of the population of Orissa is interesting. Out of the total
population of 1,46,45,946, the number of males is 72,42,892 and that_ of
females 74,03,054. The density of population per sq. mile is 244 as against
Indian average of 312.
Orissa is predominantly a rural Stale. It contmns only one city and
38 towns, whereas the number of villages is 50.984. Thus the percentage
of the urban population is as low as 4.06.
Awaiting the harnessing of the Mahanadi, she is as yet backward^ in
industry, producing in the main only paper, and sugar in small quantities.
Handloom industry is by far the most universal industry in Orissa. The
brass and belt-metal industry has also reached higher order. Filigree and
horn industries are the two of the principal cottage industries of Orissa.
Ornaments of rnrious kinds are made and they possess a high degree of
workmanship and finish. Some 30 varieties of articles are made from toe
horns. Mainly rural, her communications are proverbially backward, with
12,742 miles of roads and 783 miles of railways.
Forest — Forests occupy about 24,000 sq. miles, i.e., about 40 p.c. of
the State’s land surface. The timber species of toe State are as follows —
sal, piasal, saghan, rosewood, gambar, bandhan and haldu. _ Of the minor
produce, toe most important is the kendu leaves which, are in great demand
for the manufacture of bin. The next in importance is the_ bamboo which
has helped to start paper mills. Another important item of minor forest pro-
duce is Rouwolfia surpentina which reduces high blood pressure. The other
minor important forest produce are lac. etc
The two outstanding features of the present day Orissa are the taming at
least partially of the most turbulent of toe State’s river, Mahaiiadt. By the
construction of the Hirakud dam not only is the annual devastation by floods
considerably checked but facilities will be prowded to irrigate over 1,40,000
acres b 3 - the completion of the delta irrigation project in the Second Plan
period. Hirakud will also be the focal point for the industrial development
of the State with the Rourkela Steel Plant alreadj" coming up and an alumi-
nium factors- being erected near the dam site
Minerals — Extensive deposits of iron ore containing over 60 p.c. iron
occur in the State Among these, the deposits in the districts of Sundargarh.
Koenjhar and MajTtrbhanj are toe most important. In addition to these the
recently discovered iron ore deposits in the Cuttack district and Maj-urbhanj
are also important. Orissa contributes 20 p.e of Indian manganese The
important manganese deposits are distributed in Kecnjhar, Sundargarh.
Balangir and Kalahandi districts of Orissa. Deposits of diromite occur in
toe districts of Keonjhar, Dhtnkanal and Cuttack. Talcber has toe largest
coalfields in Orissa. Dolomite limestones occur in large quantities in Gangpur
State.
Indian Stales merged saith Orissa — Patna, .Aligarh, Athmalik, Khand-
para, feirakhol, Ranpur, Bamra, Daspalla, Hindol, Narsingpur, Nayagarh.
Nilgiri, Pallahara, Sonepur, Talchar, Tigiria.
Districts of Orissa — The whole of Orissa is divided into 17 districts.
STATES IN INDIA
743
But some of the districts are tagged together for administrative purpose.
Thus here are only 13 districts— Cuttack and Narisinghpur (Cuttack),
Puri and Nayagarh (Puri), Dhenkanal and Angul (Dhenkkanal), Baudh
and Khndmals (Phulbani), Balasove (Balasorc), Sambalpur (Sambal-
pur), Ganjani (Chatrapur), Koraput (Koraput), Bolangir (Bolangir-
Patna), Kalahandi (Bhawani- Patna), Keonjhar (Keonjhargarh).
PUNJAB
Capital
. . Chandigarh
Cities
Amritsar
. . 648,358
Area
. . 47,497 sq. m.
Patiala
. . 87,869
Pop.
. . 16,134,890
Jullundar
.. 325,747
Literacy
. . 15,2 p. c.
Ludhina
. . 153,797
Arnbala Cantt.
. . 94,043
Bounded on the west by Pakistan, on the north by Kashmir, a block
of Himachal Pradesh and Tibet and on the east by the river Jumna, the
new State stretches far off into the hollow formed by Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh and Delhi on the south-east. Its area according to Survey of
India is 47,497 square miles lying between 27i° and 34° north.
The population of the new State according to the figures of 1951 stands
16,134,890 persons. The reorganised State of Punjab is amongst the densely
inhabited areas of India. Its density of population works 339,7 persons per
square mile as against 338.2 and 345.3 persons in the former States of Punjab
and Pepsu respectively.
In the new State of Punjab 66.5 per cent of the people are engaged in
agriculture as against 64.5 per cent in the former State of Punjab and 72.5
per cent in Pepsu.
As far as literacy is concerned, the percentage in the new State works
out to be 15.2.
Adminislralivi; and Political Set-up — The new State of Punjab, for the
present, has been divided into three divisions — Pepsu, Ambala and jullundur
— 18 districts, 73 tchsils and 27 sub-divisions. There would be in all 194
towns, 21,516 villages in the new Stale,
For the more convenient transaction of the business of Government with
regard to some specific subjects, the new State has been divided into two
regions — namely. Hindi-speaking and Punjabi-speaking. For each of the
regions, there will be a Regional Committee of the State Assembly consist-
ing of the legislators belonging to each region including the Ministers from
that region but not including the Chief Minister. The advice tendered by the
Regional (Committees in respect of specified subjects will normally be accepted
by the Government and the State Legislatures. In case of differences of
opinion, however, reference will be made fay the Governors whose decisions
will be final and binding. The Regional Committees will also be em-
powered to make proposals with regard to "questions of general policy not
involving any financial commitments other than expenditure of a routine and
incidental character.”
Laiifiiianc Policy— The new Punjab is a bilingual State recognising both
Hindi iii Devnagri script and Punjabi in Gurumukhi script as the official
languages of the State. The official language of each region at the district
744
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
level and below will be the respective regional language, namely Hindi and
Punjabi.
Agriculture — The main occupation of the people is no doubt agricul-
ture. 66.5 p.c. of the people are engaged in it. In the matter of food pro-
duction, Ptmjab is the second largest wheat and gram-producing area in the
Union, third in barley and maize, fourth in bajra and sugarcane, while it
produces considerable quantities of jowar, cotton, rice, rape, mustard and
small quantities of tea, tobacco, groundnut and linseed. The production of
cotton in Punjab amounts to one-fifth of the total production of the counto'.
Irrigation — After the partition, the best canal irrigated areas were lost
to the West Punjab, vigorous efforts, therefore, had to be made to extend
more and more irrigation facilities to fill the gap created by the partition.
Besides the multipurpose Bhakra-Nangal and Harike Projects and minor
irrigation programme, a large number of other schemes also came to be
undertaken during First Five Year Plan period, such as remodelling of
Western Jumna Canal, construction of flood irrigation channels, the exten-
sion of irrigation on the Eastern Canal, etc. In Pepsu Dadri Irrigation
Scheme, the Namaul Bimd and Bein River Projects are some of the major
schemes.
Industries — ^Among the important industrial centres, Jullundur has
already become famous for producing sports goods, while Batala and Lud-
hiana are well-known for light engineering works Md Amritsar for textile
goods. Sonepat is well-known for cycle factory which is one of the largest
of its kind in the country. The other large scale industries include one
woollen mill at Dhariwal, one new cotton spinning mill at Hissar, one sugar
factory at Abdullapur, one paper mill at Jamnanagar.
Re^rding small scale industries, the new State has a large number
of medium and small-scale industries which include scientific instruments,
glassware, wooden planks _ and hooks, foundry and engineering, rerolling
mills, cotton ginning, canning and preservation of foods, etc. In the pro-
duction of artificial silks, Punjab ranks next to Bombay. There are work-
ing at present 35 units in the State.
Regarding cottage industries, manufacture of blankets, ‘kheses’. rugs,
cycle parts, utensil making tanning and wood industries, silk spinning and
waving, potteries, shoe-making, sewing machine parts, etc., are amongst the
principal industries of the new State. There are more than 73,500 hand-
loom in the new State.
Electricity — The main sources of electric supply in the State are (1) Uhl
River Hydro-Electric Scheme where four sets of 12,000 kw. each including
one stand-by, are installed. (2) The Ganguwal Power_ House with 3 units
of 24,000 kw each, out of which at present two are working. (3) The Kotla
Power House with three units of 24,000 kw. out of which one is working at
present; and (4) a number of Government and private thermal electric sup-
ply stations at various places. Nine more generating units of 90,000 kw. each
are scheduled to be installed at the site of Bhakra Dam.
Districts (with headquarters in brackets) — Hissar (Hissar), Rohtak
(Rohtak), Gurgaon (Gurgaon), Kamal (Kamal), Ambala (Ambala),
Hoshiarpur (Hoshiarpur) , Amritsar (Amritsar), Jullundur (Jullundur),
Ludhiana (Ludhiana), Ferozepur (Ferozepur), Gurdaspur (Gurdaspur),
^ngra (Kangra), Simla (Simla), Patiala (Patiala), Bhatinda (Bhatinda),
bangrur (Sangrur), Kapurthala (Kapurthala) , Mohindragarh (Naraul).
STATES IN INDIA 745
UTTAR PRADESH
Capital
. . Lucknow
Meerut
.. 233,183
Population
. . 63,215742
Meerut Cantt.
. . 74,776
Area (sq. m.)
. . 113.409
Bareilly
. . 208,083
Literacy
. . 11.8 p.c.
Moradabad
. . 161,854
Density of Pop.
557 per sq. m.
Sabaranpur
. . 148,435
Language
. . Hindi, Urdu,
Dehra Dum
. . 144,216
Hindusthani,
Aligarh
. . 141,619
Pahari
Rampur
. . 134,277
Big Ciiics
Gorakpur
. . 132,436
Kanpur
. . 705.383
Jhansi
. . 127,365
Lucknow
.. 498.861
Mathura
. . 105,773
Agra
. . 375,665
Shahjahanpur
. . 104,835
Uttar Pradesh, another frontier State along the foothills of the
Himalayas, has common borders with Tibet and Nepal in the north, and is
bounded by Bihar in the east, HimVchal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and in
the west and Vindhya
Pradesh and Ma-
dhya Pradesh in the
south. The former
three princely States
of Tehri Garhwal,
Rampur and Banaras
have been merged
and certain areas of
Vindhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan have also
been absorbed.
With a dry and
extreme climate, her
rainfall averages be-
low AO inches. The
deficiency however, is
partly made up by
the Ganges, the
Jamuna and their
canals making the
basic occupation agri-
culture more or less
profitable. Uttar
Pradesh is one of the
best watered States
of India. The cli-
mate on the whole is
cooler and drier than that of West Bengal, though in hot weather, the hMt
is fiercer in the plains. U.P. is only just within monsoon region and rain-
fall consequently is not so heavy as it is in further east. Compared to the
other States in the Union, she thus stands first in her arta under wheat,
maize, barley, gram sugarcane and scasamum, second in bajra, linseed and
746
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
rape and mustard besides producing considerable amounts of rice, jawar
and small quantities of ragi, cotton, groundnut, tea and tobacco. She is
besides the only opium producing area in the Union. Her forest areas as
yet amount to about 13 p.c. of the total and are situated mainly at the
foot of the Himalayas. Her mineral resources too have hot been knonu
to be very considerable ; deposits of copper, slate, glass-sand, sandstone and
steatite being alone located. She has also one of the best communication
systems in the country, so far as it goes, since very ancient times, with
the longest railway mileage of all the units of the Union at present.
So far as industry is concerned, this is indeed one of the few indus-
trially advanced territories with some modem and large scale and many
old cottage industries. She is particularly noted however, for producing
about 60 per cent of the total sugar in India and a large amount of leather
and footwear, cotton and woolen textiles, paper and chemicals among other
things.
The cottage industries in U.P. occupy an important place in the eco-
nomic life of its people. All types and varieties of handicrafts or cottage
industries exist and produce an immense range of articles, both necessities
and luxury. Fabulous brocades and tissue of Banaras, carpets of Mirzapur,
prints of Lucknow and Furrukhabad, ornamental brassware of Moradabad
and Banaras, carved woodware of Saharanpur, durries of Agra and Bareilly,
glass bangles of Firozabad, gold thread embroidered 'zardozi” saris of
Lucknow, Bareilly and Agra, chikon articles and clay figures of Lucknow,
fancy marbleware of Agra, pottery of Khurja, moonj baskets of Naini,
designed furnishing fabrics of Ghazipur and bordered sarees of Mau are
not only known in India, but in foreign countries as well.
Divisiois and Districts — Meerut Division : Debra Dun, Saharanpur,
Muzaffernagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr ; Agra Division : Aligarh, Agra,
Etatvah, Kanpur, Fetehpur, Allahabad ; Rohilkhand Diwsion : Bareilly,
Bijnor, Budaun, Moradabad, Rampur. Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit Jliansi
Dirision : Jhansi, Jaluan (Oral), Hamirpur, Banda ; Banaras Division :
Banaras, Jaunpur, Ghazipur. Ballia Gorakhpur Division : Gorakpur.
Deoria, Basti, Azamgarh ; Kumaun Division : Nainital, Almora, Garliwal,
Tehri-Garhwal (Narendranagar) ; Lucknosv Division: Lucknow, _ Unnao.
Rae Bareli, Sitapur, Hardoi, Kheri (Lakhimpur) ; Faisabad Division :
Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, Sultanpur, Partapgarh. Barabanki.
RAJASTHAN
Capital
. . Jaipur
Big Cities :
Population
. . 15,970,774
Jaipur
291,130
Area (sq. m.f
. . 132,076
Jodhpur
180.717
Literacy
. . 8,4 p.c.
Bikaner
117,113
Density of Pop.
117 per sq. m.
Udaipur
89,621
Language
. . Rajasthani S:
Kotah
65,107
Western Hindi
Alwar
57,868
The Integration of Rajasthan came into following way : The first step
towards integration in Rajasthan was taken on March 17, 1948. with the
fcrmalion of Matsya — a union of the four States of Alwar, Bharatpur.
Dholpur and Karauli. The second step came with the formation of Rajas-
than — a union of the nine States of Banswara, Bundi, Dungarpur, Jhalawar,
STATES IN INDIA
747
Kishengarh, Kotah, Pratapgarh, Shahpura and Tonk on March 25, 1948
— to which the State of Udaipur joined on April 18, 1948, thus transform-
ing the union into the United State of Rajasthan. Next, iivo most import-
ant steps where taken in 1949 — the first on March 30, 1949 when the four
large States of Bikaner, Jaipur, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur joined the United
State of Rajasthan; and on the second of April 25, 1949, when Matsya also
joined and there came into existence the United State of Greater Rajasthan.
This Union of Greater Rajasthan was further enlarged by the accession to
it of the State of Sirohi on January 25, 1950. The State of Rajasthan
thus consisted of 19 old Princely States from January 25, 1950 to October 31,
1956. The final step was taken on November 1, 1956, when tlie State of
Ajmer, the tehsil of Abu and the area of Sunel Tuppa were integrated
with Rajasthan. Rajasthan came into being, with its status raised from
(hat of a Part B State to a full-fledged constituent State of he Indian Union.
Surrounded by Pakistan in the west and north-west, this State has
Punjab, U.P. and Madhya Bharat in her east and north-east, Bombay,
to her south-west. Intersected almost from end to end by the Aravalli hills,
the tract on the north-west of the hills is a sandy and ill-watered area
with an average rainfall of about 13 inches while the tract to its south-west
is comparatively fertile and has an average rainfall of 26 inches. The
discovery of subsoil water in the Luni river in the near-desert zone pro-
mises to change the face of the earth in that region. _ Jowar, bajra, wheat,
maize, barley, gram arc the principal crops ; certain amounts of cotton,
sesamum, groundnut and rice being also grown.
Rajasthan occupies a prominent place on the new political map of-
India. It is the third largest State in the country from the standpoint of
area. The State is sparsely populated, the average density being 121 per
square mile. The percentage of literacj- is as low as 8.5.
748
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BCXJK
The State is rich in mineral resources. Two of Rajasthan’s rich deposits
are high class limestone and gypsum. The limestone is spread all over the
State. Gypsum is one of the biggest gifts of nature to_ Rajasthan.' In
Jamsar and Lunkarsar, gypsum is obtained in large quantities and in purest
form. One of the important ores available in Rajasthan is barytboriimi.
sulphate which is not found anywhere in India. Ebccept in Salun district,
large resources of sodium sulphate and salt occur at Didwana and Sambbar
of Rajasthan’s valuable ores only next to Bihar which together supply
mica to the outside world.
The most important industries are the weaving of muslin, dying and
printing of cotton cloths, mamrEacture of carpets, rugs and other woollen
goods, enamelling, pottery, ir-ory. work, gota lonari (silver and gold laces),
laquer, wooden toys, hand-made paper, papier machie toys, embroidered
shoes. Jaipur is famous for enamelling work.
JAMMU & KASHMIR
Capital . . Srinagar Area (sq. m.) . . 92,780
Population . . 4,410,000 Language . . Kashmiri, and
Urdu
Jammu and Kashmir, the northernmost State of India, bordering on
the U.S.S.R,, Sinkiang and Tibet in the north and north-easi and
Pakistan on the west and south-west, has an area of 92,780 sq. miles.
The altitude in the valley \-aries from 5,000 feet above the sea level.
According to estimate of 1950, the total population was 4.37 millions.
The country _ is almost entirely mountanious, and it may be gwgra-
phically divided into three areas : Tibetan and semi-Tibetan tracts in the
north, containing the districts of Ladak and Gilgit ; the middle
region of the Happy Valley of Kashmir and the large level areas of
Jammu in the south. This moimtainous State covered on its north by
snow for about half the year and with extensive rich forests in Ae valleys
of &e Chenab, the Jhelum and the Indus, has its chief crops in n'ce, wheat,
maize, barley, oil seeds, cotton, tobacco and saffron. The State has a
large amount of fruits for export, prindpaliy walnuts, almonds, pears and
apples. The mineral re-
sourcces of the State
as yet unexplored are
large indeed, including
among them coal, zinc,
copper, lead, bauxite, ful-
ler’s earth, slate, kaolin,
asbestos as well as gold
and supphire. Her silk
filature industry is the
biggest in the world and
equally famed are her
shawls, carpets and
wooden carvings.
Kashmir acceded to
India on October 26,
STATES IN INDIA
749
1941. By the new constitutional set-up the office of the Maharaja
has been eliminated from Kashmir and new Head of the State has been
elected for a term of five years to be recognised by the President of India
on the recommendation of State Legislative Assembly. He holds office
during the pleasure of the President.
The new constitution of Kashmir was passed on Nov. 17 1956, by the
Kashmir Constituent Assembly which declares that" — ^Jammu & Kashmir
is and shall be an integral part of India." Based on the Parliamentary
system of Government, the Constitution promises a Socialistic order of
society and thus brings the State’s policy in line with the aims and objects
of the Indian Constitution as a whole.
Since 1947 Jammu & Kashmir stands practically divided with two-
thirds of territory on the Indian side and one-third in the occupation of
Pakistan.
The land route begins from Pathankot, the railway terminus of
Northern Railway. The distance from Pathankot to Srinagar via Jammu
is 267 miles. The first 64 miles upto Jammu are by a nicely metalled and
tarred plain road and the rest leads through mountainous and pictureque
scenery. The Indian air lines are operating passenger service be-
tween Delhi and Srinagar. The opening of Banihal Tunnel in 1957 was an
important event in the history of Kashmir. The physical barrier separating
the valley from the rest of the country has been overcome and a perma-
nent link between Kashmir and the rest of India forged.
The population of Jammu & Kashmir is mainly Muslim ; 75 p.c. are
Muslims and 25 p.c. are non-Muslims.
Indiislries-— Woollen textile manufacture is the biggest single industry
in the State. The Kashmir woollens such as shawls, carpets, namdas and
gabhas arc world famous. After this comes silk industry. Kashmir fila-
tures arc the largest in the world for single unit production and produce
one of the finest quality silks. Papier mache, silver-wares and wood carv-
ing are also prominent industries of the State. Other minor industries are
forest products such as timber, herbs, furs, and skins and fruits and vege-
tables.
The minerals found in the State are: coal, lignite, bauxite, mangan-
ese, copper, chromite, ochre, gypsum, marble, slate.
Tourist traffic is one of the main sources of income both to the State
and the people. About 50,000 people visit the place annually.
T/ie Districts of Janmn & Kashmir — Jammu, Kathua, Udhampur,
Rcasi, Mirpur, Chenani Jagir, Poonch Jagir, Baramulla, Anantanag,.
Muzaffarabad, Ladakh. Astore, Gilgit (Leased area), Gilgit Agency.
MYSORE
Capital
Population
Area (sq. m.)
Literacy
Language
Density of Pop.
Under
Bangalore Big Cities :
1,94,00,000 Bangalore .. 778,977
74,347 Mysore . . 244,323
20.3 p.c. (74.347) Kolar Gold Fields . . 159,084
Kannada & Davangcre . . 56,018
Tclugu
308 per sq. m.
the State Reorganisation Act passed in 1956. the new
750
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Mysore State consists of the original Mysore State and Coorg, the districts
of Dharwar, Bijapur, Belgaum and North Kanara from Bombay State,
South Kanara district and Kollegal Taluk of Madras State and the district
of !feichur, Gulbarga and Bidar from Hyderabad State.
As a temporary arrangement, four Divisions have been formed —
Bangalore Division with headquarters at Bangalore comprising the districts
of Bangalore, Tumkur, Kolar, Chitaldrug and Bellary; Mysore Division
with headquarters at Mysore, comprising the districts of Mysore, Coorg,
Mandya, Hassan, South Kanara, Chikmagalur and Shimoga : Belgaum
Division, with head quarters at Belgaum, consisting of Belgaum, Dharwar,
Bijapur and North Kanara ; and Gulbarga Division with headquarters at
■Gulbarga consisting of Gulbarga. Raichur and Bidar.
Coorg which now becomes a district of Mysore covers an area of
1,586 sq. miles, mainly on the Western Ghats. It is rich in scenic beauty
STATES IN INDIA
751
and natural resources, Coorg’s evergreen forests spread over an
area of 517 sq. miles. Coorg’s fauna is also magnificient. It is the habitat
for tigers and elephants, deer and rabbits. Wild life can be seen in its
natural habitat specially at the Nagerhol game sanctuary exceeding over
an area of 111 sq. miles. Coorg is essentially an agricultural country.
Almost all its hill slopes grow coffee, cardamom, pepper or orange, while
almost all its valleys and plains produce paddy. Coorg’s coffee accounts
for one third of India’s total production.
Agriculture forms the main occupation of more than three-fourths
of the population.
Physically, the original Mysore divides itself into two regions — the ‘Mai-
dan’ or plain country, comprising roughly the districts of Bangalore, Tum-
kur, Chitaldrug, Kolar, Mandya and Mysore, and the 'Malnad' or hill
country, comprising the districts of Chickmagalur, Hassan and Shimoga.
Rainfall is heavy in the Maland tracts, and dense evergreen forests abound
in big game forming their characteristic feature. The great part of maiJan
country is cultivated.
Language — As many as 65 languages are spoken in the Slate as
mother tongue, Kannada is the principal language and the mother tongue
of 66 p.c. of the population. It is the language of administration and of
instruction and is the principal language in all districts except Kolar where
it is second lo Telugu. Telugu is the mother-tongue of 15.2 per cent of
the population. Hindustani accounts for 7.3 per cent of the population and
is the third most important language in tlie State. Tamil now claims 7.2
per cent. Marathi takes the fifth rank with 1.5 per cent and the remaining
60 languages make a contribution of 2.8 per cent to the State’s population.
Industry — The new State of Mysore after reorganisation has the exclu-
sive privilege of producing all the gold mined in India and all the sandal-wood
oil in the country and about 80 per cent of the silk produced in India. There
large industries are managed by the government, such as Mysore Iron and
Steel Works at Bhadravarti, Soap factory at Bangalore and Procelain
Factory. The huge national undertakings are located in Bangalore, viz.,
Hindustan Aircraft, Hindustan Machine Tools, Bharat Electronics and
Indian ’Telephone Industries. Fisheries in new Mysore State forms one of
the major natural resources in the State.
Forests — In Mysore, North Kanara district is rich in forest wealth.
The slopes of Western Ghats are clothed with evergreen vegetation with
very heavy forests. Good timber-yielding trees and bamboos are found in
abundance. Coorg, the land of honey, coffee and orange is rich in forest
wealth. 'The all-pervading forests yield different varieties of timber-yield-
ing trees. South Kanara is essentially a forest district.
Tourists’ Paradise — From many points of riew, the State is a Tourists’
paradise, with lovely cities, enriched by shrines and_ marvels of sculpture.
■Travel is easy and pleasing. The climate is salubrious. Commum'cations
by road as well as by railway are well maintained throughout State.
Of all sliow places in klysore, the Jog Falls take the pride of place.
The Jog Falls are formed by the river Sharavati falling into a might}'
chasm about half a mile wide and 850 ft. deep. They are four in number.
■The places of interest at Bangalore are Lai Bagh, Indian Institute of Science,
Raman Research Institute, Mental Hospital, innumerable industrial under-
takings orsTied and managed by the National Government. Caureiy Falls
752
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
at Sivasamudram, Temple of Ranganathswami at Srirangapatna. The city
of ilysore with its palace, Chamundi Hills. Krishnarajasagar which is the
second biggest artificial lake in the world, Brindaban gardens is also an
important place of show. The M 3 ’sore State possesses many beautiful
temples, such as, Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoj-saleswara Temple at
Halebid, Nandi Hill containing some picturesque Hindu shrines, Gomates-
wara Statue, the longest standing statue of Asia, Bijapur, the ancient capital
of the famous Adil Shahi kings possesses many buildings of historical,
and archaeological interest. Chief among them is Gol Gurabaz, the mansoleum
of Mahomad Adil Shah. The dome of the Gumbaz is considered largest in
the world, being 2,000 feet larger than the great cupola of the Pantheon.
Bijapur district also contains caves at Badam.
Cottage Industries — main cottage industries are — leather-stitcliing and
ornamental work, brass work, pottery', weaving, carpentary, coir industry,
sandal work and ivory inlay works, mat weaving, flaying, hand-made paper,
rattan industry. The cottage industries of Coorg is bee-keeping.
Irrigation and Power Projects — ^The following are the projects under
execution — Bhadra Reservoir Project, Tunga Anicut Project, Nagu Reservoir
Project, Ambigola Reservoir Project and Sharavatty valley Hydro-electric
Project. Bhadra Reservoir Project is to construct a dam across Bhadra
river near Lakka valley in Chickmalghur district Tunga Anicut Project is to
construct a masonry or a flow anicut 1,200 ft. long across the Tunga river
about seven miles from Shimoga. Nugu Reseyoir Project is to construct
a Dam 1,440 ft. high across Nugu river. Ambigola Project is to construct
a dam 57 ft high across Salur Haifa in Shimoga district Sharavatby
valley Project is a hydro-electric project to construct a dam across
Sharavathy river for the development of 7.2 lakhs kw. at the final .stage.
KERALA
Capital
Trivandrum
Big Cities :
Population
13.549.118
Tri^-andrum
186.931
Area (s. m.)
15.035
Alleppey
116.287
Literacy
53.85 p.c.
Nagarcoil
73,908
Language
ifalayalam
Mattancheri
73,908
Density of
Pop.
974 per sq.m.
Trichur
69,515
Emakulam
62,283
Quilon
66126
In the reorganised map of south India, Kerala State occupies a stra-
tegic position. Nestling amidst the blue waters of the Arabian Sea and
the tall ranges of Western Ghats, it is a thinly long stretch of coastal
territory', from Kasragode in the north to Trivandrum in the South. Il
is bounded on the east by the Western Ghats and on the West by the
Arabian Sea. The distance from south to north is little over 400 mile's and
maximum breadth east to west is about 80 miles. Kerala is the smallest
of the 14 States in the Indian Union. Kerala representing the Jlalay'alam
speaking^ areas of the country consists of the territories of the previous
State_ of Travancore-Cochin except for four taluks of the Trivandrum
district and a part of Shencottah taluk of Quilon district. If takes over
STATES IN INDIA
753
Malabar district (without Laccadive and Minicoy Islands) and the KararagoJ
taluk of South Kanara (except Amindivi Islands) from Madras State.
Area & Population — Kerala has an area of about 15,000 square mills.
It is the smallest among the Indian States, the size being less than 1/12
of the biggest bilingual State of Bombay or 12% of the total area of India
The State has a population of about 136 lakhs i.e. 3.8 p.c. of the total popu-
lation of India, the diversity of population being higher than that of
any other State in India. There are 974 persons per sq. mile of the total
population, 13.1% is urban and 86.9% rural.
Literary and Education — Kerala stands foremost among the Indian
States in literacy and educational advancement. The literacy of tlie State
is worked out at 40.9 p.c. of the total populaUon. Awording to the last
census, the p.c. of literacy in Travancorc-Cochin is 53.76.
48 ’
754
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Food and Commercial Crops — The chief agricultural products of the
State are rice, tapioca, coconut, arecanut, oilseeds, pepper, sugarcane,
rubber, tea, coffee, cardamom etc. The State is famous for its hill produces.
The chief articles of export among agricultural crops which contribute to a
large share of India’s foreign exchange earnings are cashets'-kernels, rubber,
pepper, tea, cardamom and other spices. The long coast line enables the
State to maintain a flurshing fishing industry.
Forest Wealth — The State of Kerala is rich in forest wealth. About
3,052 sq. miles of the Travancore-Cochin area are reserve forests. The
forests of Kerala are noted for their resources of timber including
teak, ebony and blackwood and varieties of soft wood and the facilities
offered for numerous industries.
Mineral Wealth — Next to Bihar, Kerala, possesses the widest
variety of economic mineral products among the Indian States. Some of
the minerals occur in much greater abundance in this region than in Bihar.
The beach sands of Kerala contains the much valued and strategic mineral
monazite besides zircon, sillimanite etc. The extensive white clay deposits
of Kerala contribute to the flurishing industrj’ and abundant resources of
mica, graphite, limestone, quartz sand, lignite and a host of otlier minerals
of commercial importance mark out this region as rich field of commercial
importance .
Industries — The abundance of natural resources, the availability of
cheap electric power and the existence of numerous rivers and watenvays
have contributed to the industrial advancement of Kerala. Most of the
major industrial concerns are either owned or sponsored by Government.
The Government owns seven industrial concerns and have substantial shares
in more than 40 concerns. Other factory industries are rubber, tea, tiles,
oil, textiles ceramics, fertilizers, chemicals, sugar, cement, rayon, glass
matches, monazite, ilmenite, rare earths, shark liver oil etc.
Cottage Industries — Among the cottage industries, coir-spinning and
handloom weaving are the most important ones. Other industries are the
village oil industry, ivory carving, furniture-making, bell-metal, brass and
copper ware, leather goods, mat making, rattan work, bee-making, potterj- etc.
Major Irrigation Works — There are at present eight major irrigation
works costing about 1,447 lakhs and catering to the needs of a total area
of 2.81 lakhs acres of paddy fields. These are (If Malampuza Project (2)
Walayar Reservoir Project (3) Mangalam Reservoir Project (4f Pccchi
Scheme (5) Chalakundy {first stage) Scheme (6f Vazhani Scheme (7)
Kuttanad Schema (8f Ncyyar Scheme,
Tourist Attractions — Charmingly set between the Western Ghats and
the blue waters of the Arabiait sea, bedecked with sylvan splendour of a
monsoon, and, Kerala is a lovely country w'ith its sparkling streams and
shemmaring baclcwaters and the natural beauty of a palm crowned country
sites.
Over 2,000 ancient temples and a large number of churches and mosques
exist side by side. Kerala offers a variety of specimens of ancient art and
architecture. The Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace
contain examples of the major arts and architecture, sculpture, wood-carving
and mural painting. Up in the hills, on the shores of the Periyar Lake
IS the Royal Game Sanctuaiy, where wild life can be seen in its natural
habitant.
STATES IN INDIA
755
Dislricts with headquarters— Trivznirvan (Trivandrum), Quilon (Qui-
lon), Kottayara (Kottayam) Trichar (Trichy), Malabar (Kozhikode).
DELHI
Capital — Delhi.
Population — 1,7'14,072
Area (sq. m.) — 578
Literacy — 38.4 p.c.
Language — Hindi.
Density of Pop. — 3017 per sq. ni.
Btg City ;
Delhi— 914,790
Delhi, the imperial city under many a dynasty in the past centuries,
with its surrounding districts were constituted as a separate administrative
unit for the seat of the Central Government of India in 1912. The seat
of the Government was shifted since then to the new and modem city of
New Delhi nearby. New Delhi is a city, Delhi is a district and Delhi is a
State. This smallest State of the Union has an area of 578 sq. miles with a
population of 1,744,072 in 1951. Placed 700 ft, above sea level and the focal
point of all railways, she has an arid territory and an extreme climate.
An enclave of territory in Punjab bordering on U.P., her average rainfall
is about 26 inches. For her small area, she produces a considerable amount
of gram, wheat, bajra, jowar, barley and some amount of sugarcane, rape
and mustard and tobacco. Besides cottage industries like jewellery, brass
and copperwares, ivory work, pottery, weaving, gold and silver embroidery,
famed of yore. In recent times modern factories have been set up for
the production of cotton textiles, and chemicals among other things.
Under the States Reorganisation Act, the President has constituted
an Advisory Committee for Delhi which is a Union territory.^ The Com-
mittee would be associated with the Minister of Home Affairs who will
be responsible for the administration of the Union Territories. The Com-
mittee consists of all members of the Parliament representing Delhi, the
Cliicf Commissioner of Delhi, the Vice-Chancellor of the Delhi Universitj',
President of the Delhi Municipal Committee and the Senior Vice-President
of the New Delhi Municipal Committee.
PONDICHERRY
Area 196 sq. m. Capital Pondicherry
Pop. 317.163 (1948)
The State composed now of the so-called four “Settlements,’ Pondicherry
Karikal and Mahe surrounded by the South Arcot. Tanjore and Malabar
districts respectively of the iNIadras State and Yanam surrounded by the
East Godavari district of the' Andhra Stale were under French rule till
the 1st November, 1954 when under an agreement between the French and
India Governments, they were merged dc facto with India,
History of the Merger Movement — With the acliievement of Indian
freedom, the popular urge in the French Settlements for freedom from
foreign rule became more pronounced. On Indian Independence Day, the
citizens of French India at a public^ meeting unanimously declared them-
selves in favour of reunion with India.
As carlv as June 1948, India and France agreed on a referendum to
756
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
decide the future of the Settlements. Various municipal communes declared
themselves in favour of reunion but conditions caused by certain ‘goohda’
elements vitiated the possibility of having a fair and impartial referendum.
In April 1951, a team of neutral observers appointed by the French
themselves confirmed this and noted the serious difficulties which prevented
free popular consultation. The relationship between India and France
over the question of th future of the Settlements had been plagued by
‘goondaism’ and anti-merger elements and Prime Minister Nehru declared
in October 1952 that in view of the violence prevailing in the Settlements,
there was an end of the plebiscite business.
Prolonged negotiations between India and France, however, resulted
in no agreeable solution over the question of popular constitution provided
for in the French Constitution with regard to cession of territories. The
freedom movement had by then gained momentum and in March 1954 all
French India councillors and Mayors of communes unanimously demanded
merger of the Settlements with India without a referendum.
Another effort was made by India to reach agreement for peaceful
transfer of the Settlements. India’s mission to Paris to reach a settlement
in June 1954, however, failed over the question of transfer of control over
police during the interim period. Later, fresh negotiations were, however,
started which resulted in the joint declaration by India and France on
October 13, 1954.
In pursuance of that declaration, the Congress of elected members of
Itiunicipal Communes and the Representative Assembly was convened^ at
Kizhoor to get popular verdict in favour of merger with the Indian Union,
which passed a resolution by overwhelming majority for the merger with
India. On November 1, 1954, the dc facto merger of French Settlements
in India with the Indian Union came into force.
The French pockets in India which merged with India in 1954. consist
of Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam. The “Loges” .t.e.l market
places were formally ceded to the Indian Union on October 6, 1947, without
any referendum and Chandernagore voted for India on June 19, 1949 (7,473
votes to 114).
Present Set-up — From January 6, 1955 that former French Settlements
of Pondicherry, Karikal, Yanam and Mahe constitute a single State of the
Indian Union under the name of the Pondicherrj^ The Settlements have
now been constuted into Part C state of the Indian Union with a Chief
Commissioner as its head. He has all the powers of the Government of
India.
HIMACHAL PRADESH
Capital — Simla Area (sq m.) — 1.904
Population — 11,09,466 Literacy — 7.7 p.c.
Density of Pop . — 94 per sq. m.
Himachal Pradesh, comprises former of 21 Hill States and their 9
• tributaries nestling in the foothills of the Himalayas between Kashmir in
the west and Uttar Pradesh in the cast. Ii has an area of 10,904 sq. miles
with a population of 11,09,466. Biggest of the merging ’ States was Mandi.
-It was inagurated on 15th April, 1948. On July 1954 State of Bilaspur has
STATES m INDIA
757
been merged with the Himachal Pradesh under the Himachal Pradesh and
Bilaspur Act o£ 1953. Biiaspur has an area of 450 sq. miles and a popu-
lation of 1,26,099. Heavily wooden and assured of high rainfall, Himachal
Pradesh has two blocks, one to the west of Punjab bounded by the U.P.
on the west and at the foot of the Himalayas and the other to the
north of Punjab and bounded by Jammu and Kashmir. In India 68 per
cent of the population are engaged in agriculture ; in Himachal Pradesh
94 per cent depend directly or indirectly on it. The average holding of a
famjly of five is not more than three acres. Wheat, maize, barley, rice,
ragi, gram and sugarcane and pataio are its principal crops ; tea of small
quantities being also grown. 37 per cent of the land is under forests which
give employment to about 45 p.c. of the population. This State’s forests
contain the largest quantities of coniferous timber in northern India and
they are the main source of revenue in the State. Potato is the chief cash
crop. The State has established itself as a vital source of potatoes, specially
seed potatoes for the plains of India.
The total production of seed potatoes of the State is valued at 12 lakh
maunds which will increase to well over 20 lakhs maunds in the course of
few years. Himachal Pradesh supplies 20 per cent of India’s needs in the
commodity. The lower elevations grow in abundance sub-tropical fruits
and in the mid-hill elevations, where winter conditions an milder, stone
fruits like peaches, plumes, apricots and pomegranates thrive. In the higher
elevations of about 6,000 feet a variety of juicy and colourful apples and
cherries grow. The delicious apple of Himachal Pradesh is famous all
over India. The cultivation of dry fruits, like raisins, grapes and walnuts is
being undertaken in the Chini area bordering on Tibet.
Himachal Pradesh pastures support about 3.76 lakhs of sheep population
which at present yield about seven lakhs pounds of wool valued at Rs. 21
lakh.
Historically Himachal Pradesh States were founded by Rajput immi-
grants in the 14th and 15th centuries, who had sought these _ Himalayan
retreats to preserve their cultural freedom. Their cultural tradition brought
from Rajasthan greatly contributed to the creation of Kangra School of
Art which marked a special phase of Indian painting which flourished
between 1750 and 1850. ,
The newly formed State with the merger of Bilaspur is provided with
a Legislative Assembly with 41 members.
The names of Indian Stales that compose Himachal Pradesh are ^
Chamba, Sirmur, Suket, Baghal, Bhagat, Balsan, Bushabar, Vhajji
Bija. Darkoti, Dhami, Jubbal, Kionthal, Kumarsain, Kunihar, Kuthar,
Mah'log, Mangal, Sangri, Tharoach and Mandi. The tributaries are
Delatli, Dhadi, Ghund, Klianeti, Koti, Madhan. Rawingarh and Theog.
The disirkis of Hitnachal Pradesh & Bilaspur—Chamha, Mandi,
Sirnioor, Manasu and Bilaspur.
Capital — ^Imphal
Population — 577,635
Area (s. m.) — 8,628
MANIPUR
Literacy — 11.4 p.c.
Density of Pop . — 67 per sq. m.
758
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ilanipur, hill state in the south-eastern comer of Assam and protrud-
ing into Burma is another border State which has great strategic importanca
It is. for the most part, surrounded by
tribal hill areas in Assam ; on the east
it is bounded by the tribal territories of
Burma. The security arrangements _ of
this area required the spedal attention
of the Government of India and it was
therefore decided to take it over for
Central administration. Forests of vari-
ous kinds cover the great part of her
mountain ranges ; the cfuef staple crop
of this strategic State is rice ; tea also is
being produced in small quantities, other
vegetable productions are fruits ^d
cotton. Handloom industry' is the prin-
cipal industry of the State. The admi-
nistration was taken over by a Oiief
Commissioner on 15 October, 1949.
The main population of the State is
“Meiteis” inhabiting the valley ■m'th
some 40 tribes and subtribes known by
the generic names of Nagas and Kukis.
In the Imphal Valley the people are
mostly Vaishnavas; Their language is
a branch of the Kuki-Chin familj- with diversities. Manipuris seem to
possess an inborn love for music and dance. Manipuri dance is one of the
classics of Indian dances. Perhaps in no other part of India is the art
of dance cultivated so much as in Manipur.
Manipur is noted for the excellence of its breed of horses. Tht English
game of polo has its origin in this remote comer of the world.
Under the Reorganisation of States Act of 1956, the President has
constituted Manipur State Advisory Council with five members who will he
associated with the &ief Commissioner of Manipur in the discharge of his
administrative functions. The President’s Order says Chief Commissioner
shall be the President of the Council and that there shall be brought up
before the Council for consideration ail matters of general policy concern-
■ ing the administration, schemes of development and their implementation,
proposals for legislation and any other matters which tlie Chief Commis-
sioner may refer to the Council. The Chief Commissioner may associate
his advisers indiridually with such departments as he may from time to time
assign to them. Chief Commissioner shall be responsible for all executive
orders whether they are authorised by the Council or othenvise.
Industry — Manipur has mucli to boast in the way of arts and crafts —
exquisite handloom cloths, delicate embroideries, wicker work etc. Hand-
loorn weaving is a well-established industry and Iifanipur cloth is famous
for its exquisite design.
STATES IN INDIA
759
TRIPURA
CafiVaZ—Agartala Area (sq. m.) — 4.032
Popiilatioit— 639,029 Lileracy~15.5 p.c.
Density of Pop . — 158 per sq. m.
Tripura an ancient hilly State lying to the south-west of Assam and
protruding nto East Pakisan, has an area of 4,032 sq. miles with a popu-
lation of 639,029 according to 1951 census. Very rich in her forest resources
as also mineral resources, her agricultural pro-
duce includes rich jute, tea, sugarcane, cotton
oilseeds, etc. Besides handwoven cotton goods
of unique designs, the State has at present very
few industries. Her only means of communi-
cation now with the Union are by air and
through a newly-constructed road through
Assam.
Tripura’s frontier with Pakistan runs to
about 720 wiles on the north-west, west, south
and south-east. Its opening with India runs to
about 180 miles.
There are many aboriginal races in Tripura
among whom may be mentioned Chakmas,
Riangs, Tipras, Kukis, Mags, etc.
The State is provided with a Council of Ad-
visers under Part C States Act of 1951.
The State has ten administrative Division —
Sadar, Khowai, Kailasahhar, Dharmanagore,
Sonamura, Uday, Belonia, Sabroom Kamalpur
and Amarpur.
LACCADIVE MINICOY & AMINDIVI ISLANDS
.^rea 10 sq. m. Pop. 21,035
With the reorganisation of States, the Government of India have taken
over the administration of the Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi group of
Islands, a small sprawling group of coral islands in the Arabian sea. lying
betrveen the latitudes of 8° and 12° North lat. They now constitute a
Union Territoo’ under an Administrator.
There are ten inhabited islands out of a total number of 19 islands ;
Minicoy, Kalpeni, Kavarathi, Agathi and Androlh lie in the Laccadive Group
and Ameni Kadamath, Kihan Oictlalh and Bitra in the Amindivi group.
Before the re-organisation, the Laccadives and Minicoy islands were part
of Malabar District and the Amindivi Islands, of the South Kwara District,
forming part of the composite state of Madras. The islands lie from North
to South, Minicoy being the southernmost and Qietlath the northernmost ;
thev arc’ within 50-60 miles awav from the nearest island and arc 125 to
250' miles oft the Malabar and South Kanara coast. The acreage and
760
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
population of. the inhabited islands is as below according to the latest census,
%vhich shows that the densitj' of population is high. Nor is there any
scope for colonisation in the small satellite islands on any appreciable scale.
Name of
Islands.
Extent.
Population as
per 1951
census.
Minicoy
1120 acres or
1.75 sq. miles
3447
Kalpeni
650 acres or
1,02 sq. miles
2269
Androth
1067 acres or
1.67 sq. miles
3659
Agathi
. . 688 acres or
1.08 sq, miles
2038
Kavarathi
8651 acres or
1.35 sq. miles
2250
Ameni
. . 622 acres or
0.97 sq. mile
3159
Kadamath
. . 748.28 acres or
1.17 sq. mile
1642
Chetlat
. . 255 acres or
0.39 sq. mile
994
Kiltan
397 acres or
0.62 sq. mile
1252
Bitra
. . 2.5 acres or
0.05 sq. mile
76
The Laccadive islands were ruled by the Cannanore Rajas till 18/3,
subject to payment of assessment to the British. Behveen 1975 and 1908
the islands were under attachment and were practically governed by the
British. In 1908 the phantom sovereignty of the ruling family was also
surrendered to the British. The Amindi^d Islands were under the British
right from the fall of Srirangapatham in 1799. Till the_ Appointed Day
i.e. 1.11 1956, for purposes of administration, the Laccadive islands were
under the administrative control of the Collector of Malabar, whereas the
Amindivi islands were under the control of the Collector of South Kanara.
The islands have been constituted as a Union Territory with effect from
1.11. 1956. These Islands are now administered b 3 ' the Central Govent-
ment, through their representative, designed as Administrator, I^ccadive
Minicoy and Amindiw Islands, who is for the time being stationed at
Kozhikode, The total area of the islands is about 10 sq, miles and popu-
lation 21,03§. according to 1951 census.
The abundance of coconut trees constitute at once the adornment as
well as the wealth of the island. The main occupations of the island arc
fishing and copra industries.-
The inhabitants of these islands are Muslims to a man. Orfginallj'
Hindus, the Malabar and South Kanara islanders appear to have been
converted into Muhamadanism sometime in the 1-lth centurj'. In appearance
and dress, the islanders, except those of Minicoj- are indistinguishable from
the Moplahs of Malabar and in customs and' manner almost the same.
Their dialect is old Itlalayalam with local r-ariations. The Minicoitcs
STATES IN INDIA
761
•are more akin to the Maldivi inhabitants and their language, Mahl is said
to be allied to primitive Sinhalese.
The major income from the islands is coir monopoly run by the
■Government.
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
Capital— Port Blair Literacy— 25.8 p.c.
Population — 30,971 Density of Pop. — 10 per sq. m.
Area (sq. m.) — 3,215
The .Andaman Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal, 120 miles from Cape
•Negrais in Burma, 780 from Calcutta, and 740 from Madras. Five large
islands^ closely grouped together are called the Great Andamans, and to the
south is the island of Little Andaman. There are some 204 islets, the two
principal groups being the Ritchie Archipelago and the Labyrinth Islands.
The total area is 3,215 sq. miles. The Great Andaman group is about 219
miles long and, at the widest, 32 miles broad. The group, densely wooded,
contains many valuable trees, both hard wood and soft wood. The best
known of the hard woods is the padauk or Andaman red wood; gurjan is
also well-known and is in great demand for the manufacture of plywood.
Large qumitities of soft wood are supplied to match factories.
The Islands posssess a number of harbours and safe anchorages, notably
Port Blair in the south, Elphinstone and Bonington in the middle and Port
Cornwallis in the north. The original inhabitants of the islands are of a
small Negrito type who live in the forests by hunting and fishing. They have
no fixed habitation, and do not cultivate. Their civilization is about that of
the Stone Age. Their numbers are not known as they prefer to avoid all
contact with civilization. The total population of the Andaman Islands (ex-
cluding the aborigines') is 30,971 according to 1951 census. Coconut, coffee
and rubber are great sources of income. The islands are slowly being made
self-sufficient in paddy and rice, and now grow approximately half their
annual requirements. No proper survey of the mineral resources of these
islands has yet been undrtaken.
From 1858 to March 1942 the islands were used by the Government of
India as a penal settlement for convicts serving life sentences and long
terms. The islands ■were occupied by the Japanese forces on the 23rd of
March, 1942, and reoccupied by the Allies on 8th October, 1945. On re-
occupation the penal settlement was abolished.
The Andaman Islands are administered by the President acting through
a Chief Commissioner and an Advisory Council of 5 members. The seat of
administration is at Port Blair, which is connected with Calcutta and
Madras by a mail steamer which calls approximately once every 3 or 4
weeks at Port Blair. This island is connected to India by wireless tele-
graphy. A air service from Calcutta has been organised.
The Nicobar Islands are situated to the south of the Andamans, 75
miles from Little Andaman. The British formally took possession in 1869.
There are 19 islands, 7 uninhabited; total area 635 square miles. The
islands are usually divided into 3 groups (southern, central and northern),
the chief islands in each being respectively, Great Nicobar, Camotra rvith
Nancowrie and Car Nicobar. There is a fine land-locked harbour between
762
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
the islands of Samotra and Nancowrie know-n as Nancowrie Harbour. The
coconut is the main item of trade, and a major item in their diet ; and the}'
have been cultivaling the coconut for as long as any one can remember.
Th Ivicobar Islands were occupied by the Japanese forces in July 1942 ;
and Car Nicobar was developed as a big suppl}' base. The Allies reoccupied
the islands, on the 9th of October 1945. The Japanese built some roads in
Car Nicobar ahd a small jett}- Malacca in Car Nicobar. They also built a
small jetty in the harbour at Nancowrie.
The islands are part of the Chief Commissionership of the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands ; and the Government is represented by an Assistant
Commissioner at Car Nicobar.
SIKKIM
Capital . . Gangtok .Area . . . . 2,744 sq. m.
Population . . 137.725
Sikkim lies betw een India and Tibet and is flanked by Nepal and Bhutan.
The Singalila and Chola ranges which run southward from the main chain of
the Himala}-as, separate Sikkim from Nepal on the
west and from Tibet and Bhutan in the east The
countrj' has an area of 2,744 sq. miles, its extrerne
length from north to south being 73 miles and_ii5
extreme width 55 miles. Its population is 137,725
according to 1951 census consisting of people partly
of Tibetan origin, partly Lapcha tnbesmen and
partly of Nepalese immigrants ahd Buddhism is the
religion of the ruling family.
Rhododendrons are one of the glories of Sikkim.
There are as many as 40 species of them. There are
about 500 different kinds of orchids in Sikkim,
Sikkim had long been treated as an Indian Stete
but with a special position in view of its geographical
situation. Political relation between India and Sikkim is dated from 1817
and until the transfer of power in .August, 1947, they were regulated by a
treaty signed in 1861.
A new treat}' between India and Sikkim has been signed on Sth Decem-
ber, 1950, by which Sikkim continues to be the protectorate of India. India
has therefore a special responsibility in respect of the State’s finances, ex-
ternal relations and communications. Bv it, all pre\'ious treaties betwcffl
British Government and Sikkim were cancelled. The Government of India
is responsible for the defence and territorial integrity of Sikkim. It has the
right to take such measures as it considers necessary for the defence of
Sikkim or the security of India. In particular, the Government of India has
the right to send troops anywhere within Sikkim. Government of Sikldm
shall not import any arras, ammunitions or other warlike materials without
the previous consent of the Indian Government. The external relations of
Sikkim is conducted and regulated solely by tlie Government of India and
Sikkim shall have no dealings with anv foreign power. Govemracnt_ of
India have the exclusive right of constructin.g, maintaining and regulating
STATES IN INDIA
763
railways, aerodromes, posts, telegraphs, telephones, wireless in Sikkim.
Indian nationals within Sikkim is subject to the laws of Sikkim and subjects
of Sikkim within India is subject to the laws of India. Government of India
agreed to pay Rs. 1 lakh annually to Sikkim.
Sikkim’s first legislative body known as Sikkim State Council came into
being on the 7th August, 1953.
Maharaja — Sir Tashi Namgj'al. Dewatt — Sri J. S. Lai.
India’s Political Officer — Appasaheb B. Pant.
STATES BORDERING INDIA
BHUTAN
Capital— Punakha Area (sq. m.)— 18,000
Bhutan is a small land-locked semi-independent State lying on the
south-east slope of the Himalayas bordered on the south and west by the
Union of India. Its area is 18,000 square miles. The importance of Bhutan
to India’s defence, occupying as it does strategic place on the north-eartem
border alongside Nepal and Sikkim is obvious, specially with Tibet com-
pletely falling under the control of communist China.
Bhutan did not belong to the category of Indian States in the usual
sense of the term. Bhutan is a protectorate State, in respect of foreign
relations, of the Government of India. Before the conclusion of the new
treaty between the Governments of India and Bhutan, which was signed
at Darjeeling on August 8, 1949, the main instruments governing India’s
relations with Bhutan were the Sinchula Treaty of 1865 as amended by the
Treaty of 1910, between the former Government of India and the Govern-
ment of Bhutan. Under the treaty of 1949, the Government of India under-
took to exercise no interferences in internal administration of Bhutan. On
their part, the Government of Bhutan agreed to be guided by the advice of
the Government of India in regard to their external relations. The Gov-
ernment of India is to pay to Bhutan annually a sum of rupees five lakhs.
Government of India also returned to Bhutan Government about 32 sq.
miles of territory known as Dwangiri. The treaty provides among other
things, that Bhutan shall be free to import with the assistance and approval
of India whatever arms, ammunitions, warlike materials, or stores may be
required for Bhutan. This arrangement will hold good so long Government
of Bhutan is friendly to India and there is no danger to India for such
imports. Bhutan also agreed that there should be no export of arms and
ammunitions across the frontier of Bhutan either by the ^vemment of
Bhutan or by private individuals. The treaty also provides for extradition.
As for the administration of the country, the ruler is .absolute. There
is no appeal, no court of law. There is no political party. The country
is divided into nine provinces and each province is under the administrative
control of a Penlop who resembles the feudal zamindars of India. It is
through these nine Penlops and their chief secretaries that the Maharaja
rules the country.
Rule — H. H, The Maharaja Jigme Dorji Wangehuk.
764
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
NEPAL
Capital .. Katmandu Area (sq. m.) .. 54,343
Population (1955) .. 8,600,000
Nepal is a land-locked country between India and Tibet. It is situated
on the north-east frontier of India. It is bounded on the north by Tibet, on
the east by Sikldtn. on the south by Bengal and Uttar Pradesh, on the west
by Kumaon from which it is separated by a river. In area it is
54,343 sq. miles stretching 500 miles between Tibet and India. Its width
is about 150 miles. Nepal consists physically of two distinct territories
(1) the tarai or strip of level, cultuated forest lying along the southern
border and (2) the great mountainous tract stretching northwards to Tibet.
Along the northern frontier stand many of the highest peaks of the Hima-
layan range such as Moimt Everest (29,002 ft.). Makalu (27,970 ft.).
Kanchanjunga (28,146 ft.), Dhaulagiri (26,800 ft.), Gaurisankar (23.000 ft-l
and numerous peaks varj’ing from 20,000 to 24,000 feet. Nepal has three
distinctions, i.e., it is the only Hindu Independent State of the world, it con-
tains Moimt Everest, the height measured mountain in the World. It pro-
duces the toughest fighting men in the world — the Gurkhas. First motor
road known as Tribhuban Raj path connects Katmandu with Raxaul on the
Indian frontier and is 79 miles long built by the funds supplied by the Gov-
ernment of India. It is 18-21 feet wide.
The Himalayan Kingdom is a self-sufficient country as far as food is
concerned. It is claimed that the world’s best rice is produced in this coun-
try. Some of the surplus agricultural products are exported to India and
other countries. Among its mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, lead
and iron ores, but the mining of these underground resources is still
undeveloped.
The races occupying Nepal are of mixed lllongol origin. To the north
in the higher mountain and valley, dwell the Bhotias or Tibetians, to the
west the Gurungs and Magars. The Murmis, Gorkhalis and Newars
occupy the central parts, Kiratis. Limbus and Lepchas the eastern. There
are also Brahmins and Chhatris in the hills. There are also lesser tribes
in the tarai and other malarious districts known as Khumhas, Tharus, Manjis
etc but generally classed together as Aculias or dwellers in the districts.
The Gorkhalis or Gorkhas are the decendants of the Brahmans and Rajputs
who were driven out of India by the Muslims and took refuge in the western
hilly lands where the 3 - ultimately became dominant and intermarried with
the other races. The Bhotias. Newark, Limbus, Keratis and Lepchas are
all Buddhists, but their religion has so mixed up with Hinduism that it is
now hardly recognisable. Magars and Gurungs are Hindus.
The ruling power was for a long time the hereditary Ranas. Though
theoretically the king was supreme ruler but the real power ivas vested in
the Prime Minister who was also th head of the Armi-. This domination
by an aristocratic hereditary part}’ was always resented by general mass of
the people and this unrest came to a head in 1950, when insurgents rose
against the Rana rule and established democratic form of Government The
administrative structure was reorganised in accordance with a proclamation
made by the King on February 18,1951. The introduction of these changes
marked the end of the hereditary rule of the Ranas which was in existence
STATES IN INDIA
765
from 1867. The present Government of Nepal is being carried on by the
King with the help of Ministers. A Constituent Assembly would be set up
to draw a permanent constitution.
In December 1955, Nepal was formally admitted to the United Nations.
Two treaties — one treaty of peace and friendship and other a treaty of
trade and commerce have been signed between the Government of India and
Nepal on July 31, 1950. In the first treaty, two Governments agree mutually
to acknowledge and respect the complete sovereignty, territorial independ-
enct of each other. India and Nepal will inform each other of “any serious
friction or misunderstanding” with a neighbouring Stale likely to impair their
relations.
Two Governments agreed to appoint Consul-Generals. Government
of Nepal shall be free to import from and through India arms, ammunitions,
or warlike materials and equipmeni necessary for the security of Nepal.
Both Governments agreed to grant on a reciprocal basis, to the nationals of
one country in the territories of the other the same privileges in the matter
of residence, ownership of property, participation in trade and commerce,
movement and other privileges of a similar nature. In economic matters, each
Government guarantees “national treatment” to the citizens of the other in
its
King — His Majesty Mahendra Vir Bikram Shah Deva.
Nepal Cabinet
Tanka Prasad — Prime Minister. Sardar Gunja Singh.
Balchandra Sharma. Anirudh Prasad Singh.
Pashupatinath Ghosh. Shahbejee Puranda Bikram Shah.
Chandra Prasad Sharma.
TIBET
Tibet occupies a strategic position between the northern frontier of-
Indian continent and borders of Soviet Russia and communist China. With
an area of some 460,000 sq. miles, she has a population which is thought to
be near five million and of these it is said over 800,000 are Buddhist monks-
living in 3,000 monasteries that are to be found scattered about the country.
The altitude of Tibetan plateau averages 15,000 ft., but of course there are
many mountains considerably higher. _ Communications are for foot-traffic
only and journeys must be reckoned in days and weeks. But it is quite
wrong to think, that the whole country as bleak, barren and cold. It is
Chang Tang, the northern plateau, that is tree-less, windswept, barren-
area. To the east and south-east the deep gorges of the rivers make that
part a terrain that is difficult to penetrate. Much of the rest of the county
is fertile and produces good crops. There are e-xcellent grazing grounds in
western Tibet, described as a land of ‘milk and honey' in old Sanskrit books.
Buddhism came into the country from India in the 8th century and the
Tibetan has moulded it into the present form of Lamaism. The strong reli-
gious leader during 10th to 13th countries was a Bengali religious reformer
Atisha and he was instrumental in spreading Buddhism in the country.
The present Dalai Lama was discovered in_1935 two years after the
death of the previous and 13th holder of the position.
766
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The Chinese influence and power on Tibet began in the 18th century
when Chinese Emperor invaded the country and established authoritj'. But
Chinese influence on Tibet was always loose and at the end of the 19th
century it was merely nominal.
An Anglo-Chinese Convention was signed in 1890 under which a trade
centre was opened at Yatung in Tibet but it was never looked upon with
favour by Tibet which often violated this convention. As a result of this,
a Tibet Mission under the leadership of Col. Younghusband was sent to
Lhasa when a fighting took place between Tibetans and the British. So
Tibetans were forced to sign a new* convention in September 7, 1904 provid-
ing for erection of boundary posts between Sikkim and Tibet, opening of
three trade marts, undestricted traffic by existing routes on payment of heavy
indemnity. This convention of 1904 was again ratified in 1906.
From 1906 the Chinese Government tried to establish greater authority
over Tibet by force and Dalai Lama had to flee from the counto', but in
1912 when Chinese revolution took place, Tibetans w'as able to drive Chinese
almost beyond Tibet. Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa from India where he
had taken shelter. In 1913 a Tripartite Conference was held in Simla
between the Chinese, Tibetans and the British to settle their mutual rela-
tions. but at the last moment the Chinese withdrew from the Conference
and the British and Tibetans signed a treaty which settled the relations
bewteen the tw’O countries.
From 1918 to 1933 there were constant friction and fighting between
the Chinese and Tibetans which kept the relation between two countries
always confused. In 1918 the Tibetans almost completely cleared the country
of Chinese troops. With the death of _ 13th Dalai Lama in 1933 the country
was being ruled by regent. 14th Dalai Lama, the present occupant assumed
charge of the country in September 1939; in 1923 the Panchen Lama
(second important Lama, also known as Tashi Lama) had to flee to Qiina
due to quarrel with Dalai Lama where he died in 1937. A new incarnation
found out as Panchen Lama was not accepted by Dalai Lama. This divided
the country into parties. Communist Government in China now tried to
Mtablish its firm hold on Tibet and took up the cause of Panchen Lama and
inr-aded the country on the pretext of liberating Tibet in 1950. The Com-
munist Government of China have greatly consolidated their position and
Tibet is now practically a pror-ince of China.
Relations -with India — ^All the previous treaties governing the relations
between India and Tibet v.'Cre scrapped and a new treaty was signed between
India and the People’s Republic of China on 29th April, 1954. In tlie text
of the agreement the following five basic principles are mentioned — mutual
respect for each other’s territorial integritj’ and sovereignty, mutual nqn-
aggression, mutual non-interference for each other’s internal affairs, equality
and mutual benefit and peaceful co-existcnce. The main terms are as fol-
lows — (1) China may establish trade agencies at New Delhi, Calcutta and
Kalimpong. (2) Government of India may establish trade agencies at Yatung,
Gyantse and Gartok. (3) Government of China agrees to specify (a)
Yatung, (b) Gj-antse and (c) Phari as markets for trade ; the Government
of India agrees that trade may' be carried on in India including places like
(a) Kalimpqng,_ (b) Siliguri.^ (c) Calcutta according to customary prac-
hce. (4)_ Pilgrims from India may visit ICailash and Manassarowar in
Tibet region and pilgrims from Tibet may visit Banaras, Samath, Gaya and
STATES IN INDIA
767
Sanchi in India. Pilgrims customarily visiting Lliasa may continue to do
do so in accordance with usual custom.
PORTUGUESE INDIA
Area 1537 sq. miles Capital : Cidade de Goa
Pop. (1941) 624,177 (Panjim)
The Portuguese settlements in India are the following — Goa, Daman,
Diu. Goa is on the Konkan coast south of Bombay, Daman is on th coast
of Gujarat and Diu is an islet and along with the isolated spots, Gogola
and Simbor lies on the southern fringe of the Saurashtra Peninsula. The
enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Aveli which formed the part of Daman have
been taken over by the Goan nationalists who have set up their own adminis-
tration.
The Governor-General is the head of the administration. The chief
agricultural products of Goa are rice, coconuts, cashu-nuts, betel-nuts and
mangoes and sugarcane.
Mormugao is the chief port and is open to ocean-going vessels of every
size from all parts of the world.
The people of the Portuguese settlements have started for merger move-
ment with India. Severe repressive measures have been adopted by the
Portuguese Government against the nationalist movement, which is being
suppressed by all means.
PAKISTAN
Capital . . Karachi Population . . 75,842,000
Area (sq. m.) .. 364,737 Pop. per sq. m. .. 208
Pakistan which means “Holyland” is a member of the British Common-
wealth, one of the two independent countries into which the former Empire
of India was divided in 1947. It consists of two separate parts — Wtestern
Pakistan and Eastern Pakistan.
Under the one-unit Act passed by the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan
on September 1955, the West Pakistan Province now comprises Sind
(excluding Karachi), Punjab. North-West Frontier Province, Baluchistan
States Union, Bahawalpur, Mirpur, Khairpur and Frontier States. Karachi
is a centrally administered area. The West Pakistan Province is split
into ten “Commissioners’ Divisions.” The ten Commissioners’ Division’s will
be — Peshawar, Dera Ismail Khan, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Multan, Bahawalpur.
Kliairpur, Hyderabad, Quetta and Kalat Divisions.
High Court — A High Court provided for in the One-Unit Act, passed
by tile Constituent Assembly in September 1955, has been established. The
new High Court replaces the High Court of Lahore, Chief Court of Sind
and Judicial Commissioners’ Courts in N.W.F.P. and Baluchistan.
The other unit consists of East Bengal which is two-thirds of the
former province of Bengal, together with a small area formerly in Assam
(Sylhet).
PaWstan’s new constitution came into force on 23rd ilarch, 1956. Some
768
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
of the salient features of the Constituent are as follows — ^Th_e Pakistan Con-
stitution enjoins the State to take steps “to enable the Muslims of Pakistan,
individually and collectively, to order their lives in accordance with the
Holj' Koran and Sunnah. The Directive Principles of State Policy lay
down that the State shall endeavour as regards the Muslims of PakistM “to
provide facilities whereby they may be enabled to understand the meaning of
life according to the Holy Koran and Sunnah, to make the teaching of Holy
Koran compulsory to promote the unity and obsen^ance of Islamic moral
standards and to secure the proper organisation of Zakat Wakfs and mosques.
Certain Islamic provisions in the Constitution lay down that “no law shall
be enacted which is repugnant to the unjtmctions of Islam as laid down in
Holy Koran and Sunnah, and the existing laws shall be brought into con-
formit}’ with such injimctions.”
CENSUS OF PAKISTAN
(total population — lOOO’st
Area
(sq. in.)
Population
Persons per
sq. mile.
Pakistan
364,737
7.53,42
208
Baluchistan
S4.4S6
6,22
11
Baluchistan States
79,516
5,52
6.9
East Bengal
54,501
4,20,63
777
Federal Capital. Karachi
812
11,26
1,378
N. W. F. P. ..
13,560
32,53
240
N.W.F.P. (Frontier Regions) 25,69
25,47
103
Punjab
. 62.245
1.88,28
302
Bhawalpur
. 17,471
18,23
104
Sind
. 50,307
46,08
91
Khairpur State
. 6.050
2,20
53
GOWRNOR-GENERAL
Governor-General — Major-General Iskandar klirza.
CABINET MINISTERS OF PAKISTAN
NAMES PORTFOLIOS
1. H. S. Suhrawardy, Prime
Minister Defence, Kashmir Affairs, Fron-
tier Region, Economic Affairs
Education, Health Law, etc,
2. Malik Feroze Khan Noon .. Foreign Affairs and Common-
wealth Relations.
3. Abu Mansur .. Commerce and Industry.
4. Sardar Amir Azam Khan .. Information and Broadcasting.
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
THEIR SCOPE AND WORK
MINISTRY OF FINANCED — The Ministry of Finance rMses the
necessary revenue for the administration of the Government of Iniha, ref-
lates the Government’s taxation and borrorving policies, deals rvith bariku^
and currencj' problems, utilises the countr}'’s foreign exchange resources in
consultation with the Ministries concerned, and controls the entire fpendi-
ture of the Government of India in co-operation rvith the administrative
ministries. Thus, this Ministry not onl 5 ' administers the finances of the
Central Government but deals with finandal matters affecting the whole
country.
The Ministry is organised into two departments, of which one deals
■with the Revalue and Expaiditurc, while the other with the Budget end
Economic Affairs.
The Revenue and Expenditure Department is agmn sub-divided into
three main divisions — the Revenue Division, Civil Division and Defence
Expenditure Division. Revenue Division which is alp known as Central
Board of Revenue, deals with policies and administrative matters connected
w'ith direct and indirect taxes within the Central field. It is also the autho-
rity which hears appeals under the Customs and Union Excise I-aws._ It p-
ordinates tlie issue of instructions and orders for the proper administration
of the income tax and has original and appellate functions under the Income
Tax Act. It has also the authority to hear appeals concerning the r-aluation
of propertj' and to determine liabilities under the Estate Du^' Act. Fur-
thermore, it ma}’ refer to the High Court any point of law arising from its
appellate orders.
The Deparlmait of Economic Affairs is made up of four divisions deal-
ing with (1) Budget (2) Internal Finance (3) Planning (4) External
Finance.
Budget Division prepares the Central Budget excluding railway Jiudget-
It prepares the ways and means estimates, raises public loans, adniinisters
the public debt and borrowing by the State Governments. It is also respon-
sible, among other things, for the small sawng movement and the womp’s
savings campaign. External Finance Division deals with all aspects of India’s
financial and economic relations with foreign countries.
kllNISTRY OF HOME AFF.MRS— The Ministry of Home Affairs
deals with two broad groups of subjects — public services and public security.
The recruitment of sendees, the maintenance of discipline and the formula-
tion of sendee regulations are its main responsibilities. The All-India Ser-
vices, however, are run jointly by the Central and State Governments. As
regards public security, the Central Government is responsible for the mM-
tenance of law and order in the Centrally administered areas till the passing
of the Government of Part C States Act of 1951. Part A and Part B Statp
shoulder the primary responsibility in their areas. The Government of India
r now plav only an advisory and co-ordinating role.
hlinistiy of States was merged with the Ministry of Home .affairs on
_ January 10, 1935.
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
771
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE— The overall control of the Service Head-
quarters is vested in the Ministry of Defence which is responsible for obtain-
ing policy decisions of the Government in regard to all defence matters and
for transmitting the same to the former. All policy decisions are normally
taken by the Defence Committee of the Cabinet which consists of the Prime
Minister as Chairman and the Ministers of Defence, Home Affairs, Finance
and Transport as members. The three Service Chiefs, the Defence Secre-
tary and Financial Adviser (Defence) also attend the meetings of the Com-
mittee.
Then there is the Defence Minister’s Committee^ consisting of the
Defence Minister, the three Chiefs of Staff, the Financial Adviser and the
Defence Secretary. It deals with more inter-services problems. The deci-
sions of the Committee are final and binding on all.
MINISTRY OF HEALTH — ^Matters concerned with health are mainly
the concern of the States. The Central Ministry of Health however exer-
cises co-ordinating functions in this field. The sole executive power in
regard to subjects in the Union List and powers in relation to subjects in
the Concurrent List also vest in the Central Government. It supplies the
States with vital information on medical subject and for this purpose main-
tains close liason with foreign countries and international health organisa-
tions like WHO, UNICEF, Rockefeller Foundation and Red Cross. _ Further,
it administers quarantine in ports, enforces standards in the quality of im-
ported drugs, supervises and controls health institutions and promotes re-
search through organisations like Indian Council of Medical Research. In
addition, it has to build up and maintain a Central Health Service.
The Central Ministry of Health comprises the main Ministry and the
Directorate General of Health Services which functions as an attached office.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION — Education is a State subject, but
Union Government is responsible for the administration of institutions of
national importance fm scientific or technical education, financed wholly or in
part by it. The Indian Government is also responsible for administration
of four Central Universities, namely, Banaras University, Aligarh University,
Delhi University, and the Visvabharati.
MINISTRY OF IRRIGATION AND POWER— The Ministry of
Irrigation and Power was created in May 1952 by the bifurcation of the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research. Among other
things, the Ministry is responsible for the development of irrigation and
power.
The Ministry deals with the following subjects — (1) Development of
Irrigation and Power (2) Central river-valley projects (3) Regulation and
development of inter-state rivers and river-valleys (4) Disputes relating
to distribution and utilization of water for irrigation and power (4) Central
IVater and Power Commission (6) Damodar Valley Corporation (7) Tech-
nical assistance for irrigation and power developments (8) Central Board
of Irrigation and Power (9) International Commission and Conferences
relating to irrigation and powcr_(10) Electricity Legislation (11) Co-ordina-
tion of power and tele-communication lines (12) Central Electricity Autho-
rity (13) Central Electricity Board (14) Delhi State Electricity Board (15)
Central Flood Gintrol Board (16) Ganga River Commission (Floods) (17)
North-West River Commission (Flood) (18) Brahmaputra River Commis-
772
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Sion (Flood) (19) Programme for permanent improvement of scardty
areas.
Attached and Subordinate offices under the control of the Mimstrj' of
Irrigation and Power — _ _ _ « „ -
1. Central Water and Power Commission {water-Tcing') , New Delhi.
2. Central Water and Power Commission {Power-wng), Simla.
3. Hirakud Control Board, P. O. Hirakud Ciolony, Sambalpur.
4. Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Ddhi.
This Ministry is also concerned with the Damodar Valley Corporation
though it is a statutory autonomous body.
MINISTRY OF FOOD — ^This Ministry deals vdth the following
items — (1) Agricultural Development and Agricultur^ Research, (2) Cattle
u^ization and Livestock, (3l Import and Production of Fertilizers and
Sewage Devdopment, (4) Daily Development, (5) Fisheries Devdop-
ment, (6) Forest Development, {7) Minor Irrigation and Tubewell PrcH
jects, (8) Co-operation, (9) Plant Protection, (lOl Sugar and Vanasp^
(11) Agricultural Marketing. (121 Import of Foodgrmns and thdr &-
tribution, (13) All niatters cormected with the Production of Foodgrmns,
(14) Land Reclamation, (15l Soil conservation.
Following are the Directorates (Attached Offices) under this Ministry —
(1) Directorate General of Food. (2) Directorate of Plant Protec^on,
quarantine and storage, (3) Directorate of Sugar and Vanaspati, (4) DirK-
torate of Marketing and Inspection, (5) Agricultural Extension and Train-
ing Diroctorate, (6) Indian Coundl of Agricultural Research, (7) Director-
ate of Economics and Statistics.
MINISTRY OF LABOUR — The central co-ordinating authoritj' in
India for questions cormected nith labour legislation is the Ministry of Liiour
of the Government of India with the Labour klinister-in-Charge. The
administration of matters connected with the English and Indian Merchant
Shipping .Acts, the Mercantile Marine Department and Indian Seamen is
with the Ministry of Transport, In respect of all the railways, the Labour
Minister is responsible for the administration of the Pajunent of Wages
Act, 1936, trade disputes, hours of work for employees not covered by the
Factories Act and regulation of employment of children. He is also respon-
sible for regulation of labopr and safety in respect of mines and oilfidds;
trade disputes in industries, business or undertakings carried on by the
Central Government and the inter-state migration.
MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES .AND SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH — A. separate Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
was set up on June I, 1948 under the direct control of the Prime Miruster.
The fmictions of this depmtment include the co-ordination of the scientific
actirities of other ministeries, advice to the Government Departments, mainte-
nance of scientific liason with other countries and institutes, research scholar-
ships in applied science^ subjects, carrying out all work in connection with
the International Coundl of Scientific Unions and International Sdentific
Comnussions. On the 1st February. 1931. the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Sdentific Research was created and the former department of Sdentific
and Industrial Research became a part of this new Ministry,
This Ministry is concerned with sdentific and industrial research, under-
takes sdentific surveys and deals with mining enterprises. The Coundl of
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
773
Scientific and Industrial Research comes under this Ministry for adminis-
trative purposes, but still retains its separate entity.
Department of Atomic Energy was so long under the charges of the
Ministry of Natural Resources, but in 1954 the Government of India created
a separate Department of Atomic Energy under the direct charge of the Prime
Minister. This department is located at Bombay and has taken over from
the Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research all business con-
nected with Atomic Energy.
MINISTRY OF LAW — The principal functions of the Ministry of
J^w are to advice other ministers and departments on legal matters includ-
ing conveyancing and litigation, to draft central Bills, ordinances and Re-
gulations, to draft Bills and ordinances for States whenever required, to
scrutinize statutory rules, orders, notifications, etc. from the legal point of
view and to arrange the publication from time to time of all Central acts
in a convenient form. This Ministrj' is responsible for all legislative and
other action pertaining to subjects allotted to this Ministry including
elections to Parliament, to Legislatures of States and to the offices of the
President and the Vice-President and matters relating to the Election Com-
mission, the Law Commission and the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal.
The work is done in the various Branches of this Ministry, such as —
Advice Branch gives advice to all other Ministries and Departments in
all legal matters, including interpretation of the provisions of statutes and
statutory^ notifications, rules, regulations, orders, bye-laws etc. and contracts
entered into by the Government of India.
Legislature Branch drafts, all Bills, ordinances and Regulations at the
instance of, and in close consultation with, the administrative Ministries
and Departments. It also drafts and in charge of, all Bills and ordinances
which are the concern of the Ministry of Law itself.
General Branch is entrusted with all work relating to legislative pro-
posals on several subjects in the concurrent field like marriage, divorce,
dowry, minors, intestacy, succession and all personal laws, evidence and
oaths, registration, civil procedure, and limitation, arbitration, insolvency,
escheats etc. In also deals with all questions, relating to elections to botii
Houses of Parliament and to the offices of the President and Vice-Pre-
sident and' connected matters.
_ Constitution Branch is set-up for the purpose of examining the pro-
visions of the constitution in the light of the experience gained in the
actual working since its commencement and the difficulties brought to
light by. judicial decisions and pronouncements (2) recommending in consul-
tation with the State Governments the amendments to be made in the
constitution.
Lazv Commission Branch (1) to review the system of judicial admi-
nistration in all its aspects and suggest ways and means for improving it
and making it speedy and less expensive (ii) to examine Central acts for
amendments, revision etc.
Publication Branch is responsible for maintaining uptodate all Central
Acts, State Acts, General Statutory Rules and Orders for purposes of
reference by officers of the Ministry.
Central Agency Branch — has been set up for dealing with civil, criminal
cases before the Supreme Court in which the Central Government or the
State Govenunents are interested.
7?4
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Translation Branch — is responsible for preparing the Hindi translation
of the Central Acts, Ordinances, Regulation^ etc._ _
Income-tax Appellate Tribunal — ^The ifinistry is also in charge oi the
administration of the Income-tax Appellate TribunaL ,r- - ,
MINISTRY OF WORKS, HOUSING AND SUPPLY— ^e ifmistry
of Works, Housing and Supplj' was formed in Ma 3 % 1952. This Mi^tiY
deals m'th matters relating to Qvil Works of the GovemmOTt of _ Injjia,
Government of India Estates, Housing, National Buildings Or^msation.
Purchase and Disposals of stores. Printing and Stationer^', Indian Explosive
Act, 1884, Central Boilers Board and control and distribution oi Petroleum
products, their supplv, storage, etc. ,
MINISTRY OF PRODUCTION— The functions of the Ministp- of
Production are to plan and co-ordinate nolii^, control, manage industries m
the Public sector and to create new productive umts to speed up implemen-
tation of those under execution and to manage efficiently those which are
alreadj' in production.
The names of the Departments under the klinistry of Production are —
(1) Salt Commissioner, New Delhi. (2) Coal Commissioner, Calcutta,
(3) National Instruments Factor}'. Calcutta. _ (4) All- India Khadi and
Village Industries Board, Bombay, (5) All-India Handicrafts Board, New
DelW, (6) Centra! Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore, West Bengal.
(7) Coal Board, Calcutta, (8) Central Silk Board, Bombay, (9) Hindustan
Antibiotics Ltd,, Pimpri Poona, (10) Hindustan Cables. Burdwan. _(11)
Hindusthan ilachine Tools Ltd, Jalahalli, Ban^lore, (12) Sindri Fertilizers
& Chemicals Ltd., Sindri, (13) Hindustan Shjpyard, ITsakhapatnam. (14)
Hindustan Insecticides Ltd, New' Delhi, (15) Nangal Fertiliser ^ Heavy
Water Project, New Delhi, (16) Lignite Investigations. Madras, (17) Syn-
thetic Oil and New Fertilizer Projects, New Delhi. (18) Deputy Palm Gur
Adviser, All-India Khadi and Wllage Industries Board, New Delhi.
MINSTRY OF FOOD — This new Minishy has been created in 1956
by the division of the hfinistr}- of Food and Agriculture. The creation of
the Ministry of Food is due to the expansion of imports, the need for a close
watch on the food situation in the States, increased movement of foodgrains
and the reliance on the growing number of fair price shops. The new Minis-
try of Food will be concerned with imports of foodgrains from abroad as
well as internal procurement, fixation of selling prices for foodgrains and
other allotment to different States, organising machineiy for their distribu-
tion and all the other functions necessary for the discharge of its respon-
sibility. It will also deal with all the work relating to sugar and vegetable
oil products.
hflNISTRY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY— The kfinistry
is in charge of a vital sector of India's economy covering a wide range
of subjects. It continues to be responsible for the encouragement and
ordered development of large scale and small scale industries in the private
sertor, control of inter-State trade and commerce and direction and regu-
lation of the external trade of the country. Its manifold activities include
the reflation of the private industrial sector, assistance to small scale
industries, devdopment and control of plantation industries and active
promotira of oyerall industrialisation. In respect of foreign trade, the
Mmistrj-’s activities comprise control and regulation over imports and
exports, determination of tariffs, commercial representation overseas, promo-
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
775
tjon of exports and participation at Government level in fairs and exhibi-
tions held abroad. In the interest of the consumer, the Ministry exercises
control over the production, distribution and prices of essential commodities
like cement and steel and also regulates forward trading. At the head of
the Ministry is the Minister of Commerce and Industry. He is assisted
by the Minister for Commerce and the Minister for Industry. The Secre-
tariate of the Ministry is headed by the Secretary. He is assisted by
four Secretaries, 10 Deputy Secretaries. 18 Under-Secretaries etc.
The scope of this Ministry is as follows — (I) Trade and Commerce.
1. Commercial and industrial Statistics (The Collection of Statistics
Act, 19S3).
2. Commercial Intelligence.
3. Trade Promotion, Publicity and Research.
4. Commercial Publications including periodicals.
5. Fairs and Exhibitions abroad and in India, and Government show
rooms and Trade Centres abroad.
6. Foreign Trade.
7. Indian Trade Representation abroad.
8. Protection of interests of Indian Traders abroad in collaboration with
the Ministry of External Affairs.
9. Trade Missions and Delegations.
10. Internal Trade.
11. Inter-State Trade.
12. (i) Tariff policy (The Indian Tariff Act, 1934).
(ii) Tariff Commission (The Tariff Commission Act. 1951).
(iii) Tariff Valuation.
(iv) Tariff protection to Industries.
13. Land Customs Policy.
14. International Customs Tariff Bureau.
15. Commonwealth Tariff Preferences.
16. International Conferences and Conventions bearing on Trade.
17. Customs nomenclature and similar matters.
18. International Commodity Agreements other than Wheat.
19. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
20. Trade Marks (The Indian Trade Marks Act, 1940).
21. Merchandise Marks (The Indian Merchandise Marks Act, 1889) ;
and Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950.
22. Import Trade Control.
23. Export Trade Control.
24. Control of prices of export goods.
25. Control of Future Trading [The Forward Contracts (Regulations)
Act, 19521.
26. Reparations (other than German Indusrial Equipment).
27. Control of Trade with the Enemy and Enemy firms and custody of
Enemy property.
28. Tea (The Tea Act, 1953);
International Tea Regulation Scheme.
Export Cess on Tea.
29. Rubber [The Rubber (Production and Marketing) Ac. 1947).
30. Coffee fThe Coffee ifarket (Expansion) Act, 19421.
31. Power Alcohol (The Indian Power Alcohol Act, 1948).
776
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
II. Industries
32. General Industrial Policy.
33. The administration of the Industries (Development and Regula-
tions) Act, 1951. . „ . j
34. Planning, Development and Control of, and assistance to, all indus-
tries (with the exception of Sugar and Vanaspati).
35. National Industrial Development Corporation.
36. Co-ordination of the development of small scale industries.
(i) Small Scale Industries Board.
(ii) Coir Industries Act, 1953.
37. Development of Handlooms Industry [The Khadi and Other Hand-
looms Industries Ilevelopment (Additional Excise Duty on Cloth Act, 1953].
38. Standards of Weights and Measures. _
39. Standardisation of Industrial Products and raw materials. The
Indian Standards Institution (Certification Marks) Act. 1952.
40. Patents and Designs (The Indian Patents and Designs Act, 1911).
41. Supply, prices and distribution of essential commodities not dealt
with by any other Ministry, in particular: —
(i) Cotton textile and raw cotton.
(ii) Iron and Steel (Government Industrial undertakings for the
production of Iron and Steel and Government-owned Found-
ries will be the concern of the Ministry of Iron and Steel).
(iii) Cement
(iv) Imported copra and cocoanut oil.
III. General.
42. -All matters relating to the offices of: —
(i_) The Chief Controller of Imports and Exports,_New Delhi.
(ii) The Chief Industrial Adviser, Development Wing, New Delhi.
(iii) The Development Commissioner, Small Scale Industries, New
Delhi.
(iv) The Economic Adviser to the Government of India, New Delhi.
(v) The Tariff Commission, Bombay.
(vi_) The Forward Markets Commission, Bombay.
(vii_) The Textile Commissioner, Bombay.
(viii) The Controller of Enemy Trading and Enemy firms and
Custodian of Enemy Property, Bombay.
(ix) The Registrar of Trade Marks, Bombay.
(x) The Iron and Steel Controller, Calcutta. z
(xi) The Director General of Commercial Intelligence and Statis-
tics, Calcutta.
fxii) The Director of Industrial Statistics, Calcutta.
(xiii) The Controller of Patents and Designs, Calcutta.
(xiv) All-Indian Handloom Board, Bombay.
(xv_) Indian Trade Representatives abroad.
(xvi) Forward markets Commission, Bombay.
43. The folloiving semi-Govemment Organisations : —
(i) The Indian Standards Institution.
(ii) The Indian Rubber Board.
(iii) The Tea Board.
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
777
(iv) The Indian Coffee Board.
(v) The Cotton Textile Fluid Committee.
(vi) The Coir Board.
(vii3 Rubber Board.
(viii) Small scale Industries Board.
_ MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATIONS— The functions of this
Ministry are as follows — (1) Post and Telegraph Department, (2) Civil
Aviation Department, (3) Indian Meteorological Department, (4) Overseas
Communications Service, (Si Raihvay Inspectorate.
MINISTRY OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS— The Ministry of Exter-
nal Affairs assumes the responsibility of the foreign office of the Indian
Republic. The Indian Emigration Act 1952, Reciprocity Act 1943, Port
Haj Coymnittee Act 1952, Indian MerAtant Shipping Act in so far as it
relates to pilgrim ships. Protection of Pilgrims Act 1887 {Bombay') and
Protection of Mahomedan Pilgrims Act 1986 {Bengal) are the responsibi-
of the Ministry of External Affairs.
Description of the Services rendered by the Ministry — India has estab-
lished diplomatic relations with almost every country where it was con-
sidered necessary to do so in the strategical, economical or cultural in
terests of the country. The countries with which such relations have
already been established are —
(A) South-East Asia and Far East — (11 Ceylon, (21 Burma,
(3) Indonesia, (4l Malaya, (5) China, (6) Hong Kong, (7 Japan,
(8) Philippines, (91 Thailand. (lOl Australia, (111 Indo-China.
(B) Pakistan,
(C) Middle East — India is represented in the Middle East by her
Legation, at Damascus, Embassies at Cairo. Teheran, Kabul, Ankara and
Bagdad, Consulates-General at Jedda and Meshed, Consulate at Basra and
Commission at Aden. The Ambassador at Cairo is concurrently accredited
to Jordan, Lebanon, Libya and Syria.
(D) Africa —
(1) British East Africa — Consisting of Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyka
and Zanzibar — A Commissioner for the Government of India in British
East Africa.
(2) Central Africa — ^the jurisdiction of the Indian Commissioner
in E^st Africa has been extended to include the British Central African
territories of Nyasaland, Northern Rliodesia and Southern Rhodesia and
also Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urandi.
(3) British West Africa — A Commissioner accredited to the Gold
Coast and Nigeria with headquarters at Accra.
(4) Ethiopia.
(5) South Africa.
(6) Mauritius — A Commissioner for the Government of India. '
(7) , Madagascar — ^An Indian Consulate General.
(E) United Kingdom and Europe.
01 United Kingdom, (2) Austria, (3l Denmark, (4) Finland, (5>
France, (61 Switzerland, (7l Germany, (81 Czechoslovakia, (9) Nonvay,
(10) Sweden, (111 Yugoslavia, (12) U.S.S.R., (13) Belgium (14)
Italy, (15) Netherlands, (16) Portugal.
(F) America.
(1) U. S. A.
778
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
(G) India and International Conferences — India is represented on
the General Assembly of the United Nations and its following Committees
& Commissions. —
(1) Peace Observation Commission, (2) Advisory Committee pa
Relief and Rehabilitation of Korea, (3) Committee on Adr^istrative
Unions, (4l Committee on Information from Non-Self-Goveming Terri-
tories, (5) AdUsory Committee on Administration and Budgetary Ques-
tions, (6) Committee on Contributions, (7l Interim Committee of the
General Assembly, (8I Trusteeship Coundl.
(II) Economic and Social Cbundls of the United Nations and its
following functional Commissions, Sub-Commissions and Regional Com-
missions —
(1) Transport and Communications Commissions. (2) Sodal Com-
mission, (3) Human Rights Cotrmiission, (4) Statistical Commission, (4)
Fiscal Commission, (5) Commission, of Narcotic Drugs, (6) Sub-Com-
misssion on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities,
(7) Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East.
(III) International Law Commision.
(IV) United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
(V) Ad Hoc Committee on R^trictive Business Practices.
(■(H) Technical Assistance Committee,
(VII) Following Specialised Agendes — International Labour Orga-
nisation, U. N. Educational, Scientific & Cutural Organisation. FA.O.,
Monetary Fund, International Bank.
(H) External Publidtj' exist in different countries abroad.
(I) Control of emigration out of India.
(J) Haj.
(K) Foreign Aid.
General Description of the Organisation — The Ministry has under
its administrative control the following subordinate officers — (1) Control
of Emigration, Madras, Protectors of Emigrants at Madras Bombay,
Dhanshkodi, Calcutta, Tuticorin and Negapatam, (2) Central Recovery
Office, New Delhi, (3) Displaced Persons Encjuires and Search Service,
New Delhi. (4) North-East Frontier .Agency. (5) Office of the Inspectcjr-
General Assam Rifles, (6) Port Haj Committee, Bombay and the Spedal
Haj Committee at Calcutta.
PARLIAMENT OF INDIA
]. Salaries and Allowances of the members of the Parliament of India.
Under the Salaries and Allowances of Members of Parliament Ac^
1934, a member of Parliament recdves salary of Rs 400 per month during
the whole of his term of office plus allowances (besides Travelling Al-
lowance) at 21/- for each day during any “period of residence cm duy” as
defined in the said Acet.
Every member shall be prcjvided with one free non-transferable (first)
pass to travel by any rail in India at any time, but this shall not affect
the pajTnent of any travelling allowance under any other provisiem of the Act.
PARLIAMENT OF INDIA
779
RAJYA SABHA
1. PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES
1. Business advisory Committee
2. Committee of Petitions
3. Committee of Privileges
4. Rules Committee
5. House Committee
6. General Purposes Committee
II. Parliamentary Committees on which members of the Rafya Sabha
are represented.
7. Public Accounts Committee
8. Joint Committee of the Houses of Parliament for making rules_ under
Section 9 of the Salaries and Allowances of Members of Parliament
Act 1954
9. Library Committee of Parliament
10. Parliamentary Committee to fix Hindi equivalents for Parliamentary,
Legal and Administrative terms
III OTHER BODIES ON WHICH MEMBERS OF THE RAJYA
SABHA ARE REPRESENTED.
11. Central Advisory Board of Archaeology
12. Central Advisory Board of Education
13. Central Advisory Committee of the National Cadet Corps.
14. Central Silk Board
15. Central Social Welfare Board
16. Coffee Board
17. Coir Board
18. Court of tlie Banaras Hindu University
19. ^urt of the Delhi University
20. Delhi Development Provisional Authority
21. Employees’ State Insurance Corporation
22. Hindi Siksha Samity
23. Indian Central Arecanut Committee
24. Indian Central Coconut Committee
25. Indian Central Jute Committee
26. Indian Central Oilseeds Committee
27. Indian Central Sugarcane Committee
28. Indian Central Tobacco Committee
29. Indian Council of Agricultural Research
30. Indian Council of Medical Research
31. National Food and Agricultural Organisation Liason Committee
32. Rubber Board
44. Samsad (Courf) of Vivabharati
34. Tea Board
LOK SABHA
I. PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES
1. Committee on Absence of Members from the sittings of the House,
2. Business advisory Committee.
780
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
3. Estimates Committee.
4. General Purposes Committee.
5. Committee on Government Assurances.
6. House Committee.
7. Library Committee.
8. Committee on Petitions.
9. Committee on Private Members’ Bills and Resolutions,
10. Committee of Privileges.
11. Committee on Public Accounts.
12. Rules Committee.
13. Joint Committee on Salaries and Allowances of Members of Parlia-
ment.
14. Committee on Subordinate Legislation.
11. OTHER BODIES ON WHICH LOK SABHA IS
PARTIALLY REPRESENTED.
15. All-India Council for Technical Education.
16. All-India Institute of Medical Sciences.
17. Central Advisory Board of Archaeology.
18. Central Advisory Board of Education.
19. Central Advisory Committee of the National Cadet Corps.
20. Central Committee of the Tuberculosis Association of India.
21. Central Silk Board.
22. Central Social Welfare Board.
23. Coffee Board.
24. Q)ir Board.
25. Consultative Committee under Section 3(2) of the Travancore-
Cochin State Legislature^ (Delegation of Powers) Act, 1956.
26. Council of the Infiai: Institute of Science, Bang^alore.
27. Court of the Aligarh Muslim University.
28. Court of the Banaras Hindu University.
29. Court of the University pf Delhi.
30. Delhi Development Provisional Autliority.
31. Employees’ State Insurance Corporation.
32. Hindi Shiksha Samiti.
33. Indian Central Arecanut Committee.
34. Indian Central Coconut Committee.
35. Indian Central Oilseeds Committee.
36. Indian Central Sugarcane Committee.
37. Indian Central Tobacco Committee.
38. Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
39. ^Indian Coimcil of Medical Research.
40. National Food and Agriculture Organisation Liason Committee.
42. Raj ghat Samadhi Committee.
42. Rubber Board.
43. Samsad (Court) of Visvabharati.
44. Tea Board.
UNION GOVERNMENT
SECRETARIES OF THE TRESIPENT & PRIME MINISTER
5A-tvMo' to rr^sid^t-a s. v«<-
katachaV, i.c.s, /Vtmt* 31i»iwli‘r'— H. N. Kaul.
Militiirv Sory. to tho —
Maj.'Gcn. YaiUmath SihrIi.
SECRETARIES TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
CoFwet S(cy.~~Y^ N> Sukthauk-ar.
Almufn' of Yotiirct Kofouroos end
So'tiitifio Rfsenroh — K. K. Kanta-
iltij-ani. I.CS. ^ „ .
of Education — K. G, Sai-
>-adain. . . „ „
Ministry of Cowwit'ii<'oD{’>!.r — b, fs.
Jlia. a!c.s.
AfiMW(rv of Pffenco — M. K. Vctlodi.
x»c»s
Jfmistry of Externa! etfiair.^ — N. K.
nUai. I.c.s. Seo,\'~Genrral .
Ministry of External Affairs^
(rpm.(m)-S. Dutt. I.C.S.
.lUi'iwfrv of Externa! (Gew*
ripriK'rttH/i Relations) — J. M.
Uesai. . „ ,
Ministry of Finance (Rn'eniie (iwi
Esf'en'diture) — S. I\ah>aHU
I'finwfrj' of Iron oh(? oteei
EhooHialinRam. i.c.s.
.Ifmisfn' of Finance {hccnomic
Affair})— K. G. .AtwI'CRaokar.
.VoWia— M. N. Kmik , ,
Raiya Sahka-S. N. Makkcrjcc.
iVi'ttijJr^v of Lal'Oiir — ^NMshiui baliay,
I.c.s,
.VciiVfry of Food~K F. Gl'osli. ,
J'ffnijtfrj’ pi Ilixilth — S’. K. F. ^
Fa' iianientary Affairs^—N, K. Flip]-
Ministry of Ayricidtiire—W N.
TUai'ar. , . ,,
Ministry of Home Affairs— A. \ •
Ministry of Home Affairs (Sfl
.Cccrcfi'irx')— Visluui S.ali;v.v.
Ministry of Home •jffo''’^^ (‘d’O'.
mic Fner(j\')—Pr. H. J. hhabha,.
Ministn of Commerce and 1-pm-.
sioMcr Goods—S- KauR'aaatiiau
Minislty of Information and Froad-
cash'nff—W M. I.adil. ^•^•*' 1 ,., ..„
ilfiniVrv of low and jVcionr.s
Affairs-K. V. ly „
xMmstry of Railavys (Kaifway
Foaid)—!!* G. Faljal.
Ministry of Kehahiitation-marim
ilffttfs}4 of Transtort—li. M.
Avvur. I.C.S. c c
ilh'mVrj’ <'f ^ rodiiction—i>. >■
MMAiy^ of" irorbs, noumy am!
I'hinninif Commission~\ . N.
MinMo' af Irriijaffon and I'ow^f—
T. Sivasat<kar, I.C.S.
tariff COMMISSION
R;. R, Datale. I.C.S. S. R,
Dr. S. K. Miiraiijan (jVwiCifl V, Yn„„a_PiVpf/pr.
C. Ramasubhan fMetnher).
782
UNION GOVERNMENT
THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA
S. R, Das, Chiei Jvsfice. P. B. Gajendragadkar, Judge.
N. H. Bhagwati, Judge. B. Jagannadha Das, Judge.
T. L. Venkatarania Aiyar, Judge. Mr. Buvaneshwar Prasad Singh,
S. K.. Das, Judge. Judge.
P. Gobinda Menon, Judge. Syed Jafar Imam, Judge.
Jibanlat Kapoor, Judge. A. K. Sarkar, Judge.
THE RAILWAY BOARD
P. C. Mukherji— C/iafrijian.
J. Dayal, Financial Commissioner.
K. P. Mushran, Members (Staff).
K. B. Mathur, Member (Transpor-
tation)
S. S. Visist, Adviser. Railvmy
Ministry.
JJ. C. Deb, Additional Member,
Finance.
S. R. Kalyanaraman, Addl. Member,
(Commercial).
N. K. Roy, Additional Member
(IVorks).
K. Ramachandran, Additional
Member (Mechanical).
S. L. Viswanadhan, Additional
Member (Staff).
G. P. Shahani, Director. Civil
Engineering.
GENERAL MANAGERS & IMP. RY.
S. E. Railway (Calcutta) — A. K.
Basu.
Eastern Railway (Calcutta) —
S. Sarangapany.
Caitral Railway (Bombay) — M.
N. Chakrararti.
Northern Railway (Delhi) — M. N.
Kaul.
N.-E. Railway (Gorakhpur) — B.
Arcra.
Southern Railway (Madras) T, A.
Joseph.
J. F. Muncharjee, Director, Mech-
anical Engineering.
C T. Venugopal, Director Finance.
P. H. Sharma, Diretcor, Establish-
ment.
Ranjit Singh. Director, Traffic (T).
S. L. Kumar, Director, Research,
Lucknow.
H. D. Awasty, Director, Planning.
D. L. Baijal, Secretary.
L. A. Natesan, Economic Adviser.
M. D. Chaturvedi, Timber Adviser.
B. C. MalHk, Director, Rail Move-
ments, Calcutta.
S. Parthasarathi Iyengar, Officer
on Special Duty (Security).
OFnCERS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
Western Railway (Bombay) —
Ganapati. . . _
General Manager, Chiltaranjan
Locomotive Works — ^Karnail Singh.
Chief Administrative Officer, Inte-
gral Factory — ^K. Sadgopan. _
General Manager, Ganga Bridge
Project — H. K. L. Sethi.
President, Raihvay Rates Tribunal
N. S. Lakur.
CENTRAL WATER & POWER COMMISSION
^ (WATER WING)
Kamvar Sain (Chairman). L. P. Bhargava.
Dr. K. L. Rao.
UNION GOVERNMENT
783
(Power Wing)
Kanwor Sain, Chairman. S. S. Kumar Member.
M. Hayath, Member.
UNION PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
V. S. Hejmadi, I.C.S. {Chairman). J. S. Pillai, (Member).
A. A. A. Faizee, (Member). C. B. Mahajan, (Member).
S, V. Kanungo, (Member). J. N, Mukherjee
P. C. Verma.
TOP-RANKING OFFICERS OF THE ARMED FORCES
ARMY
General K. S. Thimayya, Chief of the Army Staff.
Maj.-Gen. P. N. Kripal, GO C.An-C., Southern Command.
Lt.-Gen. S. P, P. Thprat, GO C.-in-C., Eastern Command.
Lt.-Gen. Kahvant Singh, GOC-in-C., Western Command.
Lt.-Gen. J. N. Chaudhuri, Corps Commander.
Maj-Gen. M. S. Wadalia. Chief of the General Staff.
Maj.-Gen. Tara Singh Bal, Quarter-Master General.
Maj.-Gen. S. D. Verma, Master General of Ordnance.
Brig P. C. Banerjee, Military Secretary.
Maj.-Gen. R. S. Aserappa. Engineer-in-Chief.
NAVY
Vice-Admiral S, H. Carlill, Chief of the Naval Staff.
Rear Admiral R. D. Katari, Flag Officer (Flotilla), Indian Fleet.
Gjmmodore A. Chakravarti, Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff.
Commodore A. K. Qiatterjee, Commodorc-in-Charge, Bombay.
Commodore B. S. Soman, Commodore-in-Charge, Cochin.
Commodore D. Shankar, Chief of Material.
Commodore S. M. Nanda, Chief of Personnel.
Capt. R. H. P. Carver, R. N. Chi^^ of the Naval Aviation.
Capt. R. S. David, Naval Officer-in-Charge, Visakhapainam.
AIR FORCE
Air Marshal S. Mukherjee — Chief of Air Staff.
Air Vice-Marshal A. M. Engineer — Deputy Chief of Air Staff.
Air Commodore R. H. D. Singh — Air Officer-in-Charge, Personal Orga-
nisation.
Air Commodore Arjan Singh, Air Officer Commanding Operational Com-
mand, Palam.
Air Commodore D. A. R. Nanda — Air Officer Commanding, Opera-
tional Command.
Air Commodore S. N. Goyal — Air Officer-in-Charge, Technical and
Equipment Sendees.
Air Commodore P. C. La! — Air Officer Commanding, Training Command,
Bangalore.
Group Capt. Harjinder Singh — Commander AIaintai\ance Command.
Chakeri, Kanpur.
784
UNION GOVERNMENT
IMPORTANT POSTS
Solicitor-General of India — Sri C. K.
Daphtary,
Attorney-General of India — M. C.
Sitalvad.
Director-General of Civil Aviation
— L. C. Jain.
fController and Auditor-General —
A. K. Chanda.
iDirector-General, Posts and Tele-
graphs — B. R. Batra.
;Director-General, Ordnance Fac-
tories — ^K. K. Framji.
Surveyor-General of India — Col.
Gambhir Singh.
Director-General of Shipping — ^Nag-
endra Smgh, I.CS.
Governor, Reserve Bank — ^B. Rama
Ran.
Accountant-General of India — S.
V enkataramanan.
j Director-General of Food — C. A.
Ramakrishnan, I.C.S.
^Inspector-General of Forests — C. R.
Ranganathan.
Diretcor-General of Supplies and
Disposals — ^V. N. Rajan, I.C.S.
Director-General of Observatories —
S. Basu.
, Controller of Patents and Designs
— K. Seshagiri Rao.
.Controller of Printing and Station-
ery — C. A. Subramanj-am.
DAMODAR VALU
-P. S. Ran — Chairman.
P. P. Verma.
Commissioner, Scheduled Castes and
Tribes — L. M. Shrikant.
Director-General of Archaeology
— A. Ghosh.
Direicor of Anthropology— T>r. N.
Dutt-Majumdar.
Director-General of Health Ser-
vices — Lt.-Col. C. K. Lakshmanan.
Director-General of Resettlement and
Employment — S. Abdul_ Qadir.
Chief Election Commissioner — S.
Sen, Las.
Director, Council of Scientific and
Agricultural Research — ^il. S.
Thacker.
Director-General, A. I. R. — J. C
Mathur.
Director, Geological Survey of India
V. P. Sondhi.
Director of Archives — B. A. Sale-
tore.
Principal Press Information Ofhcer
— ^M. L. Bhardwaj.
Director-General of Commercial In-
telligence and Statistics — ^P. M.
Mukherjee.
Chairman, University Grants Com-
mission — C. D. Deshmukh.
.Chairman, Indian Airline Corpora-
tion — Sankar Prasad, I.C.S.
r CORPORATION
A. B. Ganguli, I.CS.
PLANNING COMMISSION
..Chairman — ^Jawaharlal Nehru.
Dy. Chair}nan — V. T. Krishna-
machari.
II embers — Gulzarilal Nanda.
T. T. Krishnamachari.
V. K. Krishna Menon.
K. C. Neogi.
Dr. J. C. Ghosh.
Indian Representatives Abroad
COUNTRY
NAME
1. AMBASSADORS
Afghanistan
Argentina
. . Bhagwat Dayal
• N. Raghavan
Belgium
. B. K. Kaul
Brazil
. L. R. S. Singh
Burma
. Lalji Mehotra
China
. R. K. Nehru
Czechoslovakia
. J. N. Khosla
Egypt
. Nawab
Ali Yavar Jang
Ireland
. Mrs. V. L. Pandit
Ethiopia
France
. N. S. Gill
. Sardar K. M.
Panikkar
Germany
Indonesia
Iran
. A. C. N. Nam-
bier
. G. Parthasarathi
. B. F. H. B.
Tyabji
Italy
. J. A. Thivy
Iraq
. R. S. Mani
Japan
. C. S. Jha
^lexico
. G. L. Mehta
Nepal
. Bhagsvan Sahay
designation and
ADDRESS
Ambassador, Kabul.
Ambassador, Buenos Aires (Coiicur-
rently Minister to Chile).
Ambassador, (Concurrently Minis-
ter to Luxemburg), Embassy of
India, S85, Avenue Louise, Brus-
sels.
Ambassador, Rua Barao de Flamen-
go, 22, Apt. Rio de Janerio.
Ambassador, Randeria Buildings,
Rangoon.
Ambassador, 32, Tung Chiao Min
Hsiang, Peking.
Minister charge d’ Affaires, 22,
Thunovaska, Prague III.
Ambassador, Egypt, Cairo, (Con-
currently Minister to Lebanon and
Libya).
Ambassador (Also High Commi-
ssioner for India in the U. K.),
India House, Aldwych, London
W.C. 2.
Ambassador, Addis Ababa.
Ambassador, IS, Rue Alfred Dehod-
eneq. Paris, (Concurrently Minister
to Normoy).
Ambassador, 262, Koblenzorstrasse,
Bonn.
Ambassador, P.B. No. 48-44, Djak-
arta.
Ambassador, Avenue Shah Reza,
Tehran.
Ambassador, Embassy of India,
Rome. (Concurrently Ambassador
of Greece and Minister to Albania)
Ambassador, Embassy of India,
Baghdad, (Concurrently Minister to
Jordan.)
Ambassador, Embassy of India,
Naigai Building, ToWo.
Ambassador, (Concurrently to
U.S.A.), Mexico City.
Ambassador, Kathmandu.
50
786
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Netherlands
.. B. K. Kapur
Ambassador, Embassy of India, The
Hague.
Norway
.. Maharao Madan
Sinhji of Kutch
Ambassador, Norway.
Poland
.. K. P. S. Menon
Ambassador, resident in Moscow.
Sweden
Indra Sen Gupta
Ambassador, Stockholm (Concuren-
ily Minister to Denmark and Fitt-
land).
Switzerland
.. M. S. Mehta
Ambassador, 59, Thuntrasse Berae,
(Concurrently Minister to Vatican
& Austria).
Sudan
. . Nawab Ali Yavar
Jang
.. Ananda Mohan
Ambassador, Sudan.
Thailand
Ambassador, 37, Phyathsi Rd. Bang-
Sahay
kok.
Turkey
. . S. N. Haskar
Ambassador, Ankara.
U.S.A.
.. G. L. Mehta
Ambassador, 2107 Massachusetts
Avenue N.W. Washington, 8 D.C.
(Concurrently Ambassador to
Mexico).
U.S.S.R.
.. K. P. S. Menon
Ambassador, Embassy of India,
Moscow (Cuncurrcntly Minister
to Hungary and Minister to
Poland).
Yugoslavia
. . Rajeswar Dayal
Ambassador, Belgrade, (also con-
currently Minister to Bulgaria and
Rumania) .
2. HIGH COMMISSIONERS
Australia
, . P. Achutha Menon
High Commissioner (Concurrently
to Nnv Zealand). Civic Centre,
Canberra.
Canada .. Dr. M. A. Rauf High Commissioner, 200, Mclaren
St., Ottawa.
Ceylon .. Y. D. Gundevia High Commissioner, Colombo.
Pakistan . . C. C. Desai _ High Commissioner, ICarachi.
D. N. Chatterjee Dy. High Commissioner, Karachi.
D. N. Rao Dy. High Commissioner, Lahore.
S. N. Maitra, I.C.S. Dy. High Commissioner, Dacca.
New Zealand . . P. Achutha Menon High Commissioner, New Zealand
(also of Australia)^
United Kingdom Mrs. Vijayalashmi High Commissioner, India House,
Pandit Aldwych, London W. C. 21 (Con-
currently Ambassador of India to
Ireland).
3. LEGATIONS
Austria . . M. S. Mehta Envoy Extraordinary & Minister
Plenipotentiary. (Also Ambassa-
dor to Stvitcerland) , 17, Geyer-
gasse, Vienna.
INDIAN REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD
787
Bulgaria
Rajeswar Dayal
ChiU
• •
N. Raghavan
Cambodia
• •
Kewal Singh
Denmark
• •
Inder Sen Chopra
Finland
• •
Do.
Hungary
• •
K. P. S. Mehon
Jordan
• •
R. S. Mani
Laos
• •
Raja of Khetri
Lebanon
Nawab AH Yavar
Jang
Libya
Do.
Luxemburg
B. N. Kaul
Philippines
B. N. Nanda
Rumania
R. Dayal
Saudi Arabia
M. K. Kidwai
Syria
S. S. Bajpai
Vatican
M. S. Mehta
4. SPECIAL
Sikkim
A. B. Pant
Bhutan
Do
United Nations
S. A. Lall
Minister, Belgrade.
Minister, Chili, BuMos Aires.
Minister to Cambodia, Phnom-Penh.
Minister, resident in Stockholm,
Minister, resident at Stockholm.
Minister, resident at Moscow,
Minister, resident at Bagdad,
Minister at Laos, Vientiane.
Minister at Cairo.
Do
Minister, resident in Brussels.
Envoy Extraordinary & Minister
Plenipotentiary, Manila.
Minister, resident at Belgrade.
Minister, Jedda,
Envoy Extraordinary & Minister
Plenipotentiary, Damascus._
Minister, Legation of India. 18,
Jungfraustrasse, Berne.
MISSIONS
Political Officer, Gangtok, Sikkim.
Do
Permanent Rep. of India to U.N.,
India House, 3, East 64th St,
New York.
5. CONSULATE-GENERALS & CONSULATES
Belgian Congo
Prem Krishen
and Ruanda
Uhundi
Copenhagen
Victor B. Strand
Geneva
R. V. Padmana-
Helsinki
bhan
Jubo Saho
Berlin
A. K. Roy
Hamburg
B. Sitaram
Kobe
A. N. Subramany-
Surabaya
am
P. L. Ballah
Kliorrashehr
R. S. Hussain
Lhasa
P. N. Menon
New York
M. Gopala Menon
Consul-General in Nairobi.
Hony. Consul-General
Stockholm.
Consul-General, Geneva.
of India,
Hony. Consul, Stockholm.
Consul, Berlin, IS.
Consul, Sprinkenhof, Hamburg.
Consul, Kobe.
Consul, Surabaj’a.
Consul.
Consul-General of India, Lhasa.
Consul-General of India, 3, East
64th St. New York.
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
788
Mascat
Saigon
San Francisco . .
Shanghai
Medan
Madagascar
Jalalabad
Kandahar
Zahidan (Iran)
Basra (Iraq) ..
Viet Nam
Antwerp
Aden
Br. East Africa
Malaya
S. Rhodesia
British West In-
dies (including
Br. Guiana) . .
Fiji
Mauritius
Gold Coast
Hong Kong
Nayasaland
Northern Rhode-
sia
G. L. Puri
Dr. S. S. Gupta
B. N. Nanda
V. S. Gharry
Meher Singh
S. N. Chopra
D. Sareen
K. L. S. Pandit
S. D. Kapoor
Dr. Puran Singh
M. P. Matlmr
H. S. Gopal Rao
Consul, Mascat.
Consul-General of India, Saigon.
Consul-General of India, 417, Mont-
gomery St, San Francisco.
Consul-General of India, Shanghai
Consul, India, Medan (Indonesia).
Consul-General for India, Tanana-
rive, Madagascar.
Vice-Consul for India, Jalalabad.
Vice-Consul for India, Kanadahar.
Vice-Consul of India, Zahidan (East
Iran) .
Hon. Consul for India, Basra.
Consul-General, 34, Ngo Quyen,
Hanoi.
Vice-Consul, Antwerp.
6. COMMISSIONS
A. S. Dhawan
Prem Krishen
R. K. Tandon
Prem Krishen
Commissioner for Govt, of India,
Aden. _
Commissioner for Govt, of India,
(with the rank of Minister),
(concurrently Consul-General of
India, in Belgian Congo & Ruan-
da Urandi, and Commr. for India
in Southern Rhodesia and Naya-
saland; Duke St, Nairobi,
Kenya).
Commissioner for Govt, of India, 31,
Grang Road, Singapore.
Commissioner resident in Nairobi.
Dr. N V. Raj-
kumar
Devi Dayal
Bhatia
B. Chatterjee
Rameshwar Rao
B. P. Adarkar
Prem Krishen
Prem Krishen
Commissioner for Government of
India, Port of Spain, Trinidad,
B.W.I.
Commissioner for the Govt, of India,
V. B, Building, Waimanu Road,
Suva, (Fiji).
Commissioner for Gort. of India,
Felix de Valois St, Port Louis,
Mauritius.
Commissioner for India, Station
Road, Accra, (also accredited to
Nigeria.)
Commissioner for India, Hysan
Avenu^ Hong Kong.
Commissioner, resident in Nairobi.
Commissioner, resident in Nairobi.
INDIA GOVT. TRADE REPRESENTATIVES
789
Malaya
Gyantse
Gartok
Yatung
7. AGENCIES
Permanand Desai
Mingyur Tempu
Lakhsman Singh
S. L. Chibber
Asst. Commissioner. Govt, of India,
Indian Trade Agent, Gyantse.
Do. Do. Gartok (W. Tibet).
Do. Do. Yatung (Tibet).
INDIAN GOVERNMENT TRADE
REPRESENTATIVES
EUROPE
Name and Address
T. Swaminathan, I.C.S., Minister (Economic) to
the High Commission for India in U. K. India
House, Aldwych, London.
S. G. Ramchandran 1st Commercial Secy, to the
Indian Embassy, IS, Rue Alfred Dehodeneq.
Paris XVI eme (France).
K. _R. F, Khilnani, 1st Secy, to the Embassy of
India Via Francisco, Denze 36, Rome (Italy).
Dr. S. P. Chablani 1st Secy. (Commercial) to the
Embassy of India in Germany, 262, Koblenor
starsse, Bonn. W. Germany.
B. Sitaraman, Consulate of India, Consul 603/S,
Sprinkenof, 14 Strasse, Hamburg.
2nd. Secy. (Commercial), Embassy of India in
Belgium, S8S, Avenue Louise Brussels.
H. S. Gopal Rao, Vice-Consulate at Antwerp,
C/o. Embassy of India, Brussels.
Dr. Jagdish Chand. Commercial Attache to the
Legation of India, Strandvagen 47, IV Stockholm.
2nd. Secy. (Commercial) to the Embassy of
India, 22 Thunovaska, Prague-Ill.
2nd. Secy. (Commercial) to the Embassy of India
No. 6 & 8, mitsa Obukha, Moscow.
Sphere of Activities
U. K. & Eire.
France & Norway
Italy, Greece & Yugos-
lavia.
Germany.
State of Hamburg Bre-
men & Schleswigg
Hollstein.
Belgium.
Sweden, Finland, Den-
mark.
Czechoslovakia
U.S.S.R.
AMERICA
S. Krishnamachri I.F.S. 1st Secy. (Commercial), U.S.A. & Me.xico.
Embassy of India, 2107 Massachusetts Avenue
M,\V. Washington 8 D.C.
R. Axel Khan, 2nd. Secy. (Commercial) to the Canada.
High Commissioner for India in Canada, 200 Mc-
laren St., Ottawa.
790
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
AFRICA
Sangat Singh, Indian Trade Commissioner Jub- East Africa (Kens'a),
ilee Insurance Building, P. B. 614 IMombassa Uganda and Tanga-
(Kenya). nj-ika; Zanzibar, N.
Rhodesia & Nj'asa-
Raghunath Singh, Consul-General for India in Egypt, Lebanon, Cy-
Egypt and Indian Trade Commissioner 1, Suui- phrus and Libj-a.
man Pasha St, Cairo.
AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND
S. V. Patel, I.F.S., Indian Trade Commissioner, Australia and its Over-
Prudential Building, 39-49, Itfarfan Place, Sydney seas Territories inclu-
( Australia). ding Norfolk and
Nauru.
N. Kesavan, First Secretary (Commercial) to New Zealand,
the High Commission for India in Nevi’ Zealand,
Windsor Building, 49, Willis Street Wellington
(New Zealand).
ASIA
D. Hejmadi, First Secretary (Commercial) to the
Embassy of India in Japan, Empire House (Naigai
Building) Marunoachi, Tokyo (Japan). _ Japan.
K. Rangaswami, First Secretary (Commercial) to Ceylon,
the High Commission for India in Ceylon, Gaifoor
Building, P. O. Box No. 47, Fort, Colombo
(Ceylon).
M. P, Mathur, I.F.S., First Secretary (Commer- Burma. ‘
cial) to the Embassy of India, Randeria Build-
ing, Phayre Street, Post Box No. 751, Rangoon
(Burma).
P. Das Gupta, First Secretaiy (Commercial) to Pakistan,
the High Commission for India in Pakistan,
Chartered Bank Chambers. ‘Valika Jlahal’ N. J.
Setna Road, New Town, Korachi-5.
First Secretary (Commercial) to the High Com- East Pakistan,
mission for India in Pakistan. 3-Ramakrishna
Mission Road, Dacca (East Pakistan).
D. M. Jejurikar. I.F.S.. First Secretary (Com- Malaya,
mercial) to the Commissioner of India in Malaya,
31, Grang Road, P.B. No. 835, Singapore (Malaj-a).
N. Krisbnan, I.F.S,. Third Secretary to the Em- Thailand,
bassy of India, 37-Tliyathai Road, Bangkok (Thai-^^
land).
Commercial^ Section.^ Legation of India, 914-Neb- Philippines. Under the
raska. Manila (Philippines). Minister, Legation of
India at Manila.
FOREIGN DIPLOMATS IN INDIA
791
P. Vaidyanathan, Second Secretary (Gjmmercial)
to &e Embassy of India, P. B. No. 178, 44, Kebon
Sirih, Djakarta (Indonesia).
A. S. phawan, Gimmissioner for the Government
of India in Aden, Aden.
M. K. Roy, (Gjmmercial) Attache to the Em-
bassy of India, Avenue Shah Raza, Tehran
(Iran) .
P. T. B. Menon, Second Secretary (Cbmmercial)
to the Embassy of India, Al-Tabari Street, Wazt-
riah, Baghdad.
First Secretary ((Gjmmercial) to the Embassy
of India, 32, Tung Chiao Min, Hsiang. Peking
(Qiina).
Indonesia.
Aden, British Somali-
land and Italian Som-
aliland.
Iran
Iraq, Jordan (Am-
man), Persian (julf
(Kuwait, Bahrein).
China.
FOREIGN DIPLOMATS IN INDIA
AMBASSADORS
Country
Designation
Name
Afghanistan
. . Ambassador
H. E. Sirdar Abdol Hossain Aziz,
24, Rotendone Rd., New Delhi.
Argentina
Do.
H. E. Adolfo Scilingo, New Delhi.
Belgium
Do.
H. E. Count Geoffrey d’ Aspre-
mont-Lynden, New Delhi.
Brazil
Do.
H. E. Mustafa Kamd, Swiss
Hotel, New Delhi.
Burma
Do.
H. E. U Than Aung, New Delhi.
Cambodia
Do.
H. E. Var Kamel, New Delhi.
China
Do.
H. E. Pan Tzu-Li, New Delhi.
Czechoslor’akia
Do.
H. F-. Nosek Indrich, New Delhi.
Egypt
Do.
H. E. Mons. Mustafa Kamel,
New Delhi.
Ethiopia
Do.
H. E. Ras Imru Haile Selassie,
29, Prithviraj Rd. New Delhi.
France
Do.
H. E. Count Stanislas Ostrorog,
2, Aurangzeb Road, New Delhi.
Greece
Do.
H. E. Paul E. Gouras, New Delhi.
Iraq
Do.
H. E. Mohd. Salim Al-Radi, New
Delhi.
Germany. West
Do.
H. E. Dr. E. W. Meyer, N. Delhi.
H. E. Major-General Abdul Kadir
50. Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
Indonesia
Do
Iran
Do.
H. E. .Mi Asghar Hekmat, New
Delhi.
Iraq
Do.
H. E. Mohd. Salim Al-Radi,
New' Delhi
Italy
Do.
H. E. Dr. Paolo Cortese, 12. York
Road, New’ Delhi.
792
Japan
Mexico
Nepal
Netherlands
Norway
Mongolia
Poland
Thailand
Rumania
Sudan
Sweden
Spain
Turkey
U.S.A.
U.S.S.R.
Yugoslavia
Australia
Canada
Ceylon
Pakistan
U. Kingdom
Austria
Bulgaria
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do,
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
H. E. Seijiro Yoshizawa, New
Delhi.
H. E. Luis F. MacGregor, New
Delhi.
H. E. Lt. Gen. Daman Shamshere
Jung Bahadur Rana.
H. E. J. B, Haverkorn Van Rij-
Sewijk, 4, Ratendone Rd. New
Delhi.
H. E. Knut Lykke, New Delhi.
H. H. Puntsagein Shagdarsuren,
New Delhi.
H. E. Jerzy Goudzinski, New
Delhi.
H. E. Phra Bahiddha Nukara,
New Delhi.
Miahi Magheru, New Delhi.
H. H. Syed Rahinatulla Abdulla,
New Delhi.
H. E., Madame Alva Myrdal,
New Delhi.
H. E. Luis de Olivares Bruguera,
New Delhi.
H. E. Hicabi Ekinci, New Delhi.
H. E. Ellsworth Bunker, New
Delhi.
Mikhail A. Menshikov, Tra-
vancore House, New Delhi.
H, E. Bogdan Crnobrnja, New
Delhi.
HIGH COMMISSIONS
. High Commissioner H. E, Hr. P. R, Heydon, New
Delhi.
Do. H. E. Mr. Chester Ronning, New
Delhi.
Do. H. E. Sir Edwin _A. P. Wijeqe-
ratne. New Delhi.
■ Do. H. E. Mian Ziauddin. New Delhi.
Do. H. E. Malcolm Macdonald, New
Delhi.
LAGATIONS
.. Charge d’ Affaires H. E. Elbin Lennkh, New
Delhi.
• • Dnvoy Extraordinary & Dr. Ivan Petrov Daskalov,
Minister Plenipotenti- New Delhi,
ary
TRADE REPRESENTATIVES
793
Chile
.. Charge d’ Affair r
H. E. Miguel Serreno Fer-
nandez, New Delhi.
Denmark
. . Envoy Extraordinary .
E. Viggo Theis-Nielsen,
New Delhi.
Finland
Do.
H. E. Dr. Aaro Pakaslahti,
New Delhi.
Holy See
. . Apostolio Internuncio
E. The Most. Revd. James
Robert Knox.
Hungary
, . Envoy Extraordinary
H. E. Aladar Tamas, New
Delhi.
Laos
. . Minister.
H. E. Khamphan Panya,
New Delhi.
Cuba
. . Envoy Extraordinary
& Minister Plenipo-
tentiary
. . Charge d’ Affaires
Dr. Francisco Linares Blaz-
quez. New Delhi.
Philippines
Dr. Melquiades J. Gambos,
New Delhi.
Switzerland
. , Minister
H. E. Dr. Clemente Rezzo-
nico. New Delhi.
Syria
Do.
H. E. Omar Abou Richeh,
New Delhi.
Rumania
. . Minister.
H. E. Mihai Magheru, New
Delhi.
Saudi Arabia
.. Do.
H. E. Shaik Yusuf Al-Fozon,
6, Hardinge Avenue, New
Delhi.
TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF OVERSEAS
GOVERNMENTS IN INDIA
Name of the
Afghanistan
Austria
Australia
Belgium
Bulgaria
Burma
Cowilry Designation
. . Economic Attache to the Royal Afghan Embassy
in India, 24, Ratendone Road. New Delhi.
, . Austrian Trade Representative in India, Queen’s
Mansions, Bastion Road, Fort, Bombay.
. . Australian Government Trade Commissioner in
India, Mercantile Bank Building, 52/66, Mahat-
ma Gandhi Road, Bombay.
Australian Government Trade Commissioner in
India. 2, Fairiie Place, Calcutta.
. . Commercial Counsellor to the Belgian Embassy in
India, Theatre Communication Building, Con-
naught Place, New Delhi.
Representative of the Foreign Trade of the Peo-
ples’ Republic of Bulgarian Commonmealth, Nar-
riman Point, Marine Drive, Bombay.
.. Trade Commissioner for Burma, Block A, Curzon
Road. New Delhi.
794
Canada
Ceylon
China
CzechosolvaJda
Denmark
Egypt
Finland
France
Germany
Htmgary
Indonesia
Italy
Japan
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
.. Commercial Counsellor to the High Commission
for Canada in India. 4, Anrangzeb Road, New
Delhi.
The Canadian Government Trade Commission,
Gresham Assurance House, Mint Road, Bombay.
. . Trade Commissioner for Ces'Ion in India, Ceylon
House, Bruce Street, Bombay.
. . Counsellor for Commercial Affairs to the Embassy
of the People’s Republic of China in India, Jind
House, L^on Road, New Delhi.
Trade Agent of People’s Republic of China, Kalim-
pong.
. . Trade Representation of the Czechoslorak Repub-
lic, 65, Golf Area, New Delhi.
Trade Representation of the Czechoslovak Repub-
lic, Calcutta Branch, P-38. Mission Row Ex-
tension Calcutta-13.
Trade Representation of the Czechoslovak Repub-
lic, Mount Road, iladras.
. . Trade Commissioner for Denmark in India, Pol-
lonji Mansion, New Cuffee Parade, Bombay.
Commercial Attache to the Egyptian Embassy in
in India, Room No. 39. Swiss Hotel, Delhi.
. . Commercial Cotmsellor to the Finnish Legation in
India, 1, Huma>Tm Road, New Delhi.
.. Counsellor for Economic Affairs, French Emb^sj'
in India, 23. Theatre Communication Building,
Connaught Circus, New Delhi-1.
.. First Secretar 3 % (Commercial) to the Federal Re-
public of German Embassj- in India, 86, Sundar
Nagar, Mathura Road, New Delhi.
. . 2nd Secy. & Dy. Trade Representative to the Hun-
garian Legation in India 148, Sundar Nagar,
New Delhi.
Minister-in-charge of Economic Affairs, Indone-
sian Embassv in India, 21. Curzon Road, New
Delhi.
.. Commercial Secj'., Embassy of Italy in India, 155,
Golf Link, New Delhi.
.. Second Secretary (Commercial), Japanese Em-
bassy in India, 4, Circular Road. Qianakyapuri,
New Delhi.
. . Commercial Attache to the Netherlands Embassy
in India, 298, Bazar Gate Street, Bombay.
. . New Zealand Government Trade Commissioner in
India, Mercantile Bank Building, 2nd Floor
Mahatma Gandhi Road, Borabas'-l.
., Ro>al Norwegian Consulate-General P. Box No.
^4, Bombay-I.
trade representatives
795
Pakistan
Poland
Rumania
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
United Kingdom
U.S.A.
U.S.S.R.
. . Commercial Secretary, to the High Commission
for Pakistan in India, Sher Shah Road Mess,
New Delhi.
. . Commercial Attache, Embassy of the Polish
People’s Republic in India. 38, Golf Link, New
Delhi.
Trade Representative for Rumania in India, 2,
Lotust Court, Churchgate Reclamation, Bom-
bay-1.
. . Asst. Trade Commr. for Spain in India, Dinshaw
Vachha Road, Bombay.
. . Trade Commr. for Sweden P. Box No. 6544 Bom-
bay.
Trade Commissioner for Sweden, 7, Wellesley
Place, Calcutta.
. . Commercial Secy., Swiss Legation in India. Theatre
Communication Building 1, Radial Road, New
Delhi.
Swiss Trade Commissioner Gresham Assurance
Building, Sir P. Mehta Road, Bombay.
. . Commercial Attache, Turkish Embassy in ndia.
Hotel Ambassador, Delhi.
Economic Adviser to the High Commissioner and
senior U. K. Trade Commissioner in India, 6,
Albuquerque Road, New Delhi..
Principal, U. K. Trade Commissioner at Calcutta,
I, Harrington Street, ^cutta-16.
Principal Trade Commissioner at Bombay, Mahat-
ma Gandhi Road, Bombay-1.
U.-K. Commissioner at Madras, P.O. Box 1575,
Armenian Street, Madras.
■ • Counsellor for Economic Affairs, Elmbassy of the
U.S.A. in India, Bahawalpur House. Sikandra
Road, New Delhi.
. . Trade Representative of U.S.S.R., House 21, Block
48, East-west Road, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
Branches at : 4, Camac Street, Calcutta-16, and
and Avantika, 46, Pedder Road, Bombay-26.
— .In the case of countries which have no Commercial Offices, Com-
mercial matters are handled by their Deplomatic and or Consular
Missions in India.
WHO'S WHO
ABDULLAH, SHEIKH MO-
HAMMAD, M.sc.— born Dec.
5, 1905 near Srinagar ; gra-
duated from Lahore and M.Sc.
from Aligarh University, _ 1930;
school master under Kashmir Gov-
ernment; came in the public life
in 1930; first started Muslim Con-
ference with communal outlook but
turned into National Conference in
1938; jailed several times notably in
1946 for 'quit Kashmir’ agitation
and released in 1947 ; President, All-
India States Peoples’ Conference;
head of the Emergency Administra-
tion of Kashmir during Pakistan tri-
bal raid in 1947; successfully rallied
Kashmir against the Pakistani in-
vaders; M.P. for Kashmir till 1952;
Prime Minister, _ Kashmir 1948 —
1953 ; under detention from 1953.
ACHARYA, CHINTAMANI,
M.A., IX.B. bom Dec, 9, 1893; edu-
cated at Ravenshaw College ; Govt.
Pleader and Public Prosecutor and
Govt. Advocate for 12 3 'ears ; was
Vice-Chancellor, Utkal Universitj'.
AHMED, SIR SYED SULTAN,
K.c.s.r. bom J880 ; called to the Bar
1905 ; Government Advocate, Patna ;
Judge, Patna High Court, 1919-20;
Vice-Chancellor, Patna University,
1929-30; member. Governor’s Ex-
ecutive Council, Bihar and Orissa,
1932; member. Viceroy’s Executive
Council, 1937; 1941 to 1945; Legal
Adviser, Chamber of Princes, 1945-
47.
AHMED, MUZAFFAR-^b. 1889;
member of the Communist Party of
India since its beginning ; convict-
ed in Kanpur Communist Conspir-
acy Case 1924-28 ; convicted in Mee-
rut communist conspiracj’ case ; edit-
ed several Bengali dailies and week-
lies, such as Nvayug and Gana~
bani; member, Politburo, _ Central
Committee of the Communist Party
of India.
AIYER, SIR C. P. RAMA-
WAill K.C.I.E., c.i.E. — born. 12th
ral of Madras, 1923-1928 ; Member
R.T.C; Law Member, Government
of In^a 1931 and 1942 ; Mem-
ber, Council of State, 1930; Vice-
Chancellor, Travancore University,
1937; Dewan of Travancore, 1936-
1947; Member, Press Commission,
1953 ; Vice-Chancellor, Banaras
Hindu University.
, .AifT SIR SYED FAZL, Bar-at-
Ulaw — born Sept. 19, 1886; educated
at Banaras, Allahabad and Middle
Temple, London; Advocate, Patna;
appointed Judge, Patna High Court
in 1928, was Knighted in_ 1941 and
was appointed Chief Justice of the
Patna High Court, 1943 ; Chairman,
R.I.N, Mutiny, Enquirj' Commis-
sion, 1946; Member, Calcutta Dis-
turbance Enquiry Commissioii_ 1946 ;
India’s delegate to U. N. 1947; was
elected Chairman of the Fifth Com-
mittee of the U. N. during the ses-
sion : Judge, Federal Court of India
1946-50; Judge, Supreme Court of
India, 1950-52; Qai’.eEiiafcpf_£)riss^
1952-54 ; Chairman, States Reorgani-
sation Commission 1953-55: received
the award of "Padma Bibhusan”',
Governor of Assam from 1951.
ALI ZAHIR, SYED— bom
March 21, 1897 ; educated at Alla-
habad and Oxford ; called to Bar
(Middle Tcmplel in 1821 ; General
Secretary, All Parties Shia Con-
ference: member, U.P. Legislative
Assembly 1937-46; Member, Luck-
now Universiti' Court; Member,
Lucknow Iifunicipal Board; Law
Member, Interim Central Govern-
ment, 1946; India’s Ambassador to
who’s who
797
Iran, 1947-50; Minister, U.P. Gov-
ernment from 1951.
ALVA, JOACHIM— born Jan. 21,
1907 ; educated at Mangalore and El-
phinstone College, Bombay; suffered
three years’ imprisonment for Con-
gress cause; Advocate, Bornbay
High Court; Founder and Editor,
Forum (1943) ; Member, All-
India Newspaper Editors’ Confer-
ence since 1945 ; Sheriff of Bombay
1949; Member, Lok Sabha, 1952;
a noted journalist.
ANTHONY, FRANK REGIN-
ALD, E.A., Bar-at-Law — ^bom Sept.
25. 1908 and educated at Robertson
College, Jabalpur, Law College,
Nagpur and Inner Temple, London ;
President, All-India Anglo-Indian
Association; President, National
Union of Railwaymen; Member,
Central Assembly 1942-45 Member,
Sapru Conciliation Committee 1945 j
member National Defence Co^cil
1942-45 ; member. Central Pav Com-
mission 1945 ; delegate. General
Assembly of U.N. 1946 and Parlia-
mentary Commonwealth Conference
1948; now member, Lok Sabha.
ANEY, MADHO SRIHARI, m.a.,
B. i_, — ^bom August 29, 1880 ; educated
at Morris College, Nagpur ; joined
1908; thrice member. Legislative
Assembly C. .P and Berar; joined
C. D. Movement, 1930 and s^er-
ed .imprisonment; mejnber. Con-
gress Working Committee. 1^4-2o
and 1931-34; President, Berar
P.C.C. 1920-30; was a prominent
member of the Congress National-
ist Party and Hindu Mahasabna ,
Acting President of the Congress
1933; started All-India Hindu Lea-
gue; member. Viceroy’s Executive
Council, 1941-43; India’s Represen-
tative in Ceylon upto 1947 ;
bcr. Constituent .\ssembly of
1947- 48; Governor of Binar,
1948- 52.
V-ANAND, DR. MULK RAJ, b.a„
rii.n. — ^b. Dec. 12, 1903 m Pesha-
war; educated at the Punjab, Lon-
don and Cambridge Universities ;
Lecturer in literature and philoso-
phy to the London County Council;
editor of various magaines : won re-
search scholarship and studied philo-
sophy in London and Cambridge ,
was broadcaster, b.b.c. ; was film-
script-writer at the British Ministry
of Information; won ^ fame as
writer of novels *Colie and Um-
iouchoble’ Two Leaves and a Bud
describing the life of Indian masses ;
now editor of Marg, famous art
journal; author, novelist and critic.
AYYANGAR, M. ANANTHA-
SAYANAM— b. Feb. 4 1891, edu-
cated at Pachiappa’s College, Mad-
ras and Law College, ^dras,
member. Municipal Council, Chitoor ,
member. Fiscal Commission ; mem-
ber. Constituent Assembly of India,
President, Harijan Sevak Sangh;
member, A.I.C.C; member Cent^
Advisory .Board of Eduation,
prisoned in 1940-41 and 1952-54,
member, Central Lepslature since
1935 Delegate, Commonwealth
Parliamentary Conferenc^ Ottaira
1952 : Deputy Speaker, House of
the People, 1952-56; Speaker, Lok
Sabha from 1956.
AZAD, MAULANA AB^
KALAM-bom m Mecca 1^
and came to India, m 18^,
educated in theology in the fam-
mous Al-Azhar
started famous Urdu paper ../€<
Hilol in Calcutta for supportmg
Congress cause ; interned by Br.
Government at RMChi 1914; i^t
Mahatma Gandhi in 1921 and ^
came one of his stamichest sup-
^rters; took a leading par^ m
Khilafat movement and al^ join-
ed the Congress under Gandlus
leadership; Resident, ^ecial
sion of the Congress, Delhi. 1923,
1039-46 • member of the Congress
Working Committee; impnsoned
798
HINDUSTHAN 'i'EAR-BOOK
in 1942 tmder D. I. Rules and ^
leased in 1945; conducted negotia-
tions vrith the British Cabinet Mis-
sion on behalf of the Congress in
1946; member. Constituent Assem-
bly, 1947 ; member, Interim Gov-
ernment 1947 ; Education Minister,
Govt of India since August, 1947,
VSAKSHI, GHULAM MOHAM-
MAD — b, July, 1907; began his
life as a village teacher; joined
Kashmir National Conference in his
early days and had to go under-
ground several times; arrested and
imprisoned four times for his poli-
tical activities; Deputy Prime Min-
ister, Jammu and Kashmir from
1953; Prime ilinister, Jammu and
Kastenir from 1953.
BASU, jyOTI, b._ July 8,
1914; educated at Cal. Univ.; Bar-
at-Lan’, Calcutta H. C; Member,
Communist Party since 1940; mem-
ber, Politburo of the Party; de-
tained several times imder Preven-
tive Detention .Act; member, Ben-
gal Legislative Assemblv.
vBitAYAN.\G.AR, iLA.HARAJA
OF ; Commodore H. H. Maharaja
Shri Sir Krishna Kumar Sinhji
Bhavsinhji, s.Ci£. — bom ilay 19,
1912 ; educated at Harrorv ; suc-
ceeded to the Gadi on July 17,
1919 ; invested vrith full ruling
powers on April 18, 1931j His
State along with other States join-
ed together to form Saurashtra;
was Rajpramukh of Saurashtra,
194S; Governor of Madras 194^52.
BHABHA DR. HOMI JEHAK-
GIR, PH.D. (Cantab), rj-s. — b. Oc-
tober, 50, 1909; educated at Bom-
ba\- and Cambridge; took mathema-
timl tripos there; awarded the
Rouse-Ball travelling studentship in
mathematics in 1932; worked un-
der^ famous Prof E. Fermi in 1933-
34 in Rome and under Prof. H. H.
Kramer in Utrecht; was awarded
Issac Xewton studentship, 1934; lec-
tured at Cambridge on Cosmic Ra-
diation, Nuclear Physics; Professor,
Bangalore Indian Institute of
Science 1942-45; Cbainran, Ato-
mic Energy Commission, GovCT-
ment of India; now Director, Taja
Institute of Fundamental R^
search, Bombay ; elected sjes. in
1941 ; President, ' Indian Science
Congress, 1951 ; President, Aton^
for Peace Conference. Geneva, 1955.
BIRLA, GHAXSHYAMDAS—
b. 1894 in Jaipur State; Managmg
Director of Birla Bros. Ltd. which
manages jute, cotton, sugar and
woollen mills, collieries, bank and
insurance companies, national and
provincial daily and weekly news-
papers. tea gardens, mctories which
manufacture motor cars, bicycles,
textile machinery, rayon, paper, plas-
tics, radios, small tools, ball bear-
ings, boilers, linoleum, carpets,
heasy chemicals and non-ferrous
metals, cotton mills, rugar mills,
zamindari, etc, all over India; v.-as
member of the Legislative Assembly ;
President, Indian Chamber oi Ccim-
merce. Calcutta 1924; and oi the Fe-
deration of Indian Chamber of Com-
merce 19^; member, Indian
Fiscal Commission on Labour. 1930 ;
Delegate to the LL,0. at (leneva.
1927; member. Second R. T. C,;
Chairman, .All-India Harijan Sevak
Sangha
BHAA^ .ACH.ARYA \TNO-
BHA— b. Sept. 11. 1S95 in Kolala
disk oi Maharashtra; educated at
Baroda College, Baroda; gave up
studies and left home and went to
Baaaras to study Sanslrrit; met
Gandhi at Banaras and joined his
Saharmati .Ashram; was named by
Mahatma Gandhi as his first repre-
sentative in the C. D. ^Movement;
was Director of the Idahila -Ash-
ram. Wardha for a long time; jm-
piponed for Congress movement;
originator of Bhoodan movement.
BHARG.AV.A. dr. GOPICH-AND
— b. March, 1890; educated at La-
UNION GOVERNMENT
799
hore, entered politics under Lala
Lajpat Rai; Member, Punjab Legis-
lative Council 1927-29: jailed for
non-co-operation movement 1942-
43; member, Punjab Legislative As-
sembly, 1937 and leader of the op-
position again in 1946; was member
o£ the Punjab Partition Committee;
Trustee, Village Industries As-
sociation, Prime Minister, Punjab
1947-49.
BRAHM PRAKASH— b. in East
Africa after the end of World
War I : has been associated with the
Congress since 1936 ; imprisoned for
the individual disobedience move-
ment; became leader of the Delhi
Congress Committee 1946; Chief
Minister, Delhi State 1952-55 ;
Minister of Delhi State, 1955-56.
BOSE, NANDALAI^b. 3rd Dec.
1883; passed Entrance Examination
and joined Calcutta Govt. School of
Arts where he completed the pre-
scribed course: came under the in-
fluence of Dr. Abanindranath Tagore
while at Govt. Art School; served
apprenticeship under the mastCT for
several years; joined Santiniketan.
School of Tagore in 1914; was
Director of Kalabhavan, Santinike-
tan 1919-52; travelled Far East,
China, Japan, with poet Tagore in
1944 ; decorated Congress pandals
and exhibitions many times ; was
conferred doctorate by the Banaras
Hindu University 1950 and title of
Desikottama by Bisvabharati
1952; also D.Litt. by Calcutta
University 1957 ; is the most repre-
sentative exponent of Indian Art.
BOSE, RAJSEKHAR— b. March
1880 ; educated at Darbhanga Raj
School : took M. A. degree from
Calcutta University ; educated at
Patna and Calcutta : began Ins
career as Manager of the Bengal
Cliemical & Pharmaceutical Works ;
the most prominent literatuer of
Bengal ; wrote his first storj’ in 1922 ;
famous as a short storj’ writer, as a
translator of two epics, Ramayana.
& Mahabharata; author of the well-
known Bengali dictionary, Chalavr.
Uka; was the president of the Termi-
nological Committee of the Calcutta
University ; Member of the Sahitya
Akadami; awarded Sarojini (^Id
medal and Jagattarini gold medal by
Calcutta University, also Rabindra
memorial prize by the Government
of West Bengal. 1955; received
D. Litt. from Caldutta Univer-
sity 1957.
BOSE, SATYENDRANATH,
M.SC.— b. Jan. 1, 1894; educated at
Presidency College, Calcutta; ^a-
duated in 1918; M.sa degree 19^
topping the list; lecturer .m the
Physics Department ; reader m Bhy-
sics Dacca University and later
Head of the Department for several
years; Khaira Professor of Physics,
Calcutta University for seyeral
years; President, Indian Science
Congress; 1944; Chairman, Nation-
al Institute of Sciences, India
1948-50 : earned recognition for nis
work in the field of quantum phy-
sics- expounder of the Bose-Eins-
tein theory of statistics which se-
cured for him his position m
world of science: Wce-Chancellor,
Visvabharati from
BISWAS, CHARU CHANDi^,
ma B.L.— born in 1888;
^rivnrate of the Calcutta High
Court 1910-1937; Judge, Calcutta
High Court;
Calcutta University 1916-21; nomi-
nated Councillor, Member
lion 1921-24 and 1920-27 . memoer,
C^?ral Assembly 1930-1936: .mem-
ber the Radcliffe
1947 ■ now Minority and Law Mm
Iter,’ Government of India from
c-aptappa general Iv. M.
h T^n 28 lOT in Mercara, Coorg;
L^4ted in tteCentral High School,
Memfr^and Presidency College,
800
HINDUSTHAN YEAR-BOOK
Madras ; one among the first batch
of Indian cadets to be commissioned
from Ddy College, Indore, 1919 ;
was with l/17th Rajputs in Waziris-
tan 1922-25 ; first Indian officer to
enter the Staff College, Quetta 1933 ;
appointed Assistant Quartermaster-
Gaieral, Deccan district 1938;
served with the 10th Indian Division
in Iraq, Sj'ria and Iran 1941-1942 ;
became LtCol in 1942 and command-
ed a machine gun battalion of the
7th Rajputs, thus becoming the first
Indian to command a battalion; ap-
pointed Assistant Adjutant and
Quartermaster-General, Army 1943;
member of the Army Re-organisa-
tion Committee 1944 ; visited Eng-
land in 1946 as one of the first two
Indian students at the Imperial
Defence College ; promoted in the
rank of Major-Gmeral 1947 ; Chief
of General Staff for a brief period
1947 ; appointed G.O.C.-in-Chief,
Eastern Command 1947 ; became
Lt-General, 1947 ; appointed ;
G.O.C.-in-Chief D. E. P. Command.
1948_; decorated with the Legion of
Merit by U.S. Government, 1948 ;
Commander-in-Chief, Indian Army
1948-54; Ex-Indian High Commis-
sioner at Australia
CHANDRASEKHAR, SUB-
RAHMANYAN, DR r.R-s. — bom
Oct. 10, 1910; graduated at
Presidencj’ College, Madras 1930;
studied at Cambridge for years;
fellow. Trinity Oillege, Cam-
bridge, 1933-1937 ; lectured at Har-
^a^d Observatory’ ; is considered one
of the world’s leading authorities in
mathematical astrophysics ; appoin-
ed Russel Lecturer, 1940, u.s,a..
Received Bruce Medal — ^highest
honour of the American Astronomi-
cal Society ; appointed Associate
Professor at Yerkes Obsen-atory,
Chicago University 1936 where he
has_ r^ained ever since ; awarded
Bntish Royal Astronomical Socie-
ty’s gold medal — the Society’s pre-
mier award, 1953.
CHAMANLAL, DEWAN— b.
1892 and educated in London and
Oxford ; was assistant editor of
Bombay Chromdc ; member. Cent-
ral Legislative Assembly, 1923-1941 ;
member, Punjab Legislative Assem-
bly, 1937 and 1946 ; member. Cen-
tral Assembly, 1946 ; Adyiser to
Workers’ Delegate to the I. L. O.
Conference at Geneva, 1925 ; Labour
Delegate to I.L.O. Conference
Bureau, 1932; one of the founders
of I.T.U.C. ; Member, Roy’al Com-
mission on Labour 1929-31;
President of the Federation of
Posts and Telegraph Union; leader
of the Indian Food Delegation to
Argentina ; delegate to I.L.O. con-
ference at klontreal, 1946 ; Indian
Ambassador to Turkey, 1947-49.
CHAGLA MOHA5.IMED ALI
CURRIM. B.A., (Oxon.)— b. 30th
SepL, 1900 educated at Bombay
and Oxford; called to Bar Clnner
Temple) 1922 ; Professor, Govt. Law
College Bombay 1927-30 ; Wce-
Chancellor, Bombay University
1947 ; Govt, of India delegate to
U.N. 1947 ; Judge, Bombay High
Court 1941-47 ; now Chief Justice
of Bombay High Court from 1947.
CHAKRWARTI, PH.A.NIBHU-
SHAN— b. Oct. 15, 1898, at Nara-
yanganj, Dacca; first class M.A., in
English first class in B.u Exam.;
lecturer in English, Jagannath Col-
leye. Dacca; joined (^cutta Bar
1927 : was connected with Calcutta
li'cckly Notes for 18 years; conduc-
ted Bhawal Sanyasi C^e successful-
ly ; _ Legal Adviser. Government of
India for income-tax matters 1940-
45; Judge, Calcutta High Court ;
member for Income-tax Investiga-
tion _ Commission 1949-51; Chief
Justice, Calcutta Court from 1952.
CHAUDHURI. NABA KRUSH-
NA. — b. 1901: educated at the Rc-
venshaw College, Cuttack; joined
WHOS WHO
801
non-cooperation movement in 1921 ;
joined ilahatma Gandhi’s Sabar-
mati Ashram in 1923-24 ; established
Gangress Socialist Party in Orissa
1934; prominent leader in Orissa of
States People’s movement ; was in
prison during 1942 movement ; was
Secretary, _ Orissa P.C.C. ; was Re-
venue Minister of Orissa Gov-
ernment in 1946 ; Chief Minister
of Orissa 1952-56.
CHAUDHURI, MAJ-GEN. J.
N. — O.B.E., b. June 10, 1908; educat-
ed_ at Calcutta, London and Royal
jniitary College, Sandhurst; re-
ceived commission 1928; Comman-
der, 16th Light Cavalry in Burma
during World War II ; attended
Imperial Defence College, London,
1947 ; officiated as Chief of the
General Staff ; Military Governor
Hyderabad State upto 1949 ; Offi-
cer commanding, 1st Armoured Di-
vision, Indian Army, 1952; Adjut-
ant-General 1952-53; Chief of the
General Staff, Indian Army 1955-56.
CHATTERJEE N. C— b. Oct.
19, 1895; educated in Calcutta and
London when he took LL.B. de-
gree and joined Calcutta Bar;
joined Hindu JIahasabha move-
ment in 1937 ; withdrew from poli-
tics for four years; Councillor,
Calcutta Corporation 1940-44; Judge
of the Calcutta High Court 1948-
1950; joined Hindu Mahasabha
movement again and became its pre-
sident; Member, House of the
People from 1951 ; senior Advocate,
Supreme Court of India.-
CHATTERJEE, SUNITI KU-
MAR, st.A., r.UTT. (Lond.J b. Nov.
26, 1850; educated Presidency Col-
lege, Calcutta and School of Ori-
ental Studies, Lond. ; Kb.aira Prof, of
Indian linguistics and phonitics,
Calcutta University _ 1922-1952: tra-
velled with Tagore in the Far East,
1927: represented Calcutta Univer-
sity in different international con-
Hrcnccs 1935. 1938, 1948, 1949,
51
1950; President, Bengal Legisla-
tive Council from 1952: Chairman,
Sanskrit Commission 1956 ; author
of several books on linguistics.
CHATTOPADHAYA, HARIN-
DRANATH — b. 1899 at Hydera-
bad: brother of Sarojini Naidu;
educated at Hyderabad, Deccan and
also at Cambridge for a year; well-
known as a poet, and playivright;
has travelled extensively through-
out Europe and America; has ac-
quired specialised knowledge on
theatre and stage-craft ; is a disciple
of Sri Aurobindo; visited Russia as
representive of Indian artists and
authors, 1951 ; elected M. P. in
1951 ; author of following books —
Feast of Youth; Perfume of Earth,
Gray Clouds, etc.
CHANDRAVARKAR, SIR V.
N. B.A.; (Cantab); Bar-at-Law-—
1887 ; educated at Bombay and Cam-
bridge; member, Bombay Municipal
Corporation, 1826-39; Mayor of
Bombay, 1932-33 ; Chairman, Bom-
bay Millowners’ Association for 8
times and also for 1950; Vice-Chan-
cellor, Bombay University, 1938-39;
President, Liberal Federation,
1940-41 ; Member, Bombay Legis-
lative Council 1933; m.l.a (Cen-
tral-) 1941-45.
CHOPRA, LT. COL. SIR R N.
C.I.E., M.D., F.R.C.P., (Lond.) — b.
Aug. 17, 1882; educated at Punjab
and Cambridge Universities and then
London ; joined i.M.s., in 1903 ;
Director, School of Tropical Medi-
cine, Cal. 1935-41 ; has attained in-
ternational fame by his researches
in tropical diseases; President, In-
dian Drugs Enquiry Committee
1930-31 : Director, Medical Services,
Kashmir State; started Bio-Assay
Laboratory in Calcutta for laying
down standards in medicines ; Hono-
rary Physician to the King 1935-39;
President, Indian Science Congress,
147 ; OiairmM, Indigenous Sys-
tems of Medicine Committee : is now
802 HINDUSTHAN YEAR-BOOK
Director of Drug Research Labora- ment 1930-34 ; member. Indian
tory, Kashmir. Constituent Assembly ; Governor of
DANGE, S. A. — ^born Oct. 10, Bihar, 1947 : Minister of Food md
189; Member, Central Committee Agriculture, Government of India;
and Politburo of the Communist was Governor of Assam.
Party of India, Vice-President, DEV , ACHARYA NAREN-
World Federation of Trades Unions; DRA, M.A., LI..B. — b. Oct. 31, 1889;
imprisoned numerous times for his educated at Allahabad and Banarasj
activity in conducting strikes. joined C. D. Movement 1920; Prof.
S. R.— b. Oct. 1894 ; edu- Kashi Vidyapith 1921-26; its Prin-
cated at Santineketan, Bangabasi cipal 1926; Vice-Chancellor, Luck-
College, Calcutta and University now Universitj- 1947-51 ; joined In-
College, London, from where he dian National Congress 1916; mem-
took LL.B. degree in 1918 ; called to ber. Working Committee of the Con-
the Bar at Grey’s Inn and joined gress 1936-38; member, U. P. Legis-
Calcutta Bar 1919 ; sometime lec- lature 137-39 and 1946-47 ; Found-
turer. University Law College, er-Member, Socialist Party; im-
Calcutta; Additional Judge, CSl- prisoned seA-eral times; ilember,
cutta High Court 1942; Puisne Council of States; was Vice-Chan-
Judge of that Court 1944; Chief cellor, Banaras Hindu University;
Justice, East Punjab. High C^urt elected President of P. S. P. 1954.
1949; Judge, Federal Court, 1950; vDHEBER. U. N.— b. Sept. 21,
appointed Chief Justice, Supreme 1905 in Jamnagar State; matricu-
Court of India 1956. lated at the age of 17 ; started
DAS GUPTA, SATISH C. — practice as lawyer at Rajkot 1929;
bom 1882 ; began his career as Sup- left practice for good in 1936;
erintendent of Bengal Chemical & joined political movement; courted
Pharmaceutical Works, Calcutta; arrest several times; became Chief
left the service and joined non-co- Minister of Saurashtra State 1948-
operation movement; started Khadi 54; President of the Congress.
Pratisihoii for the development of 1955 and 1956-57.
cottage industries and khadi work DEVI, KAMALA — b. 1903, Man-
and aclueved signal success; has galore; educated in Madras and
devoted entirely to the construe- London School of Economics ; Gene-
tive side of Congress programme; ral Secretary of the All-India
imprisoned several times ; Mem- Women’s Conference, 1926-30 ; Pre-
ber. Depressed Classes Commission, sident, .All-India Women’s Confer-
DAULATRAM, JAIRAMD.AS— ence, 1944-45; married Harindra-
b. 1892 at Hyderabad, Sind ; graduat- nath Chattopadhyaj-a, the poet and
ed in law 1915; joined non-co- brother of Mrs. Sarojini Naidu; a
operation movement, 1919; member, gifted speaker; entered Congress,
A.I.C.C for several years; Editor, 1922; imprisoned four times owing
Hindu (Karachi). 1921 ; General to Congress activities; first woman
Sei^., Hindu Mahasabha. 1925-27; to contest Legislative Council elec-
Editor, Hindusthan Times, Delhi, tion in India 1926; went on world
1925-26 ; Member, Bombay Legis- tour, 1930-41 ; member. Congress
lative Coimcil. 1926-29; General Working Committee. 1946-47.
Secretary' of the Congress 1931- DES.AI. KH.ANDUBHAl K.A-
34 ; hlember. Congress Working SANJI— b. at Bulsar, Gujerat in
^mmittee 1928-41 ; imprisoned Oct. 23, 1898; educated at Bai .Ana-
four times during political move- bai High School. Bulsar and Wilson
who's who
803
College, Bombay; was General
Secretary, Textile Labour Associa-
tion, Ahmedabad and a member,
Hindusthan Mazdoor Sevak Sangh
and of the Ahmedabad Municipality
for over 20 years ; was also a mem-
ber of Bombay Legislative Assem-
bly 1937-39 and 1946-50 : Director,
Industrial Finance^ Corporation ;
was President, Gujerat P, C. C.;
member. Congress Working Com-
mittee; has served on various im-
portant bodies including Fiscal
Commission, Employees’ State In-
surance Corporation, etc.; Minister
of Labour, Government of India
from Sept. 1954.
DESAI, MORARJI R.,— b. 29.
Feb. 1886; educated at Wilson Col-
lege, Bombay; joined Bombay Pro-
vincial Service in 1918 but resigned
in 1930 : suffered imprisonment in
1930, 1932 and 1942; was kept in
detention during ‘Quit India’ move-
ment, 1942-45; Member, A.I.C,C.
Minister for Revenue, Bombay,
Government 1937-39: Home Minis-
ter, Bombay Government 1946-52;
Chief Minister, Bombay 1952-56 ;
now Minister of Commerce and In-
dustry, Government of India from
1956.
DESHMUKH. CHINTAMAN,
C.I.E. — b. Jan. 14, 1896; educated at
Bombay and Cambridge and enter-
ed i.c.s. in 1919 and received his
early administrative training in Mad-
hya Pradesh; one of the Secre-
taries of Second R. T. Conference,
1931 ; Revenue and Finance Secre-
tary of Madhya Pradesh for 6
years; Jt, Secretary, Govt, of In-
dia, Education, Health and Lands
1939; Secy., Reserve Bank of India
1939-41 ; Dy. Governor, Reserve
Bank of India, 1941-43; Governor,
Reserve Bank of India 1943-49;
Governor for India of International
Monetary Fund and International
Bank of Reconstruction 1946-49;
Oiairman, International Monetary.
Fund, and International Bank 1950;
Finance Minister, Govt, of India
1950-55 : member, Indian Planning
Commission from 1950 ; Chairman
University Grants Commission from
1956.
DIWAKAR, R. R.— b. Sept. 20,
1895 ; educated in Belgaum and
Hubli ; graduated from Fergusson
College, Poona, 1916; graduated in
law, 1921 ; joined non-co-operation
movement in 1921 and sentenced for
two years ; Editor, Nava Sakti
in 1923 : Secretary, Karnatak
Provincial Congress Committee,
1930-34 ; Editor, Samyukta
Karnatak; imprisoned several times
from 1921 to 1945 ; member. Con-
stituent Assembly, 1946; delegate,
37th Session of the Inter-Parlia-
mentary Union Conference, Rome,
1948; Minister, Information and
Broadcasting, Government of India,
1948-1952; now Governor of Bihar
from 1952.
DEY, HIRENPRALAL, m.a.
(Cal.), D.sc., (Mn.) — ^b. Nov.
1896; educated at Presidency Col-
lage Calcutta and School of Econo-
mics, London : Lecturer, Lucknotv
University 1921-33 ; Head of the
Depart, of Economics, Dacca Uni-
versity, 1936-45 ; now President/
Ind. Tariff Commission.
DUPLEEPSINHJI, PRINCE K.
S. — b. 1905; educated at Chelten-
ham College and Clare College,
Cambridge; was Cambridge cricket
and racquet blue; Captained Sussex
County Cricket team 1931-32;
played in Test Matches for England
against Australia, South Africa and
New Zealand: has travelled exten-
sively in Europe. U.S.A. and Aus-
tralia: has served in various admin-
istrative capacities in _ Nawanagar
State; High Commissioner for In-
dia in Australia 1950-53.
DUTT. R. PALME— b. 1896 ;
educated Balliol College, Oxford;
Seen-., International Research Dept-
604
KIKDUSTHAK YEAR-SOOK
1919-22; Exeroave Member of the
satne 1921-26; mditor. ' IVorscrs
V/cchli^, 1921-26; Editor, “labour
ilcr-ihiy^ since 1921 ; one of the
greatest living anthorities on Mar-
jdsm ; Author of “Labour Jr.ier-
naiional Handboch” “Modem Ir,-
aM,” nVorid PcBlcs/\ 191S-35;
%';ce-Chaiimsi!, Commntast Partj*,
England; visited India in 1945.
G.ADGIL, Iv. V. 5_^, ix-s. — b.
lOlh Jan. 1895 at Malargarh,
Central India; educated at Poona
and Baroda; graduated in 191S with
hononrs in Economics and Politics;
was member and vEca-Praadent of
the Poona Mcnidpaliti'; Secretary,
Poona D.CC and BcTcnbaj’ P.CC.;
President, Bombay P. Q C for
seven j-ears; was .A I. C C IVhip
and General Secretary. Congress
Party. Central Assembly till 1947;
servrf imprisonment for eight years
for Congress work; hGnister of
IVorks, Mines and Porver, Gorem-
inent oi India, 1947-52.
V^.ANDHL INDIRA— bom 1817 ;
daughter oi Javtharlal Nehru; first
educated at Switzerland; later at
Santineketan ; then went to Somer-
ville College, Oxford; has travelled
widely in Asia, Europe. -A.merica and
Russia: acted as Secretary to her
rather; married Feroze Gandhi; has
two sons; at 21 became the member
of Congress; went to prison for 13
months; member, Con.cress "Work-
ing Committee; Chairwoman. AVo-
men’s Department of the Congress;
Member, Central Electita Board
and ot Youth Advisory Board of the
V^NDHI. DE\T3AS— b. May 22,
1900; son oi Mahatma Gandhi;
educated at Gurulml and Santine-
ketan, Bolpur; began his career as
journalist; imriisonment several
times: twice President or the Indian
and Eastern Newspaper Sodety and
ATI- India Newspaper Editors’ Con-
ference for three times ; Director on
Renters’ Board; Chairman, Press
Trust oi India and Audit Bureau ci
Grculations 1953; sow Idanaaing
Director. HBdusihan Times, Delhi-
GHOSE. SIR JNANCHAN
DRA, DLSC., — h. 1894; had a dis-
tingtnshed career at Calcutta and
LonE Universilies ; Professor ci
Chemistry. Cal U. 1915-21 : Head ci
the Chemistry Department oi Dacca
uinyersity, 1921-39; has made not-
able contributions to science in the
field oi electro-chemistry, theory of
salt solutions and mechanism ci
chemical reactions ^ecially under
the influence oi radiatioa;_membm
oi the Imperial Council of Agn-
•cnltural Research; member^ of the
goreming body oi the Indian Re-
search Fund Association 1955-39;
President, Indian Science Congress,
1939; was Director. Science Insti-
tute, Bangalore; was Director-
General oi Industries and Strpplla,
India ; Auce-Chancdlor, Calctta
Umversity 1934-55 ; delegate, um-
pire Science Conference in DJC;
1946; Member, Planmng Commis-
sion from 1933.
GH05E DR- PROFDLLA C—
Ccxnes from Idalikanda, Dacca;
passed BA- with 1st class honours
in Chemistry, 1913: MA.. in 1916:
first Indian to be appointed Deputy
Assay Master, Chlcutta 2vlint, 1920;
gare up the service to Join aon-
co-eperaSon movement, 1921; had
been in jails number oi times in
I92t\ 1933, 1932, 1933 mad 1534;
member. Congress AVorking Com-
mittee 1939-50; again imprisoned in
1940 and 1542; yeas one o; the
founders ci Abhoy Ashram; Cr.iet
IvEnister. AA'. Bengal, 19^7-43; leh
Congress and founded Rrishcl:
l.Tasdim Partv.
V. Ah— educated at Etr-
hamporre (GanjamJ and Duhlin:
practised law for some time; join-
ed C.D. movement in 1921 ; Presi-
dent cf the .All-lr.cia Railwaymen’s
J. 0-r,
~ i -
WHO’s WHO
805
Federation 1927 and its Joint Secy.,
1929-36; _ represented Ail-lndia
Trade Union Congress at LJ-. O. in
Geneva 1927 ; represented labour
in R- T._C. 1930-31; member. Mad-
ras Legislative Assembly, 1937;
Minister of Labour and Industries,
Madras Govt., 1937 ; again Minister
of Madras Government 1946 which
he resigned; twice President of the
All A.I.T.U.&; was India’s High
Commissioner to Ceylon 1947-50;
Labour Minister, Central Govern-
ment, 1952-1954.
GOPALAN, AVILLIATH KUT-
TERI — b. 1904 in Malabar; passed
Matric exam, from Mission High
School, Tellicherry, 1921 ; worked
as clerk in Malabar District Board
for 8 years; joined Gandhi move-
ment in 1927 and sent to jail in
1930; joined Congress Socialist
Party 1935; Member, A.I.C.C. 1936-
39; was President and Secretary.
Indian Kishan Sabha, 1951 ; headed
a hunger march from Calicut to
Madras (700 miles) in 1938; joined
Communist Party in 1939; sent to
jail in 1941 but disappeared from
Vellore Central Jail; emerged from
his hideouts in 1946 but again sent
to jail up to May, 1951 ; Secretao’,
Kerala Communist Party since 1946 :
Member, Central Committee, Com-
munist Party of India ; member,
Lok Sabha and Leader of the Party
in the House from 1952.
VSOVIND DAS, SETH^^. 1896;
joined non-co-operation _ move-
ment in 1920; suffered imprisonment
for 7 years; President, Mahakoshal
P.CC 192^34 and 1946 onwards;
member. Central Assembly 1923-25
and 1934-47 ; member. Council of
States 1925-29; visited South and
East Africa in 1937 in connection
with the status of Indians; Presi-
dent, Hindi Sahitya Sammelan
1948; leader, Indian Delegation to
Commonwealth Parliamentaiy Con-
ference, New Zealand. 1950; has
written 84 plays in Hindi ; member
of the Parliament,
GUHA, DR. B. S.. m.a., ph.n.—
bom August 15, 1894; educated at
Calcutta and Harvard; Anthropolo-
gist, Zoological Survey of India
1927-45; Lecturer, Physical An-
thropolgy. Calcutta University 1926-
27 ; Director, Department of Anthro-
pology and Anthropological Ad-
viser, Government of India.
HUSAIN,'€>R: ZAKIR,— b. 1899;
was _ educated at the Aligarh Uni-
versity and Berlin University ;• gave
concrete shape to Gandhi’s Wardha
Scheme of_ education ; built up the
Jantia Milia into one of the most
significant educational institutions
in the country; Chairman, Central
Board of Secondary Education;
was Vice-Chancellor, Aligarh Uni-
versity; Member, Indian Press
Commission.
Oct. 23, 1883 ; educated at the Mad-
Oct. 23. 1883; educated at the Mad-
ras University'; Private Secretary,
Maharaja of Mysore, 1922; Dewan
of Mysore 1926-1941 ; member,
R. T. a 1930, 1931 and 1932 ;
Leader, Indian Delegation, Inter-
Governmental Conference of Far
Eastern Countries on Rural Hy-
giene, Java ; Prime Minister, Jai-
pur 1942-46; Prime Minister of
Hyderabad 1946-47; was resident
representative of_ the United Na-
tions- in Indonesia, 1951.
vjAY PRAKASH NARAIN— b.
in the Saran district of Bihar; left
for America in 1922, and stayed
there for nearly 8 years and studied
at five different _ Universities; re-
turned to India in 1929. and was
placed in charge of Labour Re-
search Department of the Con-
gress ; General Secretary, Con-
gress 1930-32; imprisoned for
C. D. Movement; formed Con-
gress Socialist Party in 1934;
imprisoned in 1939 under D. I. Act
and released in 1945 ; member. Con-
806
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
gress Working Committee, 1946-47 ; Indian Delegation to I.L.O. Con-
a prominent member of the Praja ference 1947 ; Minister of Labour,
Socialist Party; has joined Bhoodan Government of India, _ 1946-52;
Movement. Minister of Communications, Cen-
JAYAKA.R, M. RAMRAO, DR. tral Government from 1952.
Bar-at-Law, ll.d., d.l.c., p.c. — edu- JOHN, A. J. — ^bom July, 1893;
cated at Bombay University; entered belongs to Travancore-Cochin State;
Bombay Legislative Coimcil, 1923 was a leading lawyer in the old
and became leader of the Swaraj Travancore High Court; a active
Party in the Cetral Assembly; took member of the Travancore Congress;
a prominent part to bring peace be- its President for sometime: was a
tween the Congress and the Govern- member of the Travancore Cabinet;
ment in June 1930 but failed; mem- was Chief Minister of Travancore-
ber, Central Legislative Assembly Cochin for some time 1954; was
1926-30; a member, R.T.C. and afterwards the Finance Minister and
Joint Select Committee, 1933; Home Minister as well; now Gov-
Judge, Federal Court of India, 1937 ; ernor of Madras from 1956.
received lud., from Oxford, 1938; JO SHI, P. C. m.a., ll.b. — b. 1907;
was member of Judicial Committee joined communist movement when in
of the Privy Council ; was Vice- college ; convicted in Meerut Cons-
Chancellor, Poona University. piracy case for 5 years ; secretary
vX^AIN, AJIT PRASAD, m.a. of the communist party 1937-38;
LL,B. — b. Oct. 2. 1902; educated at edited the party weekly National
Lucknow University, Member, U. P. Front, 1937-39 ; started party’s new
Legislative Assembly 1937-38 ; mem- organ People’s War (1942-45).
her, A.I.C.C., 1931-35 and 1946; KAMATH H. VISHNU, b.sc.—
member, Constituent Assembly, b. July 13, 1907 ; educated at Madras
1946-50 : Member. U. P. Legisla- University ; School of Economics,
tive Assembly 1937-38 ; Member, London and University College, Lon-
Indjan Parliament since 1948 ; suffer- don ; resigned Government service
ed imprisonment for participating in as I.C.S. ; Secretary. National Plan-
Congress movements 1921, 1930-32, ning Committee; joined Forward
1940 and 1942; has travelled exten- Bloc; served several terms of im-
sivejy in Europe; Minister of Re- prisonment 1940-45; member, Cons-
habilitation 1950-54 ; Ministe c. of _ tituent Assembly and Indian Parlia-
Food and Agricultu re sinc e Nov- ment, 1946-52 and appin from 1954.
einber. ,1.95^ >/^BIR HUMAYUN, M.A. (Cal.
,^;3AGIVAN RAM, b.sc.,— b. April, & Oxon.)— b. Feb. 22, 1906; educa-
j^908; educated at Banaras and Cal- ted at Calcutta & Oxford Universi-
’ dutta Universities; Secretary, ties; was Secretary of the Oxford
Bihar Harijan Sevak Sangh 1938; Union Society; prominently associ-
General Secretary, All-India Dc- ated with students’ movement and
pressed Qasses League till 1936 Trade Union activities ; v;as profes-
and President 1936-46; suffered sor of Calcutta and Andhra Univer-
imprisonment for participating in sities; Leader, Peasants Party,
Congress movement 1940-43 ; Par- Bengal Legislative Council : Asses-
liamentan'. Secretary of the Con- sor to the adjudicator in All-India
^ess Ministry 1937-39: Minister of Railway dispute, 1946 ; member, Ind.
Government in Bihar Ry. Enquiry Committee. 1947; Dy.
1946; Labour Member. Interim Leader, Indian Delegation at the
Central Government 1947 ; Leader, 3rd General conference of U.K.B.S-
WHO S WHO
807
C.O., 1947 ; Author of numerous
books; Secretary, Ministry of Edu-
cation, Government of India 1952-56,
Member, Rajya Sabha
KALELKAR, K. SAHEB— bom
Dec. 1, 1885, eminent social worker,
educationist and writer ; was the
closest associate of Mahatma Gandhi
since 1915 ; was Vice-Chancellor and
Principal of Gujarat Vidyapith, was
editor of Navajtvan 1922-23 ; is now
the President of the Basic Educa-
tion Society, also Director, Mahatma
Gandhi’s Memorial Museum ; Chair-
man, Backward Classes Commission.
V-'KARVE, PROF. D. KL— b. in
April 18, 1858; founder of Hindu
Widow’s Home and Indian Wo-
men’s University at Poona ; became
2i years ; one of the founders of the
w.nw.c. & A.I.W.E.F.A.; President of
A.I.C.C. 1931-33 and 1938; held
various offices in all-India organi-
sations for women 1930 ; member.
Central Advisory Board of Educa-
tion for many years ; Member,
Indian delegation to unesco in
1945 & 1946; led the Indian Dele-
gation to W. H. Conference; elected
President of the W.H.O. Assembly
1950; President, Indian Leprosy
Association and T.B. Association of
India; Trustee, Gandhi Memorial
Fund; President, National Sports
Club of India; Minister of Health
Government of India from August,
1947; a keen lover of sports and a
famous tennis player.
professor of /er^sson College at — ^eSKAR, DR, BALKRISHNA
Poona; founded Widow Marriage viSWANATH-n.urr. ( Paris) -
Associabon; ultimately started t^rn 1903 at Poona; educated at
Indian Women’s University which
w^s inagugurated in 1916.
'-<KATJU, DR. KAILASH NATH
Kashi Vidyapith and the Sorboume,
Paris ; joined non-cooperation move'
ment in 1931 ; was lecturer of Kashi
Vidyapith and the Sorboume Paris;
1 * 014 ^ FI joined non-cooperation movement in
1914; obtained LL.a of Allahabad ^ 93 , yjj ,
Universi^r. 1919; Oiairman Alla- ... ’ 1027 . 1030 , Secv. Foreimi Dent.
habad Municipal Board, 1935-36;
Minister under Congress Govern-
pith 1927-1930; Secy. Foreign Dept,
of the A.I.C.C., 1939-40; was sen-
mpo VotT 30 nnH A^r 1 loliC imprisonment in 1930, 1931
^ Ai r^ and 1943; detained during indivi-
’ 1 off • dual civil disobedience movement
August, 1947 ; member, A.I.C.C. ;
imprisoned for 18 months in connec-
tion with C.D. movement; detained
1941-42; joined the August revolu-
tion in 1942 as underground worker ;
-r* f e T-j- -D -t- ictAO null Hi uimciKiuuuu wuiKcrt
43 • rov Tq 4%. rf ' General Secretary of the Congres
e^’o? i946-47; Member^, Constituent As-
emor. West Bengal 184/-51 ; Home in.iD. , .1. „ j.i. .r
and Defence Minister, Government delegate, of
of India 1951-56; Chiet_Mini&t£r, JSil r. 'f Union,
Matea.Sadesh_£j-onrT957. 3 ^^ter-
T^SUR, RAJKUMARl AMRIT n’’ M
— b. Feb. 2, 1889; daughter of Raja a A *
Hamam Singh of Kapurthala; edu- Assembly 1950; Depmy, Minister,
cated at home and in school and col- fa.hvays and Transport « addition
lege in England; sen-ed on Gan- 3° Affairs March 195^
dhi’s secretariat staff for 16 years; Mimstj, InfopHatjoD
member, All-India Spinners’ Asso- &B^castingJioyt,_^
ciation and Hindustan Talimi Sangh
for several years ; took part in free- KRISHNAMURTI, J. — ^b. 1897, in
dom movement and imprisoned for Madras ; was adopted by Annie Bes-
808
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ant in 1909 who proclaimed his Hindu University; Secy., Women’s
spiritual powers; “Order of the Section, Indian National Congress
Star in the East’’ was formed head- and its foreign department for one
ed by Krishnamurti to_ prepare for and half years ; imprisoned 19'W &
a new Messiah; he disbanded the 1944; member. Working Committee
Order in 1929 and repudiated all of the Congress, 1947 and U.P.
KUNZRU, PANDIT HRIDAY- Legislative Assembly ; member,
NATH, LUD. — b. 1887; educated at Board of Trustees, Gandhi Mem-
Allahabad University and London orial Trust ; member, Indian De-
School of Economics; joined Ser- legation. General Assembly U.N.O.
vants of India Society 1909; mem- mpmber, Lok Sabba.
ber, U. P. Legislative Council, VKHER, B. G. — ^b. at Ratnagari
1921-23 ; and Central _ Assembly August 24, 1888 ; educated at Poona
1927-30; President, National Libe- and Wilson College, Bombay ; pass-
ral Federation 1934 ; member of the ed law examination in 1908 ; became
Council of States 1937-47; Presi- solicitor 1918 ; toured Europe and
dent of the Servants of India So- America in 1912 ; became personal
ciety; 1936; member, Consti- secretary to Mr. Justice Beaman ;
tuent Assembly of India ; Chair- joined politics in 1932 ; conducted
man. National Cadet Corps Com- salt Satyagraha in 1932 and comnet-
mittee, 1946-47; Delegate, Paci- ed under Ordinance in 1937 ; Ex-
fic Relations Conference, 1945; President, Harijan Sevak Sangh ;
Member, Council of States from President, All-India Childrens’ As*
1951 ; member. States Reorganisation sociation ; Prime Minister, Bombay,
Committee. 1937-39 and again 1946-52 ; High)
•v^RIPALANI, ACHARYA J. B., Commissioner of -India In London
M.A.— b. Hyderabad (Sind) 1888; 1952-54.
educated at Wilson College, Bombay, KRISHNAN DR. il. S. — ^Bom
Ferguson College Poona; Professor
of History, G.B.B. College, Muza-
ffarpur, Bihar_ (1912-17) ; gave up
the post to join Mahatma (jandhi’s
Champaran Satyagraha ; Lecturer,
Banaras Hindu University 1818-20;
joined first non-co-operation move-
ment 1920 ; imprisoned several times ;
started Gandhi Ashram for Khadi &
village work 1920; Principal, Guj-
arat Vid 3 'apith 1922-28 ; member
Congress Working Committee and
General Secretary- of the Congress
1934-46 ; President of the Congress
1947 ; member, Hindustani Talimi
Sangh, Wardha ; left Congress in
1951 and formed Krishak Proja
Mazdur Parly, now Kmovu as Proja
Socialist Part 5 '.
KRIPALANI, kfRS. SUCHETA,
M.A.-— b. June 1908; educated at
Delhi & Punjab Universities; Prof.
Hindu University ; Secy., Women’s
Madras ; graduated with honours
from the Presidency College, Mad-
ras ; joined Royal College of
Science, London in 1921, where he
received D.Sc. and A.R.C.S.^ and
also Ph.D. of London University in
1924 ; joined Geological Survey of
India as an assistant Superintendent
1924 ; lecturer in geology in the
Forest College, Dehra Dun for three
successive seasons, 1927-29 ; pro-
fessor of Geolog}’, Presidency Col-
lege Calcutta, 7933-35 ; Assistant
Director of Geological Sun'ey of
India 1938-39 ; Superintending Geo-
logist 1945 ; Director, Geological
Surs’ey of India from 1939. Dele-
gate to tlie Ro}’al Society Empire
Scientific Conference 1946 ; Repre-
sentative of India at the U.N. Sden-
tific Conference 1948 ; Fellow of all
learned scientific sociaties. such as.
National Institute of Sciences. India
who’s who
809
Academy of Science ; Mineral^icai
Societies of England. France, Swit-
zerland, Germany, America.
KRISHNAN, DR. K. S.. use.;
»F.R.s.— b. Dec. 4, 1898; educated at
Madras; Research Associate Indian
Association for Cultivation of
Science, 1923-28 ; Prof. Allahabad
University, 1942-47 ; president,
National Academy of Sciences,
India,. 1945-46 ; President Indian
Science Congress, 1939_ ; fellow of
several scientific societies and aca-
demies ; receipent of numerous
medals ; delegate to several inter-
national scientific conferences ; col-
laborated with Sir C. V. Rnman m
the discovery of Raman effect; now
director, National Physical Labora-
tory, New Delhi, since 1947.
\-RRISHNAMACHARI, T T.--
Nov. 26, 1908; educated at Madras
Christian College ; entered Madras
Legislative Assembly 1937 : membw.
Central Assembly, 1947 ; member-
Constituent Assembly memoer,
Indian Financial Delegation 1 ° Lon-
don 1948 ; member. House of the
People and Minister Conunerce ana
Industry, Government of Indm tva
56; Finance Minister, Govern-
ment of India from 1956.
LAL, SHAMALDHARI-b. Oct.
4, 1894; educated at Calcutta Um-
versity and Exeter College Oxford,
entered LC.S., in 1919 :
Magistrate and Collector Bihar a
Orissa 1929 ; Under-Secretary to the
Government of India, Industries and
Labour Department 1924-1927 : Jt^
Secretary to Royal Commission on
Labour 1929 : Director, Industries
and Labour and .Secretary
Government of Bihar and Or .
Deputy High Commissioner tor
India in London 1938-1955 J •
Secretary Government
Labour Department and Mimstn
of Labour; Leader of the Indian
Delegation to I.L.O. at M
1946 ; Government delegate tor
[L.O. in 1947 and 1948 ; Chair-
man of the Governing Body of the
I.L.O. 1948-49 ; Secy. Ministry of
Lahonc 1946-50 t-AC-roT
vLrAL BAHADUR SASTRI—
bom 1904 in toaras; ^7
D. movement and imprisoned m W
and General Secretary, U.P.G.G.
1935; member, U.P. Legistativ
Assembly 1937 and 1946; Ge^:
ral Secretary of th^e Congress,
Minister of Railway, Comment of
if 1910 - educated at (takutta
Bombay and Berlin rvhere he took
PhD degree ; prominent member
S the Profa Socialist Party : was
Secretary, Foreign _ D®P?’'‘‘J’“years
the Congress ; f
1943-44 riecretarj^ Pub-
ic Relations Department of
Pi’ S lW?-"; Indian
Central Assembly, ms .
Auibassador to As-
Author of many, books
scmbly , ^ . Constitution a>
such as Aiai food, Pio-
Work, Our India, Your rauu,
hire of o -dtitt SINGH— b.
23^1894 • educated at Oxford:
No''-J?-tcs’ in 1922 : served m
entered l.G.S. . Jt. SeCJ'.
the ^ GoH. of India
Commerce Trade Com-
lc«il ’internal .Conferences :
feade™ Indian delegation. 6th Ses
810
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
sion of the U. N. General Assem-
bly at Paris 1951-52 ; High Com-
missioner for India in Canada 1937-
49 ; Indian Ambassador to France
1948-56.
MAHAJAN, MEHRCHAND—
b. Dec. 1889; educated at D.A.V.
College, I.ahore & Punjab Univer-
sity ; practised as a lawyer at
Dharamshala, Gurdaspur and
Lahore for 30 years ; appointed
Judge of Lahore High Court in
1943 ; served for short period as a
Judge of East Punjab High Court
after partition ; appointed Prime
Minister, Jammu & Kashmir State;
Constitutional Adviser, Maharaja
of Bikaner ; Judge, Supreme Court
of India ; Chief Justice, Supreme
Court of India 1954-56.
MAHTAB, HAREKRUSHNA—
b. Nov. 21, 1899; educated at Raven-
shaw College, Cuttack; joined non-
co-operation movement in 1920 ;
Chairman, Balasore District Board
1924-28 ; member B. & O. Legisla-
tive Council 1924 ; Editor, Praja-
iantra and Rachana ; joined C. D.
movement, 1930-1932 ; President
Utkal P.C.C. 1930 & 1937 ; member.
Congress Working Committee,
1946-50 ; Ex-Minister, Commerce
and Industry, Govt, of India ; Gov-
ernor of Bombay 1955-56.
MATHAI, DR. JOHN, n.sc.,
(Lond.) — ^b. Jan. 10, 1886; educated
at Madras, London School of Econo-
mics and Oxford ; n.sc., (Lond.) ;
Officer on special dutj-. Co-opera-
tive Department, Madras 1918-20 ;
Professor of Economics, Presi-
dency College, Madras 1922-25;
rnember, Madras Legislative Coun-
cil, 1922-25 ; member, Indian Tariff
Board 1925-31 ; President, Tariff
Board 1931-35 ; Director-General,
Commercial Intelligence and Statis-
tics 1935-40; joined the Tatas 1940
^d _ 1st Director 1944 ; Finance
Minister, Government of India
1946 : Minister Industiy- and Supply,
(jovt. of India 1946-47 ; Minister of
Transport and Railways 1947-^ ;
Minister of Finance 1949-50 ; joined
the Tatas in 1950 ; Chairman, Taxa-
tion Enquiry Committee^ (Chair-
man, Board of Directors, State,
Bank of India 1955-56.
MAHMUD. DR. SYED— b. in
1889 ; educated in Aligarh, Cam-
bridge and Germany ; was gene-
ral Secretary of the lOiilafat' (Com-
mittee and of the All-India Con-
gress Committee 1923 ; was mem-
ber of the Working Committee oi
the Congress 1945-49 ; was l^Iinis-
ter of Education and Development
in the first Bihar Cabinet 1937-39 ;
again Minister of Development and
Transport 1946-52 ; was jailed
several times, last being in connec-
tion with the 1942 movement; mem-
ber of the Lok Sabha ; Minister of
State, Central (Cabinet from 1954.
MEHTA. DR. JIVRAJ, m.d.
(Lon.d) M.R.C.P. (Lond.) — b. 1887 ;
educated at Baroda, Bombay & Lon-
don ; Chief Medical Officer, Baroda
1921-24 ; President, Indian Medical
Assodation for several j’ears ;
member. Medical Council of India
1938-43; fellow. University of
Bombay ; arrested & imprisoned
in 1932-33 and 1942-44 Under D. I.
Act ; Director-tjeneral of Health
Services of India, 1948 ; Dewan,
Baroda State, 1948 ; Minister, Gov-
ernment of Bombay from 1949.
MIRA BEHN— b. Nov. 22. 1892;
daughter of Admiral Sir Edmund
Slade : Her interest in music and
admiration for Bethoven’s works
led her to Romain Rolland which
in turn led her to Mahatma Gandhi ;
left Europe for India and joined
Mahatma Gandhi’s Asharm at
Sabarmati, Nov. 1925 ; accom-
panied Mahatma Gandhi to London
in 1931 for Round Table Confer-
ence, suffered several terms of im-
prisonment during India’s struggle
for freedom : established an ash-
who’s who
811
ram and cattle development COTtre
in Rishikesh forest area in 1947.
/KEHTA, MRS. HAN SA— bom
3, 1897; educated, at, Bamda;
married to Dr. Jivaraj Menta;
President B.P.C.C., 1930; bellow,
Bombay University Senate, 1931-
1947; member, Bombay Legislative
Council for several years; Vice-
President, All-India Womens Con-
ference for several years ; represent-
ed India in several International
Conferences; was a member ot the
U.N. Sub-Commission on the status
of women 1946; niember, Human
Rights Commission of U. N. 194/ >
and delegate, Commonwealth rar-
liamentary Conference 1948; author
of numerous books ; now, Vice-
aancellor, Baroda Umyersi^.
MEHTA. GANGANVIHARI LAL
M.A.-b. April IS, 1900; educated at
Bombay and London School
nomics ; Assistant Editor ot tne
Bombav Chronicle 1923-25 :, Mana-
ger, Scindia Steam Navigation Co.,
tt Calcutta 1928-47 President
Federation of Indian Chambers
Commerce, 1942-43 ; member. Cen-
tral Advisory Board of Education
1943-47 : Member ; Constituent
Assembly of India, 1947 :
sioner of the Port of Calcutta
for several years;
Tariff Board 1947-SO ;
All-India Council of
Education, 1945 ; Chairman, Indian
Tariff Commission 1952 ; member.
Planning Commission 193 - .
Indian Ambassador to U.S.A. f
1952. , 04th
^lEHTA, ASOKA, B.A.— b- 24th
Oct. 1911 ; educated at Wilson
College, Bombay ; imprisoned sc
veral times ; one of the /oun^«
and prominent member , of tormer
Socialist Party of India _ .
tarj-, All-India Socialist Party ,
editor of the party organ 193b-ay .
imprisoned several times M
of the Parliament.
mWi. BISHNU^M-bom
April 1890; took M.„ degree, from
Presidency College, ^Icutta ;
Gauhati ; imprisoned in
1921, 1930, 1932. 1940 and 1942 for
participating in
ties; member, Assam Legislative
Assembly 1938 & 1946
tarv Congress Session, ijaunau,
1930' • President of the Assam
P.CC. 1930-39 ; . First Congress
chairman, Gauhati Local
Assam’s Chief Minister from 1950.
r^rd of national, social and
benevolent services ; p’’’
K M. Munshi, Governor of U.P.
4fr'¥S5’
College. Calcutta; received
&id.e;iomedP^s^den<p^^J
logc, Calcutta 1 * loiR • Hony.
bridge ^nivera y ^9 >^g2j,3^ .
f"":"l"ir'PresS Indian Science
Sectional ; Secretary,
p 4 "Katis?icaI Society from 1931;
SC, ’SS:
^'^'miSes and Commissions :, Cal.
Committees anu Statistics,
Universi^ ^ i Iprrptarv Indian
1941 ; General Secretary,
1945 • President, Indian
Scientific c®J®|cer l'954'- Chairman,
demy of Sciences 19^ of Statis-
Adwscr to Indian Cabinet.
812
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
MUKHERJEE, AIR MARSHAL
SUBROTO— bom March S, 1911
at Calcutta; educated at Cranwell,
England in 1929; passed through
the R.A.F. College and Imperial
Defence College, U. K. ; served
with No, 16 Squardon R.A.F. 1932-
33; commanded No. 1. Squadron
I.A. F. 1939 ; mentioned in des-
patches for distin.^ished service
in N.W.F.P. ; Station Commander
R.A.F. Station, Kohat 1943; Dy.
Chief of Air Staff and Dy. Com-
mandar I.A.F. 1947-52; Chief of
Air Staff Indian Air Force 1954.
MENON. V. K. KRISHNA m.a.
(London) ; M.sc. (Econ. London) ;
Bar-at-law, lud. Glasgow (Hon-
ris causa) ; Padma Bhusan
1954; — ^b.. May 3, 1897; educated
at Malabar, Madras and London ;
Secretary, India League (London)
1929-47; Councellor, St. Pancras,
London, 1943-47; Special Repre-
sentative, Government of India
1946- 47; represented India in var-
ious International Congresses; High
Commissioner for India in London
1947- 52; Delegate to U.N. Nov.
1952-53 ; First Editor, Pelican
Books; 20th Century' Library
(Bodley Head) ; Minister without
portfolio. Government of India
1956.
-^lENON K. P. S. B.A. (Oxon) ;
I.C.S., b. Oct, 18, 1898; edu-
cated at St. Xavier’s College,
Madras and Oxford; joined i.c.s.
in 1932; serv'ed in Madras Presi-
dency till Feb. 1925; Govt, of
India’s Agent in Ceylon 1929-33;
deputed by Govt, of India to en-
quire_ the position of Indians in
Zanzibar, Kenya and Uganda 1934 ;
Chief ^finister. Bharatpur State
and Political Agent, Western Raj-
putana States, 1940-43; Agent-Gene-
ral, Govt, of India in Qtina 1943-
4^! Indian Ambassador to Qiina
1947 ; Qiairman, U. N. Commission
on Korea, 1948; Secretary-General,
External Affairs, (jovt, of India
1948-52; Indian Ambassador to
U.S.S.R. from 1952.
MODY, SIR HOMI P., m.a., u-b.
— Bom 1881 ; educated at Bombay ;
Member, Municipal Corporation,
1913-14; and its President, 1923-24;
Chairman, Mill-Owmers’ Association,
Bomba}', 1929-34; President. Indian
Merchants’ Chamber, 1928; Presi-
dent, Employees’ Federation of In-
dia, 1933-41 ; attended Round Table
Conference ; member. Central As-
sembly 1929-43 : member. Viceroy’s
Executive (Council 1931-43; Director,
Tata Sons Ltd. ; delegate. I. L. Con-
ference, (^neva, 1937 ; Governor of
Bombay, Sept, 1947 ; Governor of
Uttar Pradesh. 1949-1952.
MUDALIAR, SIR A. RAMA-
SWAMI K.C.S.I.— b. Oct. 14, 1887;
educated at Madras Christian Col-
lege and Law College, Madras ; Ad-
vocate, !Madras; ifember of the
Madras Legislature, 1920-26; Mayor
Madras Corporation. 1928-30; mem-
ber, Council of States 1930; member,
Ind. Legislative Assembl}' 1931-34;
delegate to the Round Table Con-
ference; Leader, Indian Delegation
to the British Commonwealth Rela-
tions Conference, Toronto 1933;
member. Economic Committee of the
League of Nations; member. Vice-
roy’s Executive Council, 1939-42
and 1943; was member of the Bri-
tish War Cabinet and Pacific War
Council 1942-43 ; President of Social
and Economic Council of U. N.
1946 and 1947 ; Dev/an of Itlysore
1946-49.
MUNSHI K. M. B.A., ixa— b.
Dec. 29, 1887; educated at Baroda
and Bombay; enrolled as Advocat^
High Court 1913; was a joint edi-
tor of Foiing Itulia in 1915; Sccre-
tarj', Bombay Home Rule League,
1919-20 ; fellow of the Bombay Uni-
versit}': member. Bombay Legisla-
who’s who
813
tive Council 1927-30; member,
Baroda University Commission,
1926, member, All-India Congress
Committee 1931-37 ; was Home
Minister, Bombay, 1937-39; a well-
known Gujarati novelist; left Con-
gress in 1941 but rejoined in 1946;
Agent-General of India in Hydera-
bad State 1947-48; Food and Agri-
culture Minister, Government of
India 1950-52 ; now Governor of
U.P. from 1952.
MUKFIERjr, DR. HIRENDRA-
NATH, M.A. D.LiTT (Oxon), Bar-
at-Law, b. Nov. 23, 1907 ; educated
at Cal. University, St. Catherine’s,
Oxford and Lincoln’s Inn., Lend.
Lecturer in history and politics,
Andhra University 1934-45: Head
of the Department of History
Surendranath College since 1936;
Lecturer, Post-Graduate Depart.,
Calcutta University 1940-45; mem-
ber, Executive Committee, Bengal
P.C.C. 1938-39: member, A.I.CC.
1938-39; Foundation _ member.
Friends of the Soviet Union 1941 ;
Editor, Indo-Sovicl Journal 1941-
45; Jt. Secy., All-India Friends
of the Soviet Union 1944 ; Associ-
ate Editor, Calcutta Weekly Notes
1945-52; member, Bengal State
Committee, Communist Party of
India 1947 ; Member, Lok Sabha.
MUKHERJI, SIR BIREN m.a.
(Cantab)— born 1899; educated at
Calcutta and Trinity College. Cam-
bridge; is the ^Managing Director
of the well-known firm of Martin
& Burn and also Indian Iron &
Steel Co., youngest son oi Sir
Rajendranath Mookherjee: joined
the firm of Martin & Co. in 1924;
became a partner of Bum & Co.
in 1931 and of Martin & Co..
Ltd., in 1943 ; was Sheriff of
Calcutta. 1940-11 ; was member
of the National Defence Council.
V^^DAR. KAMRAJ — President
of the Tamil Nad Congress Commit-
tee 1939-1952 excepting six months;
elected leader of the Madras Leg-
islature Congress Party from
March 1954 consequent on the re-
tirement of Mr. C. Rajagopalachari;
Chief Minister of Madras from
April 1954.
NAG DR. KALIDAS,— b. 1892;
educated Calcutta and Paris Uni-
versity; Professor, Scottish Chur-
ches; College, (Zalcutta 1915-19;
Principal, Mahendra College, Galle,
Ceylon; representative of the Cal-
cutta University at the International
Conference of Libraries and Libra-
rians, Paris 1923; Professor. Cal-
cutta University, Post-Graduate
classes from 1923-55; visiting Pro-
fessor, University of Howaii;
Delegate, 2nd British Commonwealth
Relations Conference, Sydney 1938;
General Secretary, Asiatic Society
of Bengal, 1942-46; Member,
Rajya- Sabha 1952-54.
'-NANDA, GULZARILAL m.a.,
IX.B. — ^b. : July, A, 1898; educated at
Foreman Christian College, Lahore;
Research Scholar. Allahabad Uni-
versity 1820-21 ; Secretary, Textile
Labour Association, Ahmedabad.
1922-46; Minister of Labour, Bom-
bay Government, 1946-50; Dy.
Chairman, National Planning Com-
mission, 1950-51 : Minister for
Planning and Irrigation and Power,
Government of India.
NAYAR, DR. SUSHILA.— b. at
Kunjah in Gujerat District, came in-
to contact with Mahatma Gandhi in
1930; was sent to jail several times,
1942, 1944: was Secretary to the
Kasturba Trust Medical Board;
toured Noakhali with Mahatma
Gandhi during communal riots :
worked for the recovery of abducted
Muslim women in Punjab 1948;
toured America, England and Scan-
dinavia 1948-50 and took graduate’s
course in child and maternal care
at John Hopkins University, U.s.a. ;
Minister of Health, Delhi State
814
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1952-55; President, _ Delhi Le-
gislative Assembly 1955-56.
NEHRU, JAWAHARLAL-b.
No%’. 14. 1889; only son oi the late
Pandit Motilal Nehru; educated at
Harrow School, Trinity College,
Cambridge and Inner Temple Lend.;
Advocate, Allahabad, High Court;
Secretarj-, Home Rule League, Al-
lahabad, 1918: member, A.I.C.C.
since 1918; suffered first imprison-
ment for organising strikes and
hartals during Prince of Wales’
visit 1922-23; General Secretary of
the AJ.ee, 1992; Chairman of the
Allahabad Municipalit)’ : arrested in
the Nabha State and put to prison
for agitation of the Akalis to per-
form a religious ceremon}'; Hsited
Europe and attended Brussels Con-
ference of Oppressed Nationalities
as the official delegate of the Con-
gress; organised Bihar earthquake
relief; was again arrested in Feb.
1934 and kept in jail 1935; went
to Eur^e for his wife’s treatment
who died there, 1936; President,
Indian National Congress, 1929-30,
1936, 1939 and 1946; sisited Spain
during Spanish Civil War 193S;
elected first President of the All-
India States Peoples’ Conference,
1939; visited China, August, 1939;
suffered imprisonment for participat-
ing in Congress movements, 1921.
1922, 1930, 1932, 1934-35, 1940 and
1940-45 ; took _ active part in the
Cripps negotiation, 1942. organised a
Defence Council for the officers and
men of the Indian National Army
formed by Subhas Bose; visited
Singapore. March, 1946; joined in-
terim government as member for
External Affairs and Commonwealth
Rdations and was nominated Vice-
President, Sept. 1946 : Honoraiy
li-D., Patna Universih'. 1946 ;
same degree from Delhi University,
1948; called Asian Relations Con-
ference at Delhi. 1947 ; Prime Minis-
ter of India for External Affairs
and Commonwealth Relations as
well as for Sdentific Research
1947- 52; went to England to par-
ticipate in Commonwealth Prime
Ministers’ Conference, Oct 1948;
addressed United Nations Assembly
at Paris, 1948: Hsited U.SA. and
Canada at the inrftation of U.S. &
Canadian Governments ; attended the
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
1953; attended the Conference oi
Prime Ministers of S-E. in Colombo
1954; Prime Minister of Inda
from 1952 ; Congress President 1951,
1052 & 1953; His books include— ;
Autobiography, Glimpse oj World
History; Discovery oj India; Letters
from Father to his Daughter; etc.
hobb 3 ' — mountain climbing, swim-
ming and horse riding.
NEOGY, KSHITISH CHAN-
DRA, M.A., IX.B. — b. 18^; educated
at Dacca & Cal. ; and start^ practice
as an advocate ; member. Central Le-
gislative Assembly 1921-34 S: 1942-
45: adviser to States Delegation to
RT.C. in London, 1930-31 ; Dewan
of Majurbhanj State 1940-42; Poli-
tical Adviser of MajTirbbanj State
1940-42; member. Standing Com-
mittee of Ministers of the Qjam-
ber of Princes 1940-42; Chairman,
Committee of Ministers, Eastern
States 1940-42 ; Legal Adviser.
Chamber of Princes ; Member,
Central Legislative Assemblj' 1942
and again in 1946; member. Council
of Human Rights. U. N. 1942;
Chairman, Indian Railway Enquio’
Committee, 1947 ; Gort. of India
Minister of Relief and Rehabilita-
tion 1947; Minisiter of Commerce
1948- 30; Chairman, Finance Com-
mission 1951-53; Member. Planning
Commission since 1933.
NORKEY, SHERPA TENZING
— b. 1914 in Eastern Nepal: began
his life as porter to mountaineering
parties at Darjeeling; joined many
e.vpeditions — mainly Everest e-xpedi-
tions from 1935 — such as Shipton.
WHO's WHO
8(5
Ruttledge, Tilnian’s parties ; readied
a lieight of 28,210 ft. of Mt. Everest
with Swiss expedition in 19S2 ; con-
quered the summit of Mt. Everest
with Hillarv on May 29. 1953;
awarded George Medal by Queen
Elizabeth; U. S. Hubbard Medal,
special medal by the President of
India; now Director, School of
Mountaineering, Darjeeling.
PAL, DR. RADHABINOD h.a.,
LL.D. — Advocate of the Calcutta
High Court from 1921 ; Tagore Law
Professoij^f the Calcutta University
for 3 times; attended the Interna-
tional Congress of Comparative Law
1927 and was elected President of
the International Assembly of
Comparative Law; Judge, Calcutta
High Court 1941-43 ; Vice-Chan-
cellor, Calcutta University 1944-46:
Judge, International Military Tri-
bunal for trial of war criminals for
the Far East in Tokio, 1946-48;
elected member. International Law
Commission in 1952 ; author of
several law books.
PANDIT, MRS. VIJAYALAK-
SHMI — b. 18. Aug., 1900; sister of
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru; was the
first woman Minister in India ; took
active part in the Congress move-
ments of 1930 and 1932; President,
All-India Women’s _ Conference;
1941 ; was sent to jail in 1930 and
1932; took extensive tour to Ameri-
ca in 1944-45 ; again Congress
^linister of U. P., 1946; leader of
India Delegation to U. N. in 1946,
1947, 1948, 1952 and 1953 ; India’s
Ambassador at U.S.S.R. 1948-49;
India’s Ambassador to U. S. A.
1949-51 ; President, U. N. General
.\sscmbly, 1953 ; High Commis-
sioner of India in London from
1954; has received nine honorary
decorations from Indian and fore-
ign universities.
^PANT, PT. GOVIND VALLABH
— b. Sept., 1987 ; educated at Muir
College. .Allahabad; enrolled Advo-
cate, 1909; Leader, Congress Party
U.P. Assembly: was leader of the
Swaraj Party in U.P. Council for
seven years ; took leading part in the
non-co-operation movement, 1921 ;
took active part in Satyagraha
movement, 1930 ; member. Central
Legislative Assembly in 1935 ; was
Congress Prime Minister of U.P.,
1937-39; again in 1946-54; Home
Minister, Govt, of India from 1955.
PAKVASA. M. MANCHARAM,
D.A., LUB. — Born 7th May, 1882 ;
educated at Elphinstonc High School
and College, Bombay; was solicitor
of Bombay High Court for 30 years ;
was in jail in 1932-1940 and 1942-
43; was President, Bombay Legisla-
Council upto 1947 ; Governor of
Madhya Pradesh 1947-52.
VPANNIKAR, SARDAR K.N.— b.
1895 ; educated in the Madras Chris-
tian College and Christ Church Col-
lege, O.xford where he was the first
Indian to obtain a first class honours
in history, 1917 : Professor, Aligarh
University ; , j oined non-co-operation
and edited Swarajya; the first edi-
tor of Hindustiwn Times, Delhi,
1925 ; went to Europe 1925-31 : Se-
cretary, Chancellor of the Princes’
Chamber 1931-37 ; held concurrently,
portfolio of the Foreign, .Political
and Education as Minister of Bika-
ner ; India’s representive at the Paci-
fic Conference, Canada, 1942 ; de-
legate to U.N., General Assembly;
India’s .Ambassador to China 1938-
52; India’s Ambassador to Egypt
and Minister to Syria, Jordon, Le-
banon and Libya; Member. States
Reorganisation Committee ; now
Ambassador to France from 1956.
PATWARDHAN, ACHYUT—
b. Feb. 5, 1950; educated at Central
Hindu College, Banaras; took m.a.
degree and proceeded to Europe ; be-
came Professor of Economics on his
return; joined C. D. Movement in
1932 ; started along with others Con-
gress Socialist Party ; went under-
816
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ground during August revolution,
1942-46.
>^p£aKASAM, T., Bar-at-Law.—
b. 1876 ; prominent political leader of
Madras; gave up a leading practice
at the Bar for non-cooperation
movement; member. Central Assem-
bly 1926 and resigned in 1930; be-
came Revenue Minister, Madras,
1937; imprisoned several times;
Chief Minister of Congress Gov-
ernment, Madras, 1946-47; Chief
Minister, Andhra 1953-54.
SRI PRAKASA, b.a., ll.b. (can-
tab). Bar-at-Law — ^b. 1890; edu-
cated at Allahabad and Cambridge;
was called to the Bar in 1914; was
connected with Banaras Hindu Uni-
versity 1914-17 ; member, Banaras
Municipal Board 1921-25; member
of the A.I.C.C. 1918-45 ; . member
Secretary, 1928-34; President of the
U.P.CC. 1934-35; General Secre-
tary, Congress 1929-31 ; member.
Central Assembly 1935-46; was im-
prisoned five times during the na-
tional movement ;_ India’s High Com-
missioner in Pakistan 1947-49; Gov-
ernor of Assam 1949-50; Commerce
Minister, Central Government 1950-
51; Governor of Madras 1952-56;
(^vernor of Bombay from 1956.
-/PATIL, S. K. — ^Born August 14,
1900; educated at Bombav and Lon-
don; Diploma holder in journalism
from London School of Economics
and London University College;
joined Congress movement in 1920;
- joined Bombay Chronicle in 1927;
General Secrefarj-. B.P.C.C. ; im-
prisoned several times; member of
A,I.C.C. since 1930 ; leader of tlie
Congress Party, Bombay Corpora-
tion : was member. OentoLBcaoLciL
Film Censors .: President. Bombay
Provincial Congress Committee;
first ^fayor of Greater Bombay.
PRANJAPE, SIR R. P.-
Feb. 1876, >r.A. (CantabI ;
-b. 6,
D.Sc.
(Hon. Calcutta) ; late Vice-Chan-
cellor, Lucknow University ; edu-
cated at Ferguson College, Poona,
St. John’s College. Cambridge
Paris and Gottingen ; Senior
Wrangler of Cambridge 1899; Prin-
cipal and Professor, Ferguson Col-
lege, 1902-26 : Minister of Educa-
tion, Bom. 1921-23 & 1929 ; Presi-
dent, Indian Liberal Federation ;
Fellow, Bombay University 19C5-7 ;
member, Bombay Legislative Coun-
oil, 1913-16 ; Vice-Chancellor,
Indian Women’s _ UniveWty 1916-
20 ; member, India Council, 1827-
32; Government of India represen-
tative in Australia.
RANGA, PROF. N. G.— b. 7,
Nov., 1900 ; educated at Oxford ;
Prof, of Economics, Pachyappa’s
College Madras, 1927-30 ; mem-
ber, Congress Working Committee,
1948 : President, All-India Kisan
Congress, Rural People’s Federa-
tion, Andhra Provincial Congress
Committee ; was member of the
Indian Parliament for several years ;
President, All-India _ Handloom
Weavers’ Congress; India’s delegate
to FAO Conference, Copenhagen,
1946 and I.L.O. Conference. San
Francisco, 1948; led Indian delega-
tions to tile London (1946) and the
Hague (1947) Conferences of Inter-
national Federation of Agricultural
Producers ; Resigned Congress
1951^ started Krishikar Lok Party.
DR. BIDHAN CHANDRA
— b. 1st July, 1882 at Patna; edu-
cated at Patna ; M.D. degree from
Cal. University, 1908; L.R.C.P.
(London) and M.R.C.S. (Eng.) in
1909 ; M.R.C.P. (London) and
F.R.C.S. in 1911 ; President, Indian
Medical Council 1939 & 1944 ; Fel-
low of the Calcutta University 1916;
Vice-Chancellor, Calcutta Univer-
sitj', 1942-44 ; D.Sc. (Cal.) con-
ferred in 1944 ; Alderman of
Calcutta for two times : Mayor of
WHOS WHO
817
Calcutta for two times ; impnsoned University Professorship 1933; and
for six months in 1931 ; member, became Director of the Bangalore
Bengal Legislative Council, 1923 ; Science Institute ; began to build
President, B.P.C.C. ; apppointed Raman Research Institute in Ban-
Governor of United Provinces but galore 1943 ; awarded Franklin
declined the post ; Chief Minister, medal of America, 1951 ; President,
West Bengal, from 1947. Indian Science Congress 1928 ; Fel-
RAY, MRS. RENUKA — A gra- low, Franklin Institute, Royal Irish
duate of the Lond. School of Eco- Academy etc.
nomics ; was a member of the Cen- VJRADlIAKRISHNAN. SIR S. M.A.
tral Legislative Assembly from 1943-
45 ; and then member of the Indian
Constituent Assembly 1946-50 ; a
prominent member of the All-India
Women’s Conference ; Member,
Board of Education ; member, gov-
erning Tjody of Tagore’s Viswabha-
rati ; Minister of Rehabilitation,
West Bengal; 1952-57.
RAMAN, SIR CHANDRA SE-
KHARA VENKATA, m.a., i.i..d.
D.sc., (Cal.) r.R.s., — ^b. at Trichino-
poly, Nov. 7, 1888; educated at
Hindu College Vizagapatam and
Presidency College, Madras and
graduated in 1904 and got master’s
degree three years later ; ente-
red the Indian Finance Depart-
ment as Assistant Accountant
General after winning first place
in a competitive examination ;
came to Calcutta in 1909 where he
began his scientific researches ;
Palit Professor of Phs-sics at the
Calcutta University 1917 ; visited
Europe in 1921 as a delegate to the
Congress of the Universities of Bri-
tish Empire ; became Ghose Travell-
ing Fellow, 1924; visited America
and represented India at the cen-
tenary of the Franklin Institute of
Philadelphia ; represented India at
the bicentenary of the Russian Aca-
demy of Sciences at Leningrad and
Moscow, 1925 ; discovered the phe-
nomena known as ‘Raman effect’ in
1928 ; received Metucci medal,
Rome 1928 : created Knight, 1929;
received Hughes Medal of the Royal
Society, 1940 ; awarded Nobel Prize
for phvsics, 1930 ; resigned Calcutta
52
.D.I.ITT., F.B.A. — Bom 5th Sept.,
1882; was educated in the Madras
Christian College ; was professor
of Philosophy, Presidency College,
Madras (1911-17), Mysore Univer-
sity (1918-22) ; George V. Pro-
fessor of Philosophy, (Calcutta Uni-
versity (1931-36) ; Vice-Chancel-
lor, Banaras Hindu University
(1939-48) ; Upton Lecturer, Man-
chester College, Oxford (1925 and
1920-30) ; Haskel Lecturer in com-
parative religion. University of Chi-
cago (1926) : President, Indian
Philosophical Congress, 1927 &
1950 : Hibbert Lecturer (1929) ;
Spalding Professor of Eastern Reli-
gions, Oxford since 1936 ; member
of the International Committee on
Intellectual Co-operation, League of
Nations (1931-39) ; Hony. Fellow
of the Royal Asiatic Society of Ben-
gal ; President, Indian Universi-
ties Commission ; India’s Ambassa-
dor to U.S.S.R., now Vice-Presi-
dent of India from 1952. Author
of Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) ;
Hindu View of Life ; Kalki, etc.
RAJA, P. KUMARASWAMI—
b. June, 1898 ; entered politics in
1917 ; was member of the Madras
Legislative Assembly for several
years ; Minister of Aprriculture in
Prakasam Ministry 1936-57 ; mem-
ber, Central Assembly, 1934 ; was
member^ of the A. I. C. C. ; parti-
cipated in the non-cooperation move-
ment and courted imprisonment
several times ; Chief Minister of
Madras, 1939-52 ; now Governor of
Orissa from 1954.
818
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOR
RAJAGOPALACHARI, C. b.a.
BX., — b. in 1879, educated at Presi-
dency College and Law College,
Madras ; joined Bar in 1900 at
Salem ; gave up his practice and
joined Rowlatt Act Satyagraha
campaigHj 1919 ; served many
periods of imprisonment ; edited
Gandhiji’s New India; General
Secretary of the Congress, 1821-
22 ; member. Working Committee
of Congress 1941 ; and again in
1946 ; President, Tamil Nad Con-
gress Committee till 1935 ; was Pre-
mier of the Congress Ministry at
Madras, 1937-39 ; left Congress in
1942 on account of the difference of
opinion but joined in 1945 ;
member, Interim Government
1946- 47 ; Minister, Govt, of India,
1947 ; Governor, West Bengal
1947- 48 ; Governor General of
India, 1948-50 ; Minister of Home
Affairs Govt, of India, 1950-51.
Chief Minister, Madras 1952-54.
^RAJENDRA PRASAD. DR
M.A., U..V. (All.)— b. 3rd Dec.,
1884 in Jiradei in the district of
Saran, Bihar ; passed M.L., 1925;
leader of the Behari Students’ Con-
ference ; member of the Patna Uni-
versity Senate for several years ;
twice President, All-India Hindi
Literary Conference ; joined Mahat-
ma Gandhi in 1917 in famous Cham-
paran agrarian affairs ; joined the
non-co-operation movement in 1920;
General Secretary of the Congress,
1922 : member, Congress Working
Committee for several years ; Pre-
sident, Bombay and Calcutta
Congress 1934 and 1939 ; imprison-
ed for August movement in 1942
and released in 1945 ; Minister of
Food, Indian Union, 1947 : resign-
President, Indian Constitutent As-
sembly 1946-49 ; President, Re-
public of India from 1950 ; author
of the 'India Divided.’
^JENDRA SINHJI, General— b.
June 15, 1899 ; belongs to the ruling
family of Jammagar, Kathiawar ;
nephew of the great cricketer Ran-
jit Sinhji educated at Rajkumar Col-
lege, Rajkot and Royal Military^ Col-
lege Sandhurst; was commissioned
in 1821; joined 2nd Royal Lancers;
went to N. Africa as Squardon
Commander in 1941 ; is the first
Indian to win D.S.O. in the World
War II; the first and only Indian
to attain brevet rank of a major ;
was appointed commandant of the
2nd Ro}'al Lancers in 1943 ; Deputy
Director of Public Relations, Govt,
of India in Washin^on, 1945_ ; first
Military Attadhe in Washington,
1945 ; and was awarded the U.S.
“Legion of Merit”; became Briga-
dier, 1946 ; Major-General in 1947
and Lt. General in 1948 ; Director
of Indian Armoured Corps, 1946 ;
Commander of Delhi and East Pun-
jab Sub-Area, 1947 ; G.O.C. in
Chief, Eastern Command 1948,
G.O.C.-Southem Command, 1948-
52 ; was the leader of the Hydera-
bad Military ^mpa)gn,_1948; Ciom-
mander-in-Chief, Indian Army
1952-54.
RAUTROY, SATCHIDANAN-
DA — b. 1915 at Khurda, Orissa;
executive officer, Keshoram Cotton
Mills, Calcutta; participated M
Government of India nominee in
Social Sendees Seminar in Austra-
lia and New Zealand 1952; attend-
ed Han’ard University Interna-
tional Semiar of Arts and Science;
story rvriter in Oriya, has rvritten
numerous books of poems.
^DDY, B. GOPALA— b. Aug.
5, 1907; graduated from the Vis-
wabharati, Santincketan ; partici-
pated in the Salt Satyagraha 1930;
went to jail in 1930, 1932, 1939,
1942 ; member Madras Legis-
lative Assembly 1937 ; Minister
for Local Self-Government^ 1937-
39 ; Member, Andhra, University
Senate from 1944 ; Minister of
WHOS WHO
819
Finance, Madras Government 1947-
52 ; Pro-Chancellor of the Andhra
University from 1951 ; Chief Minis-
ter, Andhra State from 1955.
RAO, DR. V. K. R. V. ph.i>—
(Cambridge) ; represented India
on International Food Conferences
at Quebec, Washington and Copen-
hagen ; worked as Director of Sta-
tics and afterwards Planning Ad-
viser in the Ministry of Food of the
Government of India ; was Food
Adviser to the Indian Embassy,
Washington 1946-47 ; was Chair-
man, U. N, Sub-Commission on
Economic Development, 1947-50 ;
member, governing council. Inter-
national Association for research in
income and wealth 1947-51 ; corres-
pondent for India. Royal Economic
Society, London ; Past President,
Indian Economic Association 1949;
was member. Central Board of Film
Censors, Press Commission, Plan-
ning Commission Advisory Board
and National Income Committee ;
University Professor and Head of
the Department of Economics, Delhi
Univer.«ity from I942_ and concur-
rently founder and director, Delhi
School of Economics.
RUKMINI DEVI— bom 1904 at
Madura ; married to late Dr. G.
S. Arundale, President. Theoso-
phical Society ; started dancing in
early age ; exponent of _ Indian
dance and music, specialising in
Bharata Nitya, music, drama, paint-
ing and crafts ; made extensive
tours in different countries with
dance recitals and lectures ; mem-
ber, Indian National Commission for
cooperation with UNESCO ; Pre-
sident, Kalakshetra International
Arts Centre, Adyar, Madras;
Member of the Parliament.
v.^ACHAR. BHIM SEN— b.a.,
L.L.V., — b. Dec. 1,1893; educated in
Punjab and joined Bar 1918 ;
joined non-coperation movement,
1921 ; member, Punjab Legislative
Assembly 1936-45 ; Member, Cons-
tituent Assembly 1949 ; Finance
Minister, Punjab Govt. 1946-47 ;
Chief Minister, East Punjab 1946-
56; Governor of Orissa from 1956.
SAMPURANAND — born Jan. 1,
1891 ; started as school master ;
worked at Daly College, Indore,
1915-18 ; was Professor, Kashi Ci-
dyapith 1922; Member, A.I.C.C. ;
was Secretary, U. P. Provincial
Congress Committee ; President,
Second All-India Socialist Con-
ference ; Ex-Minister of Educa-
tion of U.P. Government, 1938-
39 ; was Minister of Education,
Finance and Labour, U.P., 1947-
52 ; again Minister of U.P. Govt.
1952-54 ; Chief Minister U.P.
from 1955.
SARKAR, SIR JADUNATH,
KT. C.I.E., M.A.— b. Dec. 10, 1879;
1st Qass 1st in English (with
records marks) : Gold Medalist
and Prizeman ; P.R.S., d.litt.
(Dacca) and Mouat Medalist,
1897 ; Professor, Metropolitan
Institution, 1893 ; Prof. Presiden-
cy College, 1898-1901 ; Patna
College, 1899-1917 ; Head of the
Indian Hisforj- Dept. Banaras
Hindu University, 1917-1919 ; In-
dian Educational Service, 1918 ;
Prof., Ravenshaw College, Cut-
tack, 1919-23; Patna College
again 1920-2Z, Vice-Chancellor
Calcutta University 1926-19^_;
Honorary Fellow, Royal, Asiatic
Society ; Member of the Histori-
cal Records Commission : (1919-
41 ) ; Sir William Mayer Lecturer,
Madras University ; _ author of
Atiranazcb, 5 voh., Sivaji. Fall of
the Mughal Empire, House of
Sivafi, etc.
SAKSENA. PROF. SHIBAN-
LAL M.A. — Bom July, 1907 ; educa-
ted at Kanpur and Allahabad and
Agra Universities; Professor, St.
Adrews College, Gorakhpur 1930-
31 ; joined non-co-operation mo-
820
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ment in 1920 ; joined Salt
Satyagraha in 1930 ; General
Secretary, Kanpur District Con-
1931 ; member
U.P.P.C.C. and A.I.C.C. for seve-
T Congress
M.L.A. from 1937-46 ; imprisoned
several times including during
fndia movement in 1946 ;
Constitutent Assembly
1940 ; Vice-Pnesident A I T U C
upto 1948. •
SAKSENA, MOHANLAL, B.sa,
LL.B.—b. 1896 ; after passing the li_b,
examination joined bar at Luck-
now in 1919 ; actively associated
Congress politics since
■ ; Wf® several times
Since 1921 for national cause ; mem-
ber of the Municipal Board, Luck-
now 1923-25 ; Member, U.P ,
Legislative Council and Chief Whip,
Swaraj Party 1924-26 ; member of
the Central Assembly for several
years ; member, Indian Cbnstitutent
Assembly ; Minister for Relief and
Rehabilitation, Govt, of India 1948-
House of the People
SEN, BENOY RANJAN, c.ie.,
b. Jan. 1, 1898; educated at
Calcutta and Oxford ; entered
M.s. in 1922 ; was secretary to
the Gove^ent of Bengal and then
Press Officer during 1931-34 ;
Bengal.
1940-43 : Director of Civil Evacua-
VqIp Commissioner,
1942-43 : Director-General of Food.
Government of India 1943-46 • Secv
Department of Food, Government
of India 1946 ; Minister to the Em-
bassy of India in U.S.A. 1947-50 -
Indian Ambassador to Italv and
Yupslana 1950-51 and 1953-54 •
Indian Ambassador to U.S.A. 1951-
TT ’ M Delegation to
me annual conference of F.A.O. in
1949 and F.A.O. Council in 1950,
1951, 1953 ; Indian Ambassador to
Japan 1954-56 ; appointed Director
General of Food and Agriculture
Organisation in 1956.
'■^RINAGESH, GENERAL S.
M. — b._ May, p03; educated at
Cambridge University and later
entered Sandhust Military Col-
lege ; was commissioned in 1923 ;
saw service in Burma, Assam &
Waziristan and with the Lushai
Brigade; officiated as Brigade
Commander of the 64th Ind. In-
fantry Brigade of the 19th Ind.
Division in Burma; was selected
to _ go to Germany as Deputy
Chief of the Indian Military
Mission 1945; commanded the 28th.
Indian Infantry Brigade and tvas
promoted to G.O.C. Madras area ;
became Adjutant General A.H.Q.,
India in 1948_; took overall com-
mand of Indian Forces in Jam-
mu & Kashmir in Sept. 1948 ;
promoted to Major-General in
19^; became Chief of the Army
Staff and became ‘General’ in
1955 awarded Legion of Merit,
the highest of U.S. decorations
bestowed on a foreign military
officer, 1955.
SIDDHANTA, NIRMAL KUM-
AR, 1I.A.— b. on OcL, 31, 1894; edu-
cated at Calcutta University; be-
came M.A. (Cantab) with 1st Class
tripos in English; lecturer. School
of Oriental Studies, London Uni-
versity 1922; Reader of English,
Lucknow University 1922-26 ;
Professor of English, Lucknow
University 1928-1951 ; Dean of
the Lucknow University ; Sccre-
Inter. University Board
1937-1943 ; Chairman, Inter.-Uni-
vcTsity Board 1946-48 ; Mem-
mer. Central Advisoiy Board of
Education since 1946 ; Member and
Secretarj’, Indian Universities Com-
mission 1938-39 ; Member. Union
WHO’s WHO
821
Public Service Commission ; Now
Vice-Chancellor, Calcutta University
from 19SS.
SINGH, C P, N. — educated at
Muzaffarpur and Science Col-
lege, Cataitfe, M.A., Chairman
of the District Board, Muzaffar-
pur for 11 years ; was member
of the B. & 0. Legislative Coun-
cil and later Bihar Legislative
Assembly ; Vice-Chancellor, Patna
University ; Indian Ambassador to
Nepal; Governor of Punjab from
1953.
SINGH SARDAR BALDEV—
educated at Khalsa Cotloge, Amrit-
sar joined Unionist Ministry of
Punjab; was Minister for Develop-
ment and Civil Supplies, Punjab,
1932 ; leader. Panthick Akali Par-
ty _ of the Punjab Coalition
Ministry 1946 ; Defence Minis-
ter, Indian Interim Government,
1946 ; Defence Minister, Govern-
ment of India 3947-52.
SINGH, ANUGRAH NARA-
YAN, J.r.A. B.L.— -b. 1889; joined
non-co-operation movement and
Champaran Agrarian Enquiry with
Mahatma Gandhi, 1917 ; was Gene-
ral Secretary, Bihar P.C.C. ; Pre-
dent B.P.C.C., 1928 ; member of
the Council of States 1926-29;
Member, Central Assembly, 1934-
37 ; Finance Minister, Bihar Gov-
ernment 1937-39 and from 1946.
SINGH, RAJA SIR IifAHA-
RAJ, it.A. al.E., KT., BAK-AT-LMV
— ^b. 1878; educated at Harrow, Ox-
ford and London ; joined India
Govt. Service in 1903; Asst. Secy.
Govt, of India 1911 ; Secrctaiy to
U.P. Government, 1919; Commis-
sioner Allahabad, 1927 and 1929;
Chief 5finisfer, Jodhpur State 1924;
Agent-General to Govt, of India
in South Africa ; Home Member,
U.P. Government 1935-1937 ; Vice-
Oiancellor, Lucknow University
1941 ; Member. Govt, of India Com-
mittee of Enquiry on the position
of Indians in East Africa 1946 ;
Member, Indian delegation to the
U.N.; 1946; Governor of Bom-
bay 1948-52,
SINGH, MASTER TARA— b.
June 23, I88S in Hindu family; em-
braced Sikh religion at the age of
17 ; began his life as a teacher ;
took prominrat part in Nankana
Sahib agitation ; joined C, D.
movement in 1930 ; a prominent
Sikh leader of the Akalis ; was
once a prominent member of the
Congress Party ; was President,
Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandak
Committee ; has suffered imprison-
ment for political cause ; a promi-
nent supporter of the separate
homeland for the Sikhs.
SINGH, ST. NIHAU-b. June 2,
1884 ; educated at Punjab Univer-
sity ; author, journalist, lecturer,
traveller ; served as special cor-
respondent of 'Observe/ and
other papers during- prwee of
Wales’ visit to India 1821-22 ;
contributed to magazines, news-
papers, reviews all over the
world ; has lectured before pro-
minent societies; author of many
books, contributor to ‘Hindu/
Madras, ' Literary Digest/ America.
SINGH. JAIPAL— b. 3rd Jan.,
1903_ in Ranchi district belonging to
Adhibasi race ; educated at Ranchi,
Oxford; was I.C.S. probationer
at Oxford, 1927-28 which he resign-
ed ; leading hockei' player of
India ; first Indian to get full blue
Oxford ; was in Colonial Service in
British Eiast^ Africa, 1933-36 ; Colo-
nisation Minister and Revenue Com-
missioner, Bikaner, 1937-38 ; editor
'Adihasi Saham’ : member. Board
of Secondary _ Education, Bihar ;
member Constituent Assembly of
India and now member, House of
the People ; President, Jharkhand
Partv.
SINHA, SRI SRIKRISHNA— b.
Oct. 21, 1888 ; educated at Patna
822
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Qjllege and qnaiified for law in
1915 ; joined politics ia 1921 ;
was chosen as the leader of the
Sn-araj Party in B, & O. Gtnndl in
1S37 ; Congress member in the
Central Legislatire Assembly :
1935 : Chairman, Monghyr Distnct
Board, 1932; imprisoned for a total
period of 10 years for Congress
agitation ; Chief Minister of Bihar,
1S37-59 ; and again since 1945.
SISHA. SATYANAJLMyi—b.
190D at Darbhan^; educated at
Patna; started his political career
■aith a term of imprisonment in jail
in 1920 for non-co-operation move-
ment ; member, Bihar Legislature
1926-30; Chiei MTiip of the Con-
gress Party, Central Assembly and
also in the Constituent Assembly;
Minister of State for Parliamentaiy
ASsirs, Govt, of India from 1949.
SINHA. DR SATY.AN'.ARADv
b. Oct 14, 1910 in Bihar; edncated
at Santineketan, TCashi Yidyapith
and FranMnrt on Mrin UmTer-
sity where he took doctorate
decree ; studied Russian affairs
under Maorim Gorky's guidance
in U.S,SfR ; was first secre-
tary, Indian Legation, Switzer-
land ; hlern'oer of Parliament
from 1932.
SITAR\lxL\YYA, DR P.\TTA-
BHI — b. Nov. 24. ISSO. in Andhra;
educated at Christian College and
Medical College, ifadras; pri-
vate medical practitioner, 1905-
16 ; joined Congress in IS9S ;
disrontiaced medical practice ia
1916 ; member of the AJ.C.C.
1916-4B : member of the Con-
gress MMrldng Committee 1S25-
1945 ; President of the Indian
StatesJPpoples’ Omference : brought
out official history of the Congress;
startrf English weekly 'Jcr.Trahhu-
nif in 1919: irnprisoned for Salt
Sstysirraha in 1930 : was sent to
jail twice, later in 1942 and 1933 ;
was cetained in .August, 1942 under
D. L Rules ; President Congress.
194S-49 ; member, Constitnent
sembly of India and later of the
Parliament till July, 1952 ; Gcv^-
nor, Madhva Piaceri; since 1932.
S. AV.AKIAR ATNAYAK DAId-
ODAR— i. 1SS3. at Nasik, Bar-at-
Law; educated at Fergusson Col-
lege, Poona: joined nationalist
movement ; was sent to England
where he worked for Inma n mee-
dom under Sbyamaji ivrishnavar-
ma and Madame Cama^; was ar-
rested in Jcngland for Xasik Cons-
piracy Case, but escaped from ship
as Marsdlles in 1910, hut was re-
arrested and transported for 15
years ; transported to Andamans
from where afterwards interned at
Rataagiri ; was set fr« interim
Bombay hfimstry 1937 ; is a lin-^
gtnst and poet ; was President of
the Hindu Mahasabha for ssvsal
vears ; retired from active politics.
■ SOKHEY, LL\JOR-GEXERAL
SIR S.\HIB SINGH, bomi
December 15, 1SS7: obtained me-
dical degrees in E^burgh and
London; did post-graduate work
in John Hopkins University ;
Harvard Medici School; Toron-
to Iiledical School and Tri-
nity College, Camhridge, joined
Lld.S. 1913 ; served in the 'VYorld
War L 1915-21 ; Rodxfeller ^rm-
daticn fdlow 1925-25 ; joined nan-
ine Institute 1825 as Assistant
EHrector; was Director from 1952-
1949 ; Assistant Director-General,
MTIO 1950-1932 ; received Stalin
Peace Prize in 1933.
T. ATA. RATANJI D.AD.ABHOY
JEH.ANGIR— b. July. 1904; edu-
cated in India, France and
Japan first pilot to quality in
India ; holds ‘.A’ and “B’ licences r
is chairman of the Board of Air
India International Corporation :
member, Indian .Airlines Corp'ora-
tion; Director. Hindusthan .Aircraft
Ltd.; Cha.irman. iata Industries t
WHO’s WHO
823
was member of the Indian
delegation to the third session of
U.N. General Assembly, i Paris,
1948; Honorary Group Captain,
I. A. F. ; Honorary D.Sc. Allaha-
bad University; Officer of the Le-
gion of Honour, France; awarded
'“International Management Man”
by the National Association of
Foremen, U.S.A.; Padma Bhusan
by the Government of India.
TANDON, PURSHOTTAM-
DAS — b. 1882 at Allahabad ; edu-
cated at Government College and
Muir Central College, Allahabad;
passed li-.b. degree and enrolled as
advocate at Allahabad; Law Minis-
ter, Nabha State 1914-18; Chair-
man, Allahabad Municipal Board;
joined Congress in 1899; gave up
his profession and joined freedom
movement in 1919; went to jail se-
ven times; President, U.P. Con-
gress 1923 and 1948; general man-
ager, Punjab National Bank 192S-
29 ; founded the Central Kissan
Sangh in 1930; Speaker U.P., Le-
gislative Assembly 1937-1950; mem-
ber, Constituent Assembly: one of
the founders of the Hindi Sahitya
Sammelan ; President of the Con-
gress 1940-51.
TARA CHAND. DR.— b. 1888;
educated at Delhi. Meerut, Alla-
habad and Oxford ; Professor of
History at the Kayastha Pathsala
College, Allahabad and then its prin-
cipal for 20 years ; Vice-Chancellor
Allahabad University; Secretary,
Ministry of Education Govt, of
Education, Govt, of India; now
Indian Ambassador to Iran ;
and author of Injhtcncc of Islam on
.Indian Cullurc; Short History of.
the Indian people.
THIMAYYA LT. GEN. K. S.—
educated at Bishop Cotton Boy’s
School, Bangalore, Prince of
Wales Royal Indian Military Col-
lege, Dehra Dun, Royal Military
College, Sandhurst ; Commission-
ed into Indian Army 1926 ;
joined 4/19 Hyderabad Regiment
1936-39 ; Adjutant, 5th Bn.
(Madras) U.T.C. 1939-41 ; ser-
ved in Malaya 1942-43 ; promo-
ted to Lt. Col. and commanded
9/19 Hyderabad Regiment ; Com-
manded 268 Indian Infantry Bri-
gade in Japan as part of occupation-
forces 1946 ; member, Indian Army
Forces Nationalisation Committee ;
Commander, 4th Indian Division
1947 ; Commander, Indian Troops
in Kashmir 1948-50 ; Commandant,
National Defence Academy, Dehra
Dun, 1950-51 ; Military Adviser to
U.N. Delegation in Paris 1951-52,
in connection with Kashmir Affairs ;
Chairman. Neutral Nations Repara-
tion Commission for Korean prison-
ers. 1953 ; Chief of the Array Staff
from 1957.
THACKER, M. S. — educated at
Ahmadabad and Bombay ;_ graduat-
ed in engineering from Bristol Uni-
versity ; joined Calcutta Electric!
Supply Corporation in 1931 and
worked up to 1847 ; Professor of
Power Engineering, Indian Insti-
tute of Science, Bangalore 1947-49;
General President of the Indian
Science Congress 1947-48 ; Presi-
dent, Institute of Engineers 1956 ;
President, Institute of Metals 1955-
56 ; now Director, Council of Sci-
entific and Industrial Research.
THAKURDAS, SIR PURUS-
HOTAMDAS, c.i.e., ji.b.e. — Born
May 30, 1881 ; was educa-
ted at the Elphinstone College
and joined the firm of Naran-
das Jayram, 1902 ; Sheriff of
Bombay 1920 ; member. Inch-
cape Committee; Member, Council
of State 1922-23 ; member. Legis-
lative Assembly, 1924-30 : Thrice
President, Indian Merchants’ Cham-
ber : President, Indian Oiamber of
Commerce ; Member, Royal Com-
mission on Currency 1926 ; Vice-
824
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Chairman, Indian Central Banking
Enquiry' Committee.
TRIVEDI. SIR CHANDULAL
MADHAVLAL, k.c.s.1. — ^bom 2nd
July, 1983 ; educated at Elphln-
stone College, Bombay and St.
John’s _ College, Oxford ; entered
i.cs._ in 1917 ; Assistant Com-
missioner C. P. ,* Dy. Secre-
tary, Govt, of India (Home
Dept) 1932-35 ; Commissioner of
Berar 1936 ; Chief Secretary, Govt,
of Centra! Provinces and Berar,
1937-42 ; Secretary to the Govt, of
India (War Dept.I 1942—45 •, Gov-
ernor of Punjab, 1947-52 ; Special
Officer for Andhra Affairs, 1953 ;
Governor of Andhra from 1953.
VISVESVARAYA, SIR M.
K.C.I.E. — Bom _ 15th Sept. 1861
in Kolar district ; graduated from
Central College, Bangalore, 1881 ;
joined Bombay engineering ser-
vice and retired in 1909 ; Chief
Engineer, Mysore State 1909 ;
Chairman, Bombay Irrigation En-
quiry Committee ; Chairman Indi-
an Economic Enquiry Committee
1925 ,' Member, Bombay Back
Bay Enquiry Comiruttee. 1929 ; in
the capacity of consulting engi-
neer and Adviser served in a num-
ber of States such as Baroda, Gwa-
lior, Bhopal, Kolhapur and muni-
cipalities such as Bombay, Karaclu
and Nagpur ; was responsible for
starting Mysore University', Bhadra-
vati Iron Works and lOfshnara-
jasagara Dam ; founded Jayacha-
marajendra Occupational Institute,
Bangalore ; President, All India
Manufacturers’ Organisation since
1941 ; Dewan of Mysore, 1912-18.
VIZIANAGRAM, MAHARAJA
KUMAR OF— b. Dec. 28, 1905;
educated at Princes College, Ajmer
and England: raptain of the Indian
Cricket team which toured England
in 1936 ; a great shikari ; was Minis-
ter of Justice in U.P. Govt.; Pre-
sident of the Cricket Control Board.
UDAY SHANKAR— b. in Udai-
pur ; was admitted in the Royal
College of Arts, London, began
to take training in the plastic art
imder the guidmice of Sir William
Rothenstein ; joined famous
Russian dancer Anna Pavlova ;
made his own company and toured
round the world ; opened _ culture
centre in Almorah U.P. which was
closed down during World War II-
MEMBERS OF THE RAJYA SABHA
Chairman — Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
Dy. Chairman — S. V. Krishnamoorthy Rao.
ANDHRA PRADESH — 18 — Makkineni Basavapunnaiah, Shaik
Galib, Alluri Satyanarayana Raju, T. G. M. Wilson, K Suryanarayana,
Pydah Venkata Narayana, Dr. Raj Bahadur Gout, Akbar Ali Khan,
Kishen Chand, G. Ranga, V. C. Keshava Rao, Veeramachireni P. Rao,
Adduru Balarami Reddy, S. Channa Reddy, J. V. K. Vallabharao,
Villuri Venkatarainana and Sm. Yasoda Reddy.
ASSAM — 1 — Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Sm. Bedabati Buragohain,
Sm, Pushpalata Das, Puma Chandra Sharma, Maulana M. Tayyebulla,
R, Thanhlira and Mahendra Mohan Chaudhuri.
BIHAR — 22 — ^Ramgopal Agarwala, Kazi Ahmad Hussain,
Theodore Bodra, M. John, Syed Mazhar Imam, Mahesh Saran, Kailash
Behari Lall, Sm. Lakshmi N. Menon, Dr. P. C. Mitra, Kunwarani
Vijaya Raje, Kishori Ram, Kameshwara Singh, Braja Kishore P.
Singh, Maheswar Prasad N. Sinha, Rajendra Pratap Singh, Rajeswar
P. Narain Sinha, Rama Bahadur Sinha, Prof. R. D. Sinha Dinkar,
Tajamul Husain, V. G. Gopal, Ganga Saran Sinha and Shah Mohd.
Umair.
BOMBAY — 27 — Abid AU, Somnath P. Dave, T. R. Deogirskar,
Deokinandan Narayan, Dr. M. D. D. Gilder, Shriyans Prasad Jain,
Premji Thobhanbhai Leuva, Chandulal P. Parikh, D. Y. Pawar, Raja-
ram Balkrishna Raut, Manilal Chaturbhai Shah, Dr. Woman Sheodas
Barlingay, Narayandas Daga, Rajabhan V. Dangre, N, V. Deshmukh,
Ramrao M. Deshmukh, Venkut Krishna Dhage, Jai Sukh Lai Huthi.
Kazi Karimuddin, G. R. Kulkami, Lavji Lakhamshi, Dr. Raghu Vira,
Manubhai Shah, Meghji P. Shah, M. D. Tumpalliwar and Dr. D. H.
Variava.
MADHYA PRADESH — 16 — Thakur Bhanu Protap Singh, Dr. R.
P. Dube, Ratanlal Kishorilal Malviya, Dr. Sm. Seeta Paramanand,
Rameshwar Umrao Agnibhoj, Mohammad Ali, Benarsi Das Chatur-
vedi, Sm. Krishna Kumari, Bheron Prasad, Trimbak D. Pustake,
Dr. Raghubir Singh, Ram Sahai, Sm. Rukmani Bai, V. S. Sarawate,
Capt. Awadhesh P. Singh, and Gopi Krishna Vijaivargiya.
MADRAS — 19 — ^T. Vaskara Rao, Sm. Parvathi Krishnan, Dr. P.
Subbarayan, T. V. Kamalaswamy, Janab M. M. Ismail Saheb, K. L.
Nnrasimham, V, M, Obaidullah Saheb, K. S. Hegde, S. Chattanatha
Karayalar, Sm. T. Nallamuthu Ramamurthy, G. Rajngopalan, P. S.
Rajagopal Naidu, H. D. Rajah, Dr. A. Ramaswami Mudaliar, V. M.
Surendra Ram and S. Venkatararaan.
ORISSA — 10 — Radhakrishna Biswasroy, Biswanath Das, Pra-
fulla G. Bhanj Deo, Bhagirathi Mahapatra, klahcswata Naik, Abhi-
mnnyu Rath, Surendra hlahanty, and Swapnananda Panigrahi.
826
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
PUNJAB — 8 — Dr. Anap Singh, Diwan Ghaman Lall, Guraj Singh
Dhillon, Sardar Swaran Singh, Hans Raj, M. H. S* Nihal Singh,
Jethedar Udam Singh Nagoke, Jagannath Kanshal, Sardar Raghubir
Singh Panjhazari and Sardar Zail Singh.
UTTAR PRADESH— 31— Ahmad Said Khan, A^tar Husain,
Amamath Agarwal, Amolakh Chand, Briji Behari Sharma, Sm.
Chandravati Lakhanpal, A. Dharam Das, Gopinath Singh, Har Prasad
Sakena, Hridoy N, Kunzru, Indra Vidavachaspati, Jagannath Prasad
Agarwal, Jasaud Singh Bisht, Jaspat Raj Kapoor, Lai Bahadur,
Monlana Mohammad Faruqi, Sm. Anis Kidwai, Jogesh Ch. Chatterjee,
P. N. Sapru, B. K. Mukherjee, Nawab Singh Chauhan,, R. C. Gupta,
Ram Kripal Singh, Ram Prasad Tamta, Sm. Savitri Devi Nigam,
Shyam Dhar Misra, Pandit Shamsundar N. Tankha, Govind Ballav
Pant, Sumat Prasad, Tarakeswar Pande and Thakur Das.
WEST BENGAL— 16— Beni Prasad Agarwal, Satyapriya Baner-
jee, C. C. Biswas, Maya Devi Chettry, Dr. Nalinaksha Dutt, ^jp^
Singh Doogar, Bimal Kumar Ghose, Abdur Rezzak Khan, Bhupesh
Gupta, Mriganka Mohan Sur, Satyendra Prasad Roy,^ P. D. Himat-
singka, Humayun Kabir, and Satyendra Narayan Majumdar.
JAMMU AND KASHSriR— 4— Sardar Budh Singh, Pir Moham-
med Khan, Trilochan Dutta and Aga Syed Mohd. Jalali.
MADHYA BHARAT — 6 — Gopikrishna Vijaivargiya, Kanhaiyalal
D. Vaidya, Krishnakant Vyas, Dr. Raghubir Singh, V. S. Sarwate,
and Trimbak Damodar Pustake.
MYSORE — 12 — B. P. Basappa Shetty, M. Govinda Reddy, S. V.
Krishnamurthy Rao, H. C. Dasappa, K. C. Reddy, Mohamed Valitilla,
Sm. Violet Alva, Raghavendra Rao, Dr. N. S. Hardiker, Balchandra >
M. Gupte, Janardana Rao Desai and Lai Chand H. Doshi.
RAJASTHAN — 9 — His Highness Rai-Rayan Maharawal Sir
Lakshman Singhji Bahadur of Dungarpur, Swami Keshvanand, Adi-
tyendra, Barkatullah Khan, Dr. K. L. Shrimali, Sm. Sharda Bhargava,
Vijay Singh, Maulana Abdul Shakoor, Sm. Lilavati Munshi and
Jaswant Singh.
KERALA — 9 — ^K. Lladhava Menon, V. K. Krishna Menon, Govin-
dan Nair, P. Narayanan Nair, Sm. K. Bharati, K- P. Madhavan Nair,
N. C. Sekhar and G. Narayana Pillai.
HIMACHAL PRADESH — 2 — C. L. Varma and Sm. Lila Devi.
DELHI — 3 — ilehr Chand Khanna, Onkar Nath, and Begum
Saddiq Kidwai.
MANIPUR — 1 — Laimayon X.alit Madhob Sharma.
TRIPURA — 1 — ^Abdul Latif,
NOMINATED BY THE PRESIDENT— 12— Dr. Zakir Husain,
Kane, Dr. Satyendra Nath Bose, Prof. A. R. Wadia, M.
bat^naraya^ Kakasaheb Kalelkar, Maithilisharan Gupta, Prithvi-
raj n^poor. Dr. Radha Kimmd Mukerji, Sm. Rukmini Devi Arundale,
Naraindas Eattanmal Malkani and V. B. Warerkat.
GENERAL ELECTIONS 1957
LOK 8ABHA.
( Results upto 12th March, 1957 )
05 05
Vi
•*>>
e
cc
'2
B
Cl
to
«0
Cl
1
(£
cq
V
a
S'
i ^
45
rw
05
_c
states
d
tS
o (i;
C
Andhra Pradesh
43
a
5
Assam
12
3
2
5
Bihar
55
2
2
Bombay
66
2
1
3
Kerala
18
2 1
1
6
Madhya Pradesh
36
2
2
Madras
41
15
3
18
Mysore
26
5
1
1
7
Orissa
20
Punjab
22
4
4
Rajasthan
22
Uttar Pradesh
86
3
6
West Benpal
36
•_
Jammu & Kashmir
6
Onion 'territories
Delhi
5
5
5
Himachal Pradesh
4
Manipur
2
1
1
2
Tripura
2
4
OVERALL RESULTS
Opto 12lh March, 1957
Bidhan Sabha
Congress
...
927
Jan Sangh
..
...
27
P. S7P.
...
94
Independents
..
...
146
Communist Party
64
Others
...
106
828
HINDUSTA^^ YEAR-BOOK
BIDHAN SABHA
{Results upto 12th March, 1957)
*v-.
-
ae
c -
•»»
O
*2^
s
'r*
o
:is
ac
■s
0
5;
21
V.
=J
1
35
%
5“
S
EsOD
o
O
o
C3
a;
kC
0
Andhra Pradesh
301
161
14
IS
5
29
224
Assam
lOS
59
4
8
8
5
84
Bihar
318
19
2
...
4
25
Bombay
390
104
5
14
*2
25
15
165
Kerala
126
26
36
8
3
1
74
M. P.
28S
169
2
11
‘9
11
11
213
Madras
205
86
2
1
12
16
117
Mysore
208
89
12
23
3
127
Orissa
140
29
”2
3
4
29
67
Punjab
154
88
6
1
6
10
1
112
Raj isthan
176
46
3
11
15
65
Uttar Pradesh
430
174
'4
31
7
41
• .«
257
West Bengal
252
17
3
3
2
2
27
Jammu & Kashmir
75*
TERRITORIAL COUNCIL
Delhi
Himachal Pradesh
Manipur
30
8
1
6
3
18
Tripura
30
2
1
3
* 38 retarned unopposed — all National Conference candidates
t Other Parties include Hindu Mahasabha, Socialist Party, Bam
Rajya Parishad. Garo National Council. Dissident Gon^tress,
and Ganatantra Parisbud.
LOK SABHA
(New Members elected upto 12-3-57)
Andhra
C. Rami Reddi (C)
Bombay
Dajisahib R. Chavan
(Peasants & Workers).
Mrs. Jayben Vijubhai Shah (C.)
Nanubhai Nichabhai Patel (C)
Jaljibhai Koyabhai Dtndod (C)
D. Y. Gohokar (G)
D, P. Karmarfcar (C)
Uttar Pradesh
S Raj Singh (bid.)
an Swamp (P£j‘.)
Jagadish Awasthi (Ind.)
Munishwar Dutt Upadhaya (C)
Jawaharlal Nehm (C)
Masnriya Din (C)
Raja Syed Ahmed Mehdi (C)
Sardar Jogendra Singh (C)
Madhya Pradeah
Manak Lai (C)
M. Sankarapandian Pallai (C)
C. Ninjappa (C)
M. Palanyandi (C)
S. V. Ramaswamy (C)
T. T. Ejrishnamachari (C)
A. Doraiswamy Gounder (C)
U. Muthramalinga Therar (F.B.)
R. S. Arumugam (C)
Punjab
Ram Krishnan (C)
Sardar Baldev Singh (C)
Surjit Singh Majithia (C)
Maulana A. K. Azad (C)
Mysore
Tekkur Subrahmanyam (C)
B. N. Dutar (C)
N. Keshva lyyengar (C)
M. S. Sugandhi (Ind.)
Assam
Hem Bama (PJSJ’.)
Amjad Ali (P£.P.)
LUadhar Kataki (C)
Manipur Delhi
Rishang Keishing (Sooialwf ) Mrs. Sucheta Kripalani (C)
Rungsung Suisa (C) Radha Raman (C)
Brahm Ibrakash (C)
C. Krishnan’ Nair (C)
Madras Naval Pravakar (C)
R. Ramanathan Chettiar (C)
C. R. Psttabhiraman (C)
Shanmugham (CJt.C.)
P. Subbaryan (C)
R. Dharmalingam (Ind.)
P. R. Ramkrishnan (C)
C. R. Narasimhan (C)
K. S. Ramaswami Gounder (C)
Kerala
S. Easwara Iyer (Ind.)
Matheu Maniangsdan (C)
M. K. Kumaran (Com.)
A. M. Thomas (C)
Dr. K. B. Menon (P.S.P.)
A. K. Gopalan (Com.)
C=Congress ; P.SJ’.=Proja Socialist Party ; Ind.=:Independenv
F.B.=Forward Bloc : Com.=Communist ;
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